Mechanics of Machinery First Edition

Mahmoud A. Mostafa
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MECHANICS
OF
MACHINERY

Dr. Mahmoud A. Mostafa

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
MECHANICS
OF
MACHINERY
MECHANICS
OF
MACHINERY

Dr. Mahmoud A. Mostafa

University of Alexandria, Egypt

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20121121

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-5947-9 (eBook - PDF)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts
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 Dedication

This text is dedicated to my recently born

grand child Yahya Omar Mostafa
Contents
Foreword xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Author xxi

Chapter 1 Mechanisms 1
1.1 Definitions 1
1.2 Degrees of Freedom of Planar Mechanisms 5
1.3 Four-Revolute-Pairs Chain 8
1.3.1 Four-Bar Mechanism 8
1.3.1.1 Performance of the Four-Bar
Mechanism 8
1.3.1.2 Coupler Curves 10
1.3.1.3 Synthesis of a Four-Bar Mechanism 11
1.3.2 Drag (Double Rotating) Link Mechanism 13
1.3.3 Double-Rocker Mechanism 13
1.3.3.1 Performance of the Double-Rocker
Mechanism 14
1.3.4 Applications Based on Four-Bar Linkages 15
1.3.4.1 Windshield Wiper of Automobiles 16
1.3.4.2 Beam Engine 16
1.3.4.3 Automobile Steering Mechanism 16
1.4 Single-Slider Chain 16
1.4.1 Engine Mechanism 16
1.4.1.1 Performance of the Engine
Mechanism 17
1.4.1.2 Radial Engine 17
1.4.2 Quick Return Oscillating Link Mechanism 18
1.4.3 Oscillating (Tilting) Block Mechanism 19
1.4.4 Double Rotating Link Mechanism 19
1.5 Double-Slider Mechanisms 20
1.5.1 Scotch Yoke Mechanism 20
1.5.2 Ellipse Trammel 20
1.5.3 Oldham Coupling 21
1.6 Mechanisms with Higher Pairs 22
1.6.1 Cam Mechanisms 22
1.6.2 Gears 22
1.6.3 Geneva Wheel 22

vii
viii Contents

1.7 Compound Mechanisms 24

1.8 Special Mechanisms 24
1.8.1 Quick Return Motion Mechanisms 24
1.8.1.1 Drag Link Mechanism 25
1.8.1.2 Shaper Mechanism 25
1.8.1.3 Whitworth Mechanism 26
1.8.2 Intermittent Motion Mechanisms 26
1.8.2.1 Geneva Wheel 27
1.8.2.2 Locking-Slide Geneva 29
1.8.2.3 Ratchet Wheel 29
1.8.3 Straight-Line Motion Mechanisms 29
1.8.3.1 Exact Generated Straight-Line
Motion 30
1.8.3.2 Exact Copied Straight-Line
Motion 33
1.8.3.3 Approximate Straight-Line
Mechanisms 33
1.8.4 Parallel Links Mechanisms 35
1.8.4.1 Coupling Rod in Locomotive
Drive 36
1.8.4.2 Pantographs 36
1.8.4.3 Other Applications 37
1.8.5 Mechanisms with Large Mechanical
Advantage 37
1.8.6 Universal Joint 38
1.8.6.1 Double Universal Joint 40
1.9 Analytical Position Analysis of Mechanisms 41
1.9.1 Vectors 41
1.9.1.1 Unit Complex Vector 41
1.9.1.2 Complex Conjugate Vector 42
1.9.1.3 Multiplication of Complex Vectors 42
1.9.2 Plane Mechanisms 43
1.9.3 Analysis of Chains 43
1.9.3.1 Crank 44
1.9.3.2 Four-Bar Chain 45
1.9.3.3 Engine Chain 47
1.9.3.4 Shaper Chain 49
1.9.3.5 Tilting Block Chain 50
1.9.3.6 Position of a Point on a Link 51
1.9.3.7 Tracing 55
1.9.4 Sliding Links 56
1.9.4.1 Cam with a Spherical Oscillating
Follower 57
1.9.4.2 Cam with a Spherical Translating
Follower 57
Contents ix

1.9.4.3 Cam with a Flat-Faced Oscillating

Follower 58
1.9.4.4 Cam with a Flat-Faced Translating
Follower 59

Chapter 2 Velocities and Accelerations 67

2.1 Absolute Plane Motion of a Particle 67
2.2 Relative Motion 68
2.2.1 Motion of a Point Relative to a Point on a Fixed
Plane 68
2.2.2 Motion of a Point Relative to a Point on a
Rotating Plane 69
2.3 Applications to Common Links 71
2.3.1 Rotating Links 71
2.3.2 Floating Links 72
2.3.3 Links Moving on a Fixed Plane 74
2.3.4 Links Sliding on a Rotating Link 75
2.3.4.1 Mostafa's Theory 76
2.4 Analysis of Mechanisms: Graphical Method 79
2.4.1 Engine Mechanism 79
2.4.1.1 Velocity Analysis 79
2.4.1.2 Acceleration Analysis 80
2.4.2 Four-Bar Mechanism 81
2.4.2.1 Velocity and Acceleration Images 83
2.4.3 Compound Mechanism 85
2.4.4 Mechanism with Sliding Links 87
2.4.4.1 Shaper Mechanism 87
2.4.4.2 Cam Mechanism 89
2.5 Method of Instantaneous Centers for Determining
the Velocities 91
2.5.1 Instantaneous Center of a Body 91
2.5.2 Instantaneous Center of a Pair of Links 92
2.5.3 Law of Three Centers 94
2.5.4 Locating the Instantaneous Centers of a
Mechanism 95
2.6 Analytical Analysis 99
2.6.1 Crank 99
2.6.2 Four-Bar Chain 101
2.6.3 Engine Chain 103
2.6.4 Shaper Chain 104
2.6.5 Tilting Block Chain 106
2.6.6 Kinematics of a Point on a Link 108
2.6.7 Application to a Compound
Mechanism 109
x Contents

2.6.8 Cam with a Spherical Oscillating Follower 110

2.6.9 Cam with a Spherical Translating
Follower 113
2.6.10 Cam with a Flat-Faced Oscillating
Follower 114
2.6.11 Cam with a Flat-Faced Translating
Follower 116

Chapter 3 Cams 137

3.1 Introduction 137
3.2 Types of Cams 137
3.2.1 Disk Cams 137
3.2.2 Wedge Cam 137
3.2.3 Cylindrical Face Cam 137
3.2.4 Cylindrical Cam 137
3.2.5 Disk Face Cam 137
3.2.6 Yoke Cam 137
3.2.7 Other Kinds of Cams 139
3.3 Modes of Input/Output Motion 140
3.4 Follower Configurations 140
3.4.1 Follower Arrangement 141
3.5 Classes of Cams 141
3.5.1 Specified Motion Disk Cams 141
3.5.1.1 Cam Nomenclature 141
3.5.1.2 Displacement Diagram 142
3.5.1.3 Basic Motions 143
3.5.1.4 Layout of the Cam Profile 155
3.5.1.5 Exact Cam Contour 161
3.5.1.6 Analytical Method for Contours 165
3.5.1.7 Minimum Cam Size 178
3.5.2 Specified Contour Cams 185
3.5.2.1 Circular Cams 185
3.5.2.2 Circular Arc Cams 188
3.5.2.3 Tangent Cams 193

Chapter 4 Spur Gears 199

4.1 Introduction 199
4.2 Gear Classification 199
4.2.1 Gears Connecting Parallel Shafts 199
4.2.2 Gears Connecting Intersecting Shafts 201
4.2.3 Gears Connecting Nonparallel, Nonintersecting
Shafts 203
4.3 Gear-Tooth Action 204
4.3.1 Fundamental Law of Gearing 204
4.3.2 Conjugate Profiles 206
Contents xi

4.3.3 Involutes Profile 206

4.3.3.1 Properties of the Involute Curve 206
4.3.3.2 Involute Tooth Profile Satisfies the
Fundamental Law of Gearing 207
4.3.3.3 Construction of the Involute 208
4.3.3.4 Equation of the Involute 208
4.4 Terminology for Spur Gears 210
4.4.1 Rack 212
4.5 Engagement Action 212
4.5.1 Definitions 212
4.5.2 Interchangeability of Gears 213
4.5.3 Standard Tooth System of Spur Gears 213
4.5.4 Nature of Contact 214
4.5.5 Contact Ratio 217
4.5.6 Interference in Involute Gears 219
4.5.7 Addendum Correction 219
4.5.8 Minimum Number of Teeth to Prevent
Interference 220
4.6 Internal Gears 223
4.6.1 Nature of Contact 224
4.7 The Cycloidal System 225

Chapter 5 Helical, Worm, and Bevel Gears 233

5.1 Introduction 233
5.2 Parallel Helical Gears 233
5.2.1 Properties of Helical Gears 233
5.2.2 Equivalent Spur Gear 236
5.2.3 Helical Gear Tooth Proportion 237
5.2.4 Undercutting of Helical Gears 238
5.2.5 Contact Action of Helical Gears 239
5.2.6 Force Analysis in Helical Gears 240
5.2.7 Herringbone Gears 240
5.3 Crossed Helical Gears 241
5.3.1 Sliding Velocity in Crossed Helical Gears 244
5.4 Worm Gearing 246
5.4.1 Sliding Velocity of Worm Gears 248
5.5 Bevel Gears 249
5.5.1 Types of Bevel Gears 251
5.5.2 Tooth Profile of Bevel Gears 251
5.5.3 Bevel Gears Details 254
5.5.4 Bevel Gear Tooth Proportion 255
5.5.5 Angular Straight Bevel Gears 256
5.5.6 Zerol Bevel Gears 257
5.5.7 Spiral Bevel Gears 257
5.5.8 Hypoid Gears 258
xii Contents

Chapter 6 Gear Trains 265

6.1 Introduction 265
6.2 Ordinary Gear Trains 265
6.2.1 Simple Gear Trains 265
6.2.2 Compound Gear Trains 266
6.2.3 Reverted Compound Gear Trains 267
6.3 Epicyclic or Planetary Gear Trains 270
6.3.1 Ordinary Planetary Gear Trains 270
6.3.1.1 Analytical Method 270
6.3.1.2 Tabular Method 273
6.3.2 Compound Planetary Gear Trains 276
6.3.3 Systems with Several Arms 281
6.4 Gear Train Design 286
6.4.1 Method of Continued Fractions 287
6.4.2 Method of Approximate Fractions 290
6.5 Braking Torque 291

Chapter 7 Force Analysis 301

7.1 Introduction 301
7.2 Static Force Analysis 302
7.2.1 Principles 302
7.2.2 Static Forces in Gears 307
7.2.2.1 Spur Gears 308
7.2.2.2 Helical Gears 308
7.2.2.3 Planetary Gears 309
7.3 Friction Force Analysis 311
7.3.1 Sliding Joint 311
7.3.2 Turning Joints 312
7.3.3 Forces in Worm Gears 317
7.4 Dynamic Force Analysis 320
7.4.1 Inertia Effects 320
7.4.2 Inertia Effects of a Link 322
7.5 Analytical Force Analysis 329
7.5.1 Forces on a Link 329
7.5.2 Four-Bar Chain 332
7.5.3 Engine Chain 334
7.5.4 Shaper Chain 335
7.5.5 Tilting Block Chain 337
7.5.6 Crank 338
7.5.7 Shaking Force and the Shaking Moment 339
7.5.8 Applications 339
7.5.9 Combined Static and Dynamic Force Analysis 341
7.6 Torque Diagram and Flywheels 344
7.6.1 Torque Diagram 344
7.6.2 Speed Variation Diagram 346
Contents xiii

7.7 Force Analysis in Cams 351

7.7.1 Force Analysis 352
7.7.2 Prevention of Separation 354
Appendix 357
A-1 Four-Bar Chain 358
A-2 Engine Chain 361
A-3 Shaper Chain 364
A-4 Tilting Block Chain 366
Force Analysis in Gears 372
Friction Force Analysis 375
Dynamic Force Analysis 375
Flywheel 379
Cam Dynamics 382
Chapter 8 Balancing 383
8.1 Introduction 383
8.2 Balancing of Rotating Parts 383
8.2.1 Static Balance 384
8.2.1.1 Balancing of a Single Mass 384
8.2.1.2 Balancing of Several Masses in a
Single Plane 385
8.2.2 Dynamic Balance 386
8.2.2.1 Two Equal and Opposite Masses in
Two Planes 386
8.2.2.2 Several Masses in Several Planes 387
8.3 Balancing of Reciprocating Parts 392
8.3.1 Exact Model of a Single-Cylinder Engine 392
8.3.2 Approximate Model of a Single-Cylinder
Engine 393
8.3.2.1 Equivalent Masses of Links 394
8.3.2.2 Shaking Force of the Piston 395
8.3.3 Direct and Reverse Crank Representation 396
8.3.4 Balancing of a Single-Cylinder Engine 397
8.3.4.1 Dummy Cylinders 397
8.3.4.2 Direct and Reverse Balancing Masses 397
8.3.4.3 Partial Balancing 399
8.3.5 Balancing of a Two-Cylinder V Engine 401
8.3.5.1 Analysis Using Direct and Reverse
Cranks 403
8.3.6 Balancing of Radial Engines 403
8.3.7 In-Line Engines 405
8.3.8 Applications of In-Line Engines 407
8.3.8.1 Four-Cylinder Four-Stroke Engine 407
8.3.8.2 Four-Cylinder Two-Stroke Engine 409
8.3.8.3 Six-Cylinder Four-Stroke Engine 409
8.3.8.4 V-Eight Four-Stroke Engine 411
xiv Contents

8.4 In-Place Balancing 414

8.4.1 Single-Plane Balancing (Static Balancing) 414
8.4.1.1 Graphical Method 415
8.4.1.2 Analytical Method 416
8.4.2 Static Balancing without Phase Measurements 418
8.4.3 Two-Plane Balancing (Dynamic Balancing) 420

Bibliography 431
Foreword
Foreword
It
It is not an
is not an easy
easy task
task to
to write
write aa foreword
foreword forfor aa book
book authored
authored byby Professor
Professor Mustafa,
Mustafa,
who taught
who taught me
me thethe principles
principles of of machine dynamics and
machine dynamics and vibrations.
vibrations. In
In the course of
the course of
his teaching
his teaching and
and research
research career,
career, Professor
Professor Mostafa
Mostafa has has been the teacher
been the teacher andand mentor
mentor
to his
to students. He
his students. He kept
kept updating
updating his
his methods
methods of of instruction according to
instruction according to the
the continu­
continu-
ous developments
ous developments in his field
in his field of
of expertise.
expertise.
This book is
This book is the
the pinnacle
pinnacle ofof Professor
Professor Mostafa's contributions over
Mostafa's contributions over the
the years.
years. The
The
chapters are
chapters based on
are based on his
his lectures
lectures at
at several
several universities
universities in Egypt and
in Egypt and thethe Middle
Middle
East.
East. The book covers
The book covers both
both the graphical and
the graphical and analytical
analytical methods
methods of of the
the kinematics
kinematics
and dynamics
and dynamics of of different
different types
types of
of mechanisms
mechanisms with with low
low and
and high pairs. It
high pairs. It presents
presents
new analytical approaches,
new analytical approaches, which
which are
are helpful
helpful inin the
the programming,
programming, and and the
the kinematic
kinematic
and dynamic
and dynamic analysis
analysis ofof mechanisms
mechanisms and and cams.
cams.
The book also
The book also presents
presents newnew topics
topics such
such asas the
the analytical
analytical plot
plot of
of cam
cam contour,
contour,
minimum
minimum cam cam size,
size, and
and in-place
in-place balancing.
balancing.
II am
am sure
sure that
that both
both academia
academia andand the
the industry
industry will
will benefit
benefit much
much from
from thisthis book.
book.
The
The newnew topics,
topics, lucid
lucid language,
language, and
and step-by-step examples are
step-by-step examples are all
all assets
assets to
to its
its success.
success.

Professor Sohair F.
Professor Sohair F. Rezeka
Rezeka
Mechanical
Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Department
Department
Alexandria University, Egypt
Alexandria University, Egypt

xv
xv
Preface
This book is intended to serve as a reference for students in the mechanical field and
practicing engineers, and is concerned with the analysis of machines
This book discusses the kinematics and dynamics of mechanisms It is intended
as an informative guide to a more complete understanding of kinematics and its
applications. It is hoped that the fundamental procedures covered here will transfer
to problems the reader may encounter later.
This book was developed from an earlier version published in 1973. That early
version was based on graphical analysis, which did not meet the requirements of
modern developments. This version includes analytical analysis for all the topics.
These analytical analyses makes it possible to use math software for fast, precise,
and complete analysis.
Chapter 1 introduces several mechanisms to familiarize the reader with different
motions and functions they can perform. Analytical analysis for the performance of
the mechanism is also presented, which is adapted to use math software to facilitate
the study of the performance of mechanisms
Chapter 2 deals with the study of velocities and accelerations in the mechanism.
This is a necessary step for the design of machines. The graphical method, which is
based on vector equations, is presented and is applied to different mechanisms. The
graphical method gives insight to the velocities and accelerations for members in
the mechanism. Also, analytical analysis is presented and adapted for use with math
software for an overall study of the mechanisms. One distinct feature of this book is
the analysis of sliding links using a theory developed by the author. It is a replace-
ment for Coriolis components, which are generally difficult to apply in most cases.
The subject of cams is presented in Chapter 3. For specified motion cams, the pro-
file is obtained by graphical method. To obtain the contour analytically, equations
in Cartesian coordinates, which was developed by the author, is presented. Special
emphasis is directed toward the factors affecting the cam design, such as the pres-
sure angle and the radius of curvature.
Chapters 4 through 6 are devoted to giving a realistic study of the geometry and
kinematics of all types of gears. The study of gear reduction units is very important
for machine application.
Chapter 7 is concerned with the study of force analysis in mechanisms. Force
analysis is divided into three parts—static force analysis, friction force analysis,
and dynamic force analysis. In this book, the traditional graphical method is used
in addition to the analytical method. The analytical method lays down the founda-
tion for using math software to perform the analysis. Programs using MathCAD are
presented for complete analysis of all kinds of mechanisms, which include position
analysis, velocities and acceleration analysis, and force analysis. This chapter also
includes the study of the torque variation and the use of flywheels to reduce the speed
variation.

xvii
 Chapter 8 covers the study of balancing of machines. It explains how to balance
rotating parts and reciprocating parts. In-place balancing of machines using vibra-
tion measurements is also presented.

Professor Mahmoud Mostafa

Mechanical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering
University of Alexandria
Alexandria, Egypt
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments
The author wishes
The author wishes toto express
express hishis gratitude
gratitude toto the
thecoauthors,
coauthors, Professor
Professor Nomaan
Nomaan
Moharem,
Moharem, latelate Professor
Professor Elssayyed
Elssayyed Elbadawy,
Elbadawy, andand late
late Professor
Professor Hasan
Hasan Elhares, of
Elhares, of
the previous
the previous version
version who
who encouraged
encouraged the the idea
idea ofof making
making aa complete
complete version,
version, with
with
updated materials,
updated materials, inin the
the field
field of
of "Mechanics
"Mechanics of of Machinery."
Machinery."
II would
would like
like to
to express
express my my deep
deep appreciation
appreciation to to my
my wife
wife Suzy,
Suzy, my
my sons
sons Hosam
Hosam
and Omar,
and Omar, and
and my
my daughter
daughter Gina Gina for
for their
their support
support andand their
their help
help and
and encouragement
encouragement
to finish
to finish this
this book.
book. So,
So, this
this book
book is
is also
also dedicated
dedicated to to them.
them.
Also,
Also, II would
would like
like to
to thank
thank mymy students
students ofof the
the Faculty
Faculty of of Engineering, University
Engineering, University
of Alexandria,
of Alexandria, forfor their help to
their help to rectify
rectify some
some materials
materials in in the
the book.
book.
Finally,
Finally, II would
would like to express
like to my appreciation
express my appreciation to to the
the editorial staff of
editorial staff of Taylor
Taylor &
&
Francis
Francis Group
Group forfor their
their encouragement.
encouragement. Their comment that
Their comment that my book will
my book will be
be a very
a very
good addition
good addition to
to their list made
their list made meme proud.
proud.

xix
xix
Author
Author
Dr. Mahmoud
Dr. Mahmoud Mostafa
Mostafa is is currently
currently aa professor
professor in
in the
the mechanical
mechanical engineering
engineering
department, Faculty
department, Faculty of
of Engineering,
Engineering, University
University of
of Alexandria.
Alexandria. He He received
received his
his BSc
BSc
degree in
degree in mechanical engineering from
mechanical engineering from the
the University
University ofof Cairo.
Cairo. HeHe also
also received
received his
his
MSc and
MSc and PhD
PhD degrees from Oregon
degrees from Oregon State
State University.
University. HeHe held
held several
several positions
positions such
such
as research
as research engineer
engineer in
in E.I.
E.I. Du
Du Pont
Pont Company,
Company, USA,
USA, June
June 1964;
1964; visiting
visiting professor
professor in
in
University of Riyadh,
University of Riyadh, Saudi
Saudi Arabia; and visiting
Arabia; and professor in
visiting professor in Beirut Arab University.
Beirut Arab University.
Dr. Mostafa
Dr. Mostafa was the head
was the head ofof the
themechatronics
mechatronics department
department at at Alexandria
Alexandria High
High
Institute of Engineering
Institute of Engineering andand Technology
Technology andand is still supervising
is still supervising thethe department.
department.
His area
His area of
of research
research is
is in
in the
the fields
fields of
of mechanical vibrations, kinematics
mechanical vibrations, kinematics ofof machin­
machin-
ery, and
ery, and synthesis
synthesis of
of mechanisms.
mechanisms. He He was
was aa consultant
consultant for several corps
for several corps in Egypt.
in Egypt.
He attended
He attended international
international conferences
conferences inin the United States,
the United States, Canada,
Canada, Pakistan, and
Pakistan, and
Egypt. He has
Egypt. He has several
several inventions,
inventions, which
which incorporate
incorporate certain
certain mechanisms.
mechanisms.

xxi
xxi
 Mechanisms
1
1.1 DEFINITIONS
Machine: A machine, according to Reuleaux, is a combination of resistant
bodies (rigid, elastic, or fluid) so arranged that by their means the mechani-
cal forces in nature can be compelled to produce some effect or work
accompanied by certain determinate motions. Figure 1.1 shows a cross sec-
tion of a single-cylinder engine (or compressor). For an engine, a mixture
of air and vapor of flammable fluid enters the cylinder, is ignited, pushes
the piston, and the connecting rod, which in turn causes the crank to rotate.
Thus, the engine transmits the gas force to be a torque on the crank. Also,
it converts the reciprocating motion of the piston to a rotary motion for the
crank. The function of the compressor is opposite to the engine.
Mechanism: A combination of bodies meant for transmitting, controlling, or
constraining the relative motion between the bodies. If we look at a machine
only from the point of view of motion, then it is a mechanism Figure 1.2
shows the skeleton outline of an engine and is considered to be a mechanism.
Planar and spatial mechanisms: Mechanisms can be divided into planar mecha-
nisms and spatial mechanisms according to the relative motion of rigid bodies.
In planar mechanisms, all the relative motions of rigid bodies are in one plane
or in parallel planes. If there is any relative motion between the bodies that is
not in the same plane or in parallel planes, the mechanism is called a spatial
mechanism. In other words, planar mechanisms are essentially two dimen-
sional, whereas spatial mechanisms are three dimensional. This chapter covers
only planar mechanisms.
Kinematics: Kinematics of mechanisms is concerned with the motion of the
parts without considering the actual shape of the bodies or the forces in a
machine. In other words, kinematics deals with the motion, velocity, and
acceleration of the parts.
Kinetics: Kinetics deals with all the forces in a machine, including the forces
resulting from the masses and the acceleration.
Dynamics: Dynamics is a combination of kinematics and kinetics.
Links: A link is defined as any part of a machine having motion relative to
some other part. It must be capable of transmitting a force. There are three
types of links:
1. Rigid links, which may transmit tension or compressive forces such as
crank, connecting rod, and piston
2. Tension links, which transmit only tensile forces such as belts, ropes,
and chains
3. Compression links, which transmit only compressive force, for exam-
ple, the fluid in hydraulic jacks or the automobile braking system

1
2 Mechanics of Machinery

//////////
//if
FIGURE 11 A cross section of a single-cylinder engine.

FIGURE 1.2 The skeleton outline of an engine.

Frame: The frame in a mechanism is considered as a fixed link. In a machine,

the frame is considered as all the fixed bodies connected together by weld-
ing or bolting.
Pairs: A pair is a joint between the surfaces of two rigid bodies which keeps
them in contact and to have relative motion. Pairs are divided into two
types, that is, lower pairs and higher pairs.
Lower pairs: A joint between two bodies is defined as a lower pair when
the contact between them is on a surface. There are two types of lower
pairs in plane mechanisms: One is the revolute joint as the case of doors
(Figure 1.3a). In the study of mechanisms, the revolute joint is represented
as skeletons (Figure 1.3b and c). The other type of lower pairs is the pris-
matic (sliding) joints as in the case of drawers and the ram of the shaping
machine The skeleton outline of these joints is shown in Figure 1.4a and b.
Higher pairs: In higher pairs, the contact between two bodies is through a
point as in the case of ball bearings or through a line as in roller bearings,
gears, cams, and cam followers. The skeleton outline of this type of pairs is
shown in Figure 1.5a. In fact, a higher pair can be considered as two lower
pairs, that is, sliding and revolute pairs (Figure 1.5b).
Other types of joints:
Spherical joint: A ball and a socket represent a spherical joint (Figure 1.6).
The shift stick in an automobile is an example for the spherical joint.
The handle can move in all directions.
Screw joint: Bolts and nuts are examples of screw joints. Power screws and
screw jacks are other examples (Figure 1.7).
Mechanisms 3

(a)

(b) (c)
FIGURE 1.3 (a) Represents a door connection, (b) and (c) represent the revolute joints.

/////////
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.4 Representation of prismatic joint. (a) Link slides inside another (b) link slide
on the surface of another.

0
(a)

////7
(b)
FIGURE 1.5 (a) Represents a higher pair joint, (b) represents the equivalent higher pair joint.

FIGURE 1.6 Spherical joint.

4 Mechanics of Machinery

FIGURE 1.7 Screw joint.

Complete, incomplete, and successful constraints:

• Complete constraint determines in a definite direction the relative dis-
placements between two links independently of the line of action of
the impressed force, for example, a square bar sliding in a square hole.
• In the case of incomplete constraint, a little change in direction of the
impressed force may alter the direction of the relative displacement, for
example, a cylinder in a hole. The cylinder may rotate and slide inside
the hole.
• In the case of successful constraint, an external force, for example the
force of gravitation or a force applied to a spring or fluid, is impressed
on an element to prevent motions other than the desired relative motion
within the limits of the displacement. For example, the relative motion
between the piston and the cylinder of an engine is not completely con-
strained. But the connecting rod between the piston and the crank pre-
vents the piston from rotating inside the cylinder.
Kinematics chain: Kinematic chains are combinations of links and pairs
without a fixed link. If one of the links is fixed, we get a mechanism. All
links have at least two pairs. The relative motion between the links is com-
pletely constrained.
Kinematics analysis: Kinematics analysis is the investigation of an existing
mechanism regarding its performance and motion and estimating the veloc-
ity and acceleration of its links
Kinematics synthesis: It is the process of designing a mechanism to accom-
plish a desired task. It is involved with choosing the type and dimensions of
the mechanism to achieve the required performance.
Degrees of freedom (DOFs): The number of DOFs of a system is defined as the
number of independent relative motions among the rigid bodies of the system.
Mechanisms 5

For example, for a revolute pair (Figure 1.3b and c), relative motion between
the links is a rotational motion about the joint. So, the revolute pair has only
one DOF. This applies to prismatic pairs also (Figure 1.4) for which the rela-
tive motion is sliding motion. For higher pairs (Figure 1.5a), the number of
DOFs is two. This is because the joint allows both rotational and translational
motions as demonstrated in Figure 1.5b. For a spherical joint (Figure 1.6),
the motion is not restricted to certain directions. Thus, it has infinite DOFs.
If the number of DOFs of a chain is zero or negative, then it forms a structure,
that is, there is no relative motion between the links.
The number of DOFs of a mechanism is also called the mobility of the device.
Mobility of a device is the number of input parameters (usually pair vari-
ables) that must be independently controlled to bring the device into a par-
ticular position.
Important: The number of pairs at a joint is equal to the number of links con-
nected to the joint subtracted by one.

1.2 DEGREES OF FREEDOM OF PLANAR MECHANISMS

The number of DOFs of a mechanism can be estimated by using Gruebler's equation,
which is written in the following form:

DOFs = 3(n — 1) — 2/ — h
Where

DOF is the number of degrees of freedom in the mechanism

n is the number of links including the fixed link.
1 is number of lower pairs.
h is the number of higher pairs.

EXAMPLE 1.1

Find the number of DOFs for each of the following chains:

Figure (a)

(a)

n=4
/=4
h=0
DOFs=3x(4-1)-2x4-1x0
=1
Another random document with
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for a greater sin. The magistrates firmly asserted in court and out
that “meekness is ye chojsest orniment for a woman.”
Joane Andrews sold in York, Maine, in 1676, two stones in a firkin
of butter. For this cheatery she “stood in towne meeting at York and
at towne meeting at Kittery till 2 hours bee expended, with her
offense written upon a paper in capitall letters on her forehead.” The
court record of one woman delinquent in Plymouth, in 1683, is grimly
comic. It seems that Mary Rosse exercised what was called by the
“painful” court chronicler in a triumph of orthographical and
nomenclatory art, an “inthewsiastickall power” over one Shingleterry,
a married man, who cringingly pleaded, as did our first father Adam,
that “hee must doo what shee bade him”—or, in modern phrase, that
she hypnotized him. Mary Rosse and her uncanny power did not
receive the consideration that similar witches and works do
nowadays. She was publicly whipped and sent home to her mother,
while her hypnotic subject was also whipped, and I presume sent
home to his wife.
It should be noted that in Virginia, under the laws proclaimed by
Argall, women were in some ways tenderly regarded. They were not
punished for absenting themselves from church on Sundays or
holidays; while men for one offence of this nature had “to lie neck
and heels that night, and be a slave to the colony for the following
week; for the second offence to be a slave for a month; for the third,
for a year and a day.”
It is curious to see how long and how constantly, in spite of their
severe and manifold laws, the pious settlers could suffer through
certain ill company which they had been unlucky enough to bring
over, provided the said offenders did not violate the religious rules of
the community. We might note as ignoble instances, Will Fancie and
his wife, of New Haven, and John Dandy and his wife, of Maryland.
Their names constantly appear for years in the court records, as
offenders and as the cause of offences. John Dandy at one time
swore in court that all his “controversies from the beginning of the
World to this day” had ceased; but it would have been more to the
purpose had he also added till the end of the world, for his violence
soon brought him to the gallows. Will Fancie’s wife seemed capable
of any and every offence, from “stealing pinnes” to stealing the
affections of nearly every man with whom she chanced to be thrown;
and the magistrates of New Haven were evidently sorely puzzled
how to deal with her.
I have noted in the court or church records of all witch-ridden
communities, save in the records of poor crazed and bewildered
Salem, where the flame was blown into a roaring blaze by “the
foolish breath of Cotton Mather,” that there always appear on the
pages some plain hints, and usually some definite statements, which
account for the accusation of witchcraft against individuals. And
these hints indicate a hated personality of the witch. To illustrate my
meaning, let me take the case of Goody Garlick, of Easthampton,
Long Island. In reading the early court records of that town, I was
impressed with the constant meddlesome interference of this woman
in all social and town matters. Every page reeked of Garlick. She
was an ever-ready witness in trespass, boundary, and slander suits,
for she was apparently on hand everywhere. She was present when
a young man made ugly faces at the wife of Lion Gardiner, because
she scolded him for eating up her “pomkin porage;” and she was
listening when Mistress Edwards was called a base liar, because she
asserted she had in her chest a new petticoat that she had brought
from England some years before, and had never worn (and of
course no woman could believe that). In short, Goody Garlick was a
constant tale-bearer and barrator. Hence it was not surprising to me
to find, when Mistress Arthur Howell, Lion Gardiner’s daughter, fell
suddenly and strangely ill, and cried out that “a double-tongued
naughty woman was tormenting her, a woman who had a black cat,”
that the wise neighbors at once remembered that Goody Garlick was
double-tongued and naughty, and had a black cat. She was speedily
indicted for witchcraft, and the gravamen appeared to be her
constant tale-bearing.
In 1706 a Virginian goody with a prettier name, Grace Sherwood,
was tried as a witch; and with all the superstition of the day, and the
added superstition of the surrounding and rapidly increasing negro
population, there were but three Virginian witch-trials. Grace
Sherwood’s name was also of constant recurrence in court annals,
from the year 1690, on the court records of Princess Anne County,
especially in slander cases. She was examined, after her indictment,
for “witches marks” by a jury of twelve matrons, each of whom
testified that Grace was “not like yur.” The magistrates seem to have
been somewhat disconcerted at the convicting testimony of this jury,
and at a loss how to proceed, but the witch asserted her willingness
to endure trial by water. A day was set for the ducking, but it rained,
and the tenderly considerate court thought the weather unfavorable
for the trial on account of the danger to Grace’s health, and
postponed the ducking. At last, on a sunny July day, when she could
not take cold, the witch was securely pinioned and thrown into Lyn
Haven Bay, with directions from the magistrates to “but her into the
debth.” Into the “debth” of the water she should have contentedly
and innocently sunk, but “contrary to the Judgments of all the
spectators” she persisted in swimming, and at last was fished out
and again examined to see whether the “witches marks” were
washed off. One of the examiners was certainly far from being
prepossessed in Grace’s favor. She was a dame who eight years
before had testified that “Grace came to her one night, and rid her,
and went out of the key hole or crack in the door like a black cat.”
Grace Sherwood was not executed, and she did not die of the
ducking, but it cooled her quarrelsome temper. She lived till 1740.
The point where she was butted into the depth is to this day called
Witches Duck.
Grace Sherwood was not the only poor soul that passed through
the “water-test” or “the fleeting on the water” for witchcraft. In
September, 1692, in Fairfield, Conn., the accused witches “Mercy
Disburrow and Elizabeth Clauson were bound hand and foot and put
into the water, and they swam like cork, and one labored to press
them into the water, and they buoyed up like cork.” Many cruel
scenes were enacted in Connecticut, none more so than the
persistent inquisition of Goodwife Knapp after she was condemned
to death for witchcraft. She was constantly tormented by her old
friends and neighbors to confess and to accuse one Goody Staples
as an accomplice; but the poor woman repeated that she must not
wrong any one nor say anything untrue. She added:—
 The truth is you would have me say that goodwife Staples
is a witch but I have sins enough to answer for already, I know
nothing against goodwife Staples and I hope she is an honest
woman. You know not what I know. I have been fished withall
in private more than you are aware of. I apprehend that
goodwife Staples hath done me wrong in her testimony but I
must not return evil for evil.
Being still urged and threatened with eternal damnation, she finally
burst into bitter tears, and begged her persecutors to cease, saying
in words that must have lingered long in their memory, and that still
make the heart ache, “Never, never was poor creature tempted as I
am tempted! oh pray! pray for me!”
The last scene in this New England tragedy was when her poor
dead body was cut down from the gallows, and laid upon the green
turf beside her grave; and her old neighbors, excited with
superstition, and blinded to all sense of shame or unwomanliness,
crowded about examining eagerly for “witch signs;” while in the
foreground Goodwife Staples, whose lying words had hanged her
friend, kneeled by the poor insulted corpse, weeping and wringing
her hands, calling upon God, and asserting the innocence of the
murdered woman.
It is a curious fact that, in an era which did not much encourage
the public speech or public appearance of women, they should have
served on juries; yet they occasionally did, not only in witchcraft
cases such as Grace Sherwood’s and Alice Cartwright’s,—another
Virginia witch,—but in murder cases, as in Kent County, Maryland;
these juries were not usually to render the final decision, but to
decide upon certain points, generally purely personal, by which their
wise husbands could afterwards be guided. I don’t know that these
female juries shine as exemplars of wisdom and judgment. In 1693 a
jury of twelve women in Newbury, Mass., rendered this decision,
which certainly must have been final:—
Wee judge according to our best lights and contients that
the Death of said Elizabeth was not by any violens or wrong
 done to her by any parson or thing but by some soden stoping
of hir Breath.
In Revolutionary days a jury of “twelve discreet matrons” of
Worcester, Mass., gave a decision in the case of Bathsheba
Spooner, which was found after her execution to be a wrong
judgment. She was the last woman hanged by law in Massachusetts,
and her cruel fate may have proved a vicarious suffering and means
of exemption for other women criminals.
Women, as well as men, when suspected murderers, had to go
through the cruel and shocking “blood-ordeal.” This belief, supported
by the assertions of that learned fool, King James, in his
Demonologie, lingered long in the minds of many,—indeed does to
this day in poor superstitious folk. The royal author says:—
In a secret murther, if the dead carkas be at any time
thereafter handled by the murtherer, it will gush out of blood.
Sometimes a great number of persons were made to touch in turn
the dead body, hoping thus to discover the murderer.
It has been said that few women were taught to write in colonial
days, and that those few wrote so ill their letters could scarce be
read. I have seen a goodly number of letters written by women in
those times, and the handwriting is comparatively as good as that of
their husbands and brothers. Margaret Winthrop wrote with precision
and elegance. A letter of Anne Winthrop’s dated 1737 is clear,
regular, and beautiful. Mary Higginson’s writing is fair, and Elizabeth
Cushing’s irregular and uncertain, as if of infrequent occurrence.
Elizabeth Corwin’s is clear, though irregular; Mehitable Parkman’s
more careless and wavering; all are easily read. But the most
beautiful old writing I have ever seen,—elegant, regular, wonderfully
clear and well-proportioned, was written by the hand of a woman,—a
criminal, a condemned murderer, Elizabeth Attwood, who was
executed in 1720 for the murder of her infant child. The letter was
written from “Ipswitch Gole in Bonds” to Cotton Mather, and is a most
pathetic and intelligent appeal for his interference to save her life.
The beauty and simplicity of her language, the force and directness
of her expressions, her firm denial of the crime, her calm religious
assurance, are most touching to read, even after the lapse of
centuries, and make one wonder that any one—magistrate or priest,
—even Cotton Mather—could doubt her innocence. But she was
hanged before a vast concourse of eager people, and was declared
most impenitent and bold in her denial of her guilt; and it was
brought up against her, as a most hardened brazenry, that to cheat
the hangman (who always took as handsel of his victim the garments
in which she was “turned off”), she appeared in her worst attire, and
announced that he would get but a sorry suit from her. I do not know
the estate in life of Elizabeth Attwood, but it could not have been
mean, for her letter shows great refinement.
 CHAPTER IV.
BOSTON NEIGHBORS.

Accounts of isolated figures are often more interesting than

chapters of general history, and biographies more attractive than
state records, because more petty details of vivid human interest can
be learned; so, in order to present clearly a picture of the social life
of women in the earliest days of New England, I give a description of
a group of women, contiguous in residence, and contemporary in
life, rather than an account of some special dame of dignity or note;
and I call this group Boston Neighbors.
If the setting of this picture would add to its interest, it is easy to
portray the little settlement. The peninsula, but half as large as the
Boston of to-day, was fringed with sea-marshes, and was crowned
with three conical hills, surmounted respectively with the windmill,
the fort, and the beacon. The champaign was simply an extended
pasture with few trees, but fine springs of water. Winding footpaths—
most interesting of roadways—connected the detached dwellings,
and their irregular outlines still show in our Boston streets. The
thatched clay houses were being replaced by better and more
substantial dwellings. William Coddington had built the first brick
house.
On the main street, now Washington Street, just east of where the
Old South Church now stands, lived the dame of highest degree,
and perhaps the most beautiful personality, in this little group—
Margaret Tyndal Winthrop, the “loving faythfull yoke-fellow” of
Governor John Winthrop. She was his third wife, though he was but
thirty when he married her. He had been first married when but
seventeen years old. He writes that he was conceived by his parents
to be at that age a man in stature and understanding. This wife
brought to him, and left to him, “a large portion of outward estate,”
and four little children. Of the second wife he writes, “For her
carriage towards myselfe, it was so amiable and observant as I am
not able to expresse; it had only this inconvenience, that it made me
delight in hir too much to enjoy hir long,”—and she lived with him but
a year and a day. He married Margaret in 1618, and when she had
borne five children, he left her in 1630, and sailed to New England.
She came also the following year, and was received “with great joy”
and a day of Thanksgiving. For the remaining sixteen years of her
life she had but brief separations from her husband, and she died, as
he wrote, “especially beloved of all the country.” Her gentle love-
letters to her husband, and the simple testimony of contemporary
letters of her relatives and friends, show her to have been truly “a
sweet gracious woman” who endured the hardships of her new
home, the Governor’s loss of fortune, and his trying political
experiences, with unvarying patience and “singular virtue, modesty
and piety.”
There lived at this time in Boston a woman who must have been
well known personally by Madam Winthrop, for she was a near
neighbor, living within stone’s throw of the Governor’s house, on the
spot where now stands “The Old Corner Bookstore.” This woman
was Anne Hutchinson. She came with Rev. John Cotton from
Boston, England, to Boston, New England, well respected and well
beloved. She went an outcast, hated and feared by many she left
behind her in Boston. For years her name was on every tongue,
while she was under repeated trials and examinations for heresy. In
the controversy over her and her doctrines, magistrates, ministers,
women, soldiers, the common multitude of Boston, all took part, and
took sides; through the pursuance of the controversy the government
of the colony was changed. Her special offences against doctrines
were those two antiquated “heresies,” Antinomianism and Familism,
which I could hardly define if I would. According to Winthrop they
were “those two dangerous errors that the person of the Holy Ghost
dwells in a justified person, and that no sanctification can help to
evidence to us our justification.” Her special offences against social
and religious routines were thus related by Cotton Mather:—
At the meetings of the women which used to be called
gossippings it was her manner to carry on very pious
 discourses and so put the neighborhood upon examining their
spiritual estates by telling them how far a person might go in
“trouble of mind,” and being restrained from very many evils
and constrained into very many duties, by none but a legal
work upon their souls without ever coming to a saving union
with the Lord Jesus Christ, that many of them were convinced
of a very great defect in the settlement of their everlasting
peace, and acquainted more with the “Spirit of the Gospel”
than ever they were before. This mighty show and noise of
devotion made the reputation of a non-such among the
people until at length under pretence of that warrant “that the
elder women are to teach the younger” she set up weekly
meetings at her house whereto three score or four score
people would report....
It was not long before it was found out that most of the
errors then crawling like vipers were hatch’d at these
meetings.
So disturbed was the synod of ministers which was held early in
the controversy, that this question was at once resolved:—
That though women might meet (some few together) to
pray and edify one another, yet such a set assembly (as was
then the practice in Boston) where sixty or more did meet
every week, and one woman (in a prophetical way by
resolving questions of doctrines and expounding scripture)
took upon her the whole exercise, was agreed to be
disorderly and without rule.
As I read the meagre evidences of her belief, I see that Anne
Hutchinson had a high supernatural faith which, though mystical at
its roots, aimed at being practical in its fruits; but she was critical,
tactless, and over-inquisitive, and doubtless censorious, and worst of
all she “vented her revelations,” which made her seem to many of
the Puritans the very essence of fanaticism; so she was promptly
placed on trial for heresy for “twenty-nine cursed opinions and falling
into fearful lying, with an impudent Forehead in the public assembly.”
The end of it all in that theocracy could not be uncertain. One
woman, even though her followers included Governor Sir Henry
Vane, and a hundred of the most influential men of the community,
could not stop the powerful machinery of the Puritan Church and
Commonwealth, the calm, well-planned opposition of Winthrop; and
after a succession of mortifying indignities, and unlimited petty
hectoring and annoying, she was banished. “The court put an end to
her vapouring talk, and finding no hope of reclaiming her from her
scandalous, dangerous, and enchanting extravagancies, ordered her
out of the colony.”
In reading of her life, her trials, it is difficult to judge whether—to
borrow Howel’s expression—the crosier or the distaff were most to
blame in all this sad business; the preachers certainly took an over-
active part.
Of the personal appearance of this “erroneous gentlewoman” we
know nothing. I do not think, in spite of the presumptive evidence of
the marked personal beauty of her descendants, that she was a
handsome woman, else it would certainly be so stated. The author of
the Short Story of the Rise Reigne and Ruine of the Antinomians,
Familists, and Libertines that infected the Churches of New England
calls her “a woman of a haughty and fierce carriage, of a nimble wit
and active spirit, and a very voluble tongue, more bold than a man,
though in understanding and judgment inferior to many women.” He
also termed her “the American Jezebel,” and so did the traveller
Josselyn in his Account of Two Voyages to New England; while
Minister Hooker styled her “a wretched woman.” Johnson, in his
Wonder-Working Providence, calls her the “masterpiece of woman’s
wit.” Governor Winthrop said she was “a woman of ready wit and
bold spirit.” Cotton Mather called her a virago, cunning, canting, and
proud, but he did not know her.
We to-day can scarcely comprehend what these “double weekly
lectures” must have been to these Boston women, with their extreme
conscientiousness, their sombre religious belief, and their timid
superstition, in their hard and perhaps homesick life. The materials
for mental occupation and excitement were meagre; hence the
spiritual excitement caused by Anne Hutchinson’s prophesyings
must have been to them a fascinating religious dissipation. Many
were exalted with a supreme assurance of their salvation. Others,
bewildered with spiritual doubts, fell into deep gloom and depression;
and one woman in utter desperation attempted to commit a crime,
and found therein a natural source of relief, saying “now she was
sure she should be damned.” Into all this doubt and depression the
wives—to use Cotton Mather’s phrase—“hooked in their husbands.”
So; perhaps, after all it was well to banish the fomenter of all these
troubles and bewilderments.
Still, I wonder whether Anne Hutchinson’s old neighbors and
gossips did not regret these interesting meetings, these exciting
prophesyings, when they were sternly ended. I hope they grieved for
her when they heard of her cruel death by Indian massacre; and I
know they remembered her unstinted, kindly offices in time of
sickness and affliction; and I trust they honored “her ever sober and
profitable carriage,” and I suspect some of them in their inmost
hearts deplored the Protestant Inquisition of their fathers and
husbands, that caused her exile and consequent murder by the
savages.
Samuel Johnson says, “As the faculty of writing is chiefly a
masculine endowment, the reproach of making the world miserable
has always been thrown upon women.” As the faculty of literary
composition at that day was wholly a masculine endowment, we
shall never know what the Puritan women really thought of Anne
Hutchinson, and whether they threw upon her any reproach.
We gain a slight knowledge of what Margaret Winthrop thought of
all this religious ecstasy, this bitter quarrelling, from a letter written by
her, and dated “Sad-Boston.” She says:—
Sad thoughts possess my sperits, and I cannot repulce
them; wch makes me unfit for anythinge, wondringe what the
Lord meanes by all these troubles among us. Shure I am that
all shall worke to the best to them that love God, or rather are
loved of hime, I know he will bring light out of obcurity and
make his rituusnesse shine forth as clere as the nounday; yet
I find in myself an aferce spiret, and a tremblinge hart, not so
willing to submit to the will of God as I desyre. There is a time
 to plant, and a time to pull up that which is planted, which I
could desyre might not be yet.
And so it would seem to us to-day that it was indeed a doubtful
beginning to tear up with such violence even flaunting weeds, lest
the tender and scattered grain, whose roots scarce held in the
unfamiliar soil, might also be uprooted and wither and die. But the
colony endured these trials, and flourished, as it did other trials, and
still prospered.
Though written expression of their feelings is lacking, we know
that the Boston neighbors gave to Anne Hutchinson that sincerest
flattery—imitation. Perhaps her fellow-prophets should not be called
imitators, but simply kindred religious spirits. The elements of society
in colonial Boston were such as plentifully to produce and stimulate
“disordered and heady persons.”
Among them was Mary Dyer, thus described by Winthrop:—
The wife of William Dyer, a milliner in the New Exchange, a
very proper and fair woman, notoriously infected with Mrs
Hutchinsons errors, and very censorious and troublesome.
She being of a very proud spirit and much addicted to
revelations.
Another author called her “a comely grave woman, of a goodly
personage, and of good report.”
Some of these Boston neighbors lived to see two sad sights. Fair
comely Mary Dyer, after a decade of unmolested and peaceful
revelations in Rhode Island, returned to her early home, and
persistently preached to her old friends, and then walked through
Boston streets hand in hand with two young Quaker friends,
condemned felons, to the sound of the drums of the train band,
glorying in her companionship; and then she was set on a gallows
with a halter round her neck, while her two friends were hanged
before her eyes; this was witnessed by such a multitude that the
drawbridge broke under the weight of the returning North-enders.
And six months later this very proper and fair woman herself was
hanged in Boston, to rid the commonwealth of an intolerable plague.
 A letter still exists, written by William Dyer to the Boston
magistrates to “beg affectionately the life of my deare wife.” It is most
touching, most heart-rending; it ends thus, “Yourselves have been
husbands of wife or wives, and so am I, yea to one most dearlye
beloved. Oh do not you deprive me of her, but I pray you give me her
out againe. Pitye me—I beg it with teares.”
The tears still stain this poor sorrowful, appealing letter,—a
missive so gentle, so timid, so full of affection, of grief, that I cannot
now read it unmoved and I do indeed “pitye” thee. William Dyer’s
tears have not been the only ones to fall on his beautiful, tender
words.
Another interesting neighbor living where Washington Street
crossed Brattle Street was the bride, young Madam Bellingham,
whose marriage had caused such a scandal in good society in
Boston. Winthrop’s account of this affair is the best that could be
given:—
The governour Mr Bellingham was married. The young
gentlewoman was ready to be contracted to a friend of his
who lodged in his house, and by his consent had proceeded
so far with her, when on a sudden the governour treated with
her, and obtained her for himself. He excused it by the
strength of his affection, and that she was not absolutely
promised to the other gentleman. Two errors more he
committed upon it. 1. That he would not have his contract
published where he dwelt, contrary to the order of court. 2.
That he married himself contrary to the constant practice of
the country. The great inquest prosecuted him for breach of
the order of the court, and at the court following in the fourth
month, the secretary called him to answer the prosecution.
But he not going off the bench, as the manner was, and but
few of the magistrates present, he put it off to another time,
intending to speak with him privately, and with the rest of the
magistrates about the case, and accordingly he told him the
reason why he did not proceed, viz., that being unwilling to
command him publicly to go off the bench, and yet not
thinking it fit he should sit as a judge, when he was by law to
 answer as an offender. This he took ill, and said he would not
go off the bench except he were commanded.
I think the young English girl, Penelope Pelham, must have been
sadly bewildered by the strange abrupt ways of the new land, by her
dictatorial elderly lover, by his autocratic and singular marriage with
her, by the attempted action of the government against him. She had
a long life thereafter, for he lived to be eighty years old, and she
survived him thirty years.
A very querulous and turbulent neighbor who lived on Milk Street
was Mistress Ann Hibbins, the wife of one of Boston’s honored
citizens. Her husband had been unsuccessful in business matters,
and this “so discomposed his wife’s spirit that she was scarce ever
well settled in her mind afterwards,” and at last was put out of the
church and by her strange carriage gave occasion to her
superstitious neighbors to charge her with being a witch. She was
brought to trial for witchcraft, convicted, sentenced, and hung upon a
Thursday lecture day, in spite of her social position, and the fact that
her brother was Governor Bellingham. She had other friends, high in
authority, as her will shows, and she had the belongings of a colonial
dame, “a diamond ring, a taffety cloke, silk gown and kirtle, pinck-
colored petticoat, and money in the deske.” Minister Beach wrote to
Increase Mather in 1684:—
I have sometimes told you your famous Mr Norton once
said at his own table before Mr Wilson, Elder Penn and
myself and wife who had the honour to be his guests—that
the wife of one of your magistrates, I remember, was hanged
for a witch only for having more wit than her neighbors. It was
his very expression; she having as he explained it, unhappily
guessed that two of her prosecutors, whom she saw talking in
the street were talking about her—which cost her her life,
notwithstanding all he could do to the contrary.
It would naturally be thought, from the affectionate and intense
devotion of the colonists to the school which had just become
“Harvard-Colledge,” that Mr. Nathaniel Eaton, the head-master of the
freshly established seat of learning, would be a citizen of much
esteem, and his wife a dame of as dignified carriage and honored
station as any of her Boston and Cambridge neighbors. Let us see
whether such was the case. Mr. Eaton had had much
encouragement to continue at the head of the college for life; he had
been offered a tract of five hundred acres of land, and liberal support
had been offered by the government, and he “had many scholars,
the sons of gentlemen and of others of best note in the country.” Yet
when he fell out with one of his ushers on very slight occasion, he
struck the usher and caused two more to hold the poor fellow while
he beat him two hundred stripes with a heavy walnut cudgel; and
when poor Usher Briscoe fell a-praying, in fear of dying, Master
Eaton beat him further for taking the name of God in vain. When all
this cruelty was laid to him in open court “his answers were full of
pride and disdain,” and he said he had this unvarying rule, “that he
would not give over correcting till he had subdued the party to his
will.” And upon being questioned about other malpractices,
especially the ill and scant diet provided by him for the students,
though good board had been paid by them, he, Adam-like, “put it off
to his wife.”
Her confession of her connection with the matter is still in
existence, and proves her accomplishments as a generous and tidy
housewife about equal to his dignity and lenity as head of the
college. It is a most curious and minute document, showing what her
duties were, and the way she performed them, and also giving an
interesting glimpse of college life in those days. It reads thus:—
For their breakfast that it was not so well ordered, the
flower not so fine as it might, nor so well boiled or stirred at all
times that it was so, it was my sin of neglect, and want of care
that ought to have been in one that the Lord had intrusted
with such a work.
Concerning their beef, that was allowed them, as they
affirm, which I confess had been my duty to have seen they
should have had it, and continued to have had it, because it
was my husbands command; but truly I must confess, to my
shame, I cannot remember that ever they had it nor that ever
it was taken from them.
 And that they had not so good or so much provision in my
husbands absence as presence, I conceive it was, because
he would call sometimes for butter or cheese when I
conceived there was no need of it; yet for as much as the
scholars did otherways apprehend, I desire to see the evil that
was in the carriage of that as in the other and to take shame
to myself for it.
And that they sent down for more, when they had not
enough, and the maid should answer, if they had not, they
should not. I must confess that I have denied them cheese,
when they have sent for it, and it have been in the house, for
which I shall humbly beg pardon to them, and own the shame,
and confess my sin.
And for such provoking words which my servants have
given, I cannot own them, but am sorry any such should be
given in my house.
And for bad fish, they had it brought to table, I am sorry
there was that cause of offence given; I acknowledge my sin
in it.... I am much ashamed it should be in the family, and not
prevented by myself or my servants, and I humbly
acknowledge my negligence in it.
And that they made their beds at any time, were my straits
never so great, I am sorry they were ever put to it.
For the Moor, his lying in Sam Hough’s sheet and pillow-
bier, it hath a truth in it; he did so at one time and it gave Sam
Hough just cause for offence; and that it was not prevented by
my care and watchfulness I desire to take the shame and the
sorrow for it.
And that they eat the Moor’s crusts, and the swine and they
had share and share alike; and the Moor to have beer, and
they denied it, and if they had not enough, for my maid to
answer they should not, I am an utter stranger to these things,
and know not the least foot-steps for them so to charge me;
and if my servants were guilty of such miscarriages, had the
 boarders complained of it unto myself, I should have thought
it my sin, if I had not sharply removed my servants and
endeavored reform.
And for bread made of sour heated meal, though I know of
but once that it was so since I kept house, yet John Wilson
affirms that it was twice; and I am truly sorry that any of it was
spent amongst them.
For beer and bread that it was denied them by me betwixt
meals, truly I do not remember, that ever I did deny it unto
them; and John Wilson will affirm that, generally, the bread
and beer was free for the boarders to go to.
And that money was demanded of them for washing the
linen, tis true that it was propounded to them but never
imposed upon them.
And for their pudding being given the last day of the week
without butter or suet, and that I said, it was a miln of
Manchester in old England, its true that I did say so, and am
sorry, that had any cause of offence given them by having it
so.
And for their wanting beer betwixt brewings, a week or half
a week together, I am sorry that it was so at any time, and
should tremble to have it so, were it in my hands to do again.
And whereas they say, that sometimes they have sent
down for more meat and it hath been denied, when it have
been in the house, I must confess, to my shame, that I have
denied them oft, when they have sent for it, and it have been
in the house.
Truly a pitiful tale of shiftless stinginess, of attempted extortion, of
ill-regulated service, and of overworked housewifery as well.
The Reverend Mr. Eaton did not escape punishment for his sins.
After much obstinacy he “made a very solid, wise, eloquent, and
serious confession, condemning himself in all particulars.” The court,
with Winthrop at the head, bore lightly upon him after this
confession, and yet when sentence of banishment from the college,
and restriction from teaching within the jurisdiction, was passed, and
he was fined £30, he did not give glory to God as was expected, but
turned away with a discontented look. Then the church took the
matter up to discipline him, and the schoolmaster promptly ran away,
leaving debts of a thousand pounds.
The last scene in the life of Mrs. Eaton may be given in Winthrop’s
words:—
Mr. Nathaniel Eaton being come to Virginia, took upon him
to be a minister there, but was given up to extreme pride and
sensuality, being usually drunken, as the custom is there. He
sent for his wife and children. Her friends here persuaded her
to stay awhile, but she went, notwithstanding, and the vessel
was never heard of after.
So you see she had friends and neighbors who wished her to
remain in New England with them, and who may have loved her in
spite of the sour bread, and scant beer, and bad fish, that she doled
out to the college students.
There was one visitor who flashed upon this chill New England
scene like a brilliant tropical bird; with all the subtle fascination of a
foreigner; speaking a strange language; believing a wicked Popish
faith; and englamoured with the romance of past adventure, with the
excitement of incipient war. This was Madam La Tour, the young wife
of one of the rival French governors of Acadia. The relations of
Massachusetts, of Boston town, to the quarrels of these two
ambitious and unscrupulous Frenchmen, La Tour and D’Aulnay, form
one of the most curious and interesting episodes in the history of the
colony.
Many unpleasant and harassing complications and annoyances
had arisen between the French and English colonists, in the more
northern plantations, when, in 1643, in June, Governor La Tour
surprised his English neighbors by landing in Boston “with two friars
and two women sent to wait upon La Tour His Lady”—and strange
sights they truly were in Boston. He came ashore at Governor
Winthrop’s garden (now Fort Winthrop), and his arrival was heralded
by a frightened woman, one Mrs. Gibbons, who chanced to be
sailing in the bay, and saw the approach of the French boat, and
hastened to warn the Governor. Perhaps Mrs. Gibbons had a
premonitory warning of the twenty-five hundred pounds her husband
was to lose at a later date through his confidence in the persuasive
Frenchman. Governor and Madam Winthrop and their two sons and
a daughter-in-law were sitting in the Governor’s garden in the
summer sunshine, and though thoroughly surprised, they greeted
the unexpected visitor, La Tour, with civilities, and escorted him to
Boston town, not without some internal tremors and much deep
mortification of the Governor when he thought of the weakness and
poverty of Boston, with Castle Island deserted, as was plainly shown
to the foreigner by the lack of any response to his salute of guns;
and the inference was quick to come that the Frenchman “might
have spoiled Boston.”
But La Tour’s visit was most friendly; all he wished was free
mercature and the coöperation of the English colony. And he desired
to land his men for a short time, that they might refresh themselves
after their long voyage; “so they landed in small companies that our
women might not be affrighted with them.” And the Governor dined
the French officers, and the New England warriors of the train-band
entertained the visiting Gallic soldiers, and they exercised and
trained before each other, all in true Boston hospitable fashion, as is
the custom to this day. And the Governor bourgeoned with as much
of an air of importance as possible, “being regularly attended with a
good guard of halberts and musketeers;” and thus tried to live down
the undignified heralding of a fellow-governor by a badly scared
woman neighbor. And the cunning Frenchman, as did another of his
race, “with sugared words sought to addulce all matters.” He
flattered the sober Boston magistrates, and praised everything about
the Boston army, and “showed much admiration professing he could
not have believed it, if he had not seen it.” And the foreigners were
so well treated (though Winthrop was blamed afterwards by stern
Endicott and the Rome-hating ministers) that they came again the
following summer, when La Tour asked material assistance. He
received it, and he lingered till autumn, and barely eight days after
he left, Madam La Tour landed in Boston from London; and strange
and sad must the little town have seemed to her after her past life.
She was in a state of much anger, and at once brought suit against
the master of the ship for not carrying her and her belongings to the
promised harbor in Acadia; for trading on the way until she nearly fell
into the hands of her husband’s enemy, D’Aulnay. The merchants of
Charlestown and Salem sided with the ship’s captain. The solid men
of Boston gallantly upheld and assisted the lady. The jury awarded
her two thousand pounds damages, and bitterly did one of the jury—
Governor Winthrop’s son—suffer for it, for he was afterwards
arrested in London, and had to give bond for four thousand pounds
to answer to a suit in the Court of Admiralty about the Boston
decision in favor of the Lady La Tour.
In the mean time ambassadors from the rival Acadian governor,
D’Aulnay, arrived in New England, and were treated with much honor
and consideration by the diplomatic Boston magistrates. I think I can
read between the lines that the Bostonians really liked La Tour, who
must have had much personal attraction and magnetism; but they
feared D’Aulnay, who had brought against the Massachusetts
government a claim of eight thousand pounds damages. The
Governor sent to D’Aulnay a propitiatory gift of “a very fair new
sedan chair (of no use to us),” and I should fancy scarcely of much
more use in Acadia; and which proved a very cheap way of staving
off paying the eight thousand pounds.
Madam La Tour sailed off at last with three laden ships to her
husband, in spite of D’Aulnay’s dictum that “she was known to be the
cause of all her husband’s contempt and rebellion, and therefore
they could not let her go to him.” La Tour’s stronghold was captured
shortly after “by assault and scalado” when he was absent, and his
jewels, plate, and furniture to the amount of ten thousand pounds
were seized, and his wife too; and she died in three weeks, of a
broken heart, and “her little child and gentlewomen were sent to
France.”
I think these Boston neighbors were entitled to a little harmless
though exciting gossip two or three years later, when they learned
that after D’Aulnay’s death the fascinating widower La Tour had
promptly married Widow D’Aulnay, thus regaining his jewels and