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STACLIM-2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1167 (2023) 012026 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1167/1/012026
Spatio-temporal analysis of land use and land cover changes

in Nguru Wetland, Yobe State, Nigeria
G Hassan 1* and M I Syakir 1, 2

1
School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Pulau Pinang –
Malaysia
2
Centre for Global Sustainability Studies (CGCS), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800
Pulau Pinang - Malaysia
*Corresponding Email: garbahassan126@gmail.com
Abstract. Rapid urbanization in Nguru has recently contributed to significant land

use/land cover (LULC) changes, the purpose of this research is to study the spatio-
temporal trends of LULC changes in Nguru LGA, Yobe State, Nigeria. The factors that
contributed to LULC changes are: bio-physical impacts, desertification, sand-dunes
encroachment, loss of vegetal cover, a decrease in bird population, climate change, the
conversion of farmlands to built-up areas, accumulation of pollutants in flood risk
disaster and decrease in annual rainfall. We used Multi-temporal Landsat data to
analyze the LULC pattern in the study area based on 20 years data. Results showed a
significant urban expansion, with built-up area increased from 446 hectares in 2001 to
768 hectares in 2011 and 2,483 hectares in 2021. The green area’s land area decreased
from 7932 hectares in 2001 to 6,404 hectares in 2011 and 365 hectares in 2021. These
findings may provide a snapshot of the LULC trends from spatial-temporal perspective
of which useful to the conservationists, urban planners, environmental managers and
decision makers in implementing sustainable land-use management and strategies for
the study area. The Nigerian government's environmental regulations for wetlands and
lakeshore aimed to protect wetlands as habitats for various animal and plant species,
ensure the conservation and responsible use of wetlands and their resources in Nigeria,
and ensure water catchments are protected and floods are monitored.
Keywords: Land Use/Land Cover (LULC), Urbanization, Sustainability, Wetland
1. Introduction
Wetlands are an interaction between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems - are the most valuable life-
sustaining water resources, they play critical roles as ecosystem service in providing food and habitats
for a variety of species [1]. Human and human-induced activities are altering and reducing wetland
ecosystems at an alarming rate around the world. These are occurring at the expense of wetland
hydrology and biodiversity, and Hadejia-Nguru is no exception [2]. The constant demand for additional
shelter, food, fuel, charcoal, lumber, soil, industries, clean water, and services has severely degraded the
natural vegetation ecology [3]. Biodiversity refers to the sum of all the different life forms on our
biosphere [1].
Sustainability is the efficient and equitable distribution of resources intra-generationally
and intergenerationally with the operation of socioeconomic activities within the confines of a
finite ecosystem [4]. According [5], sustainability is a dynamic equilibrium in the process of
interaction between the population and the carrying capacity of its environment in which the
Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
population develops to express its full potential without causing irreversible negative effects on
the carrying capacity of the environment on which it depends.
With the rate of population growth around Nguru wetland increasing, anthropogenic activities are
most likely to significantly reduce or locally exterminate populations of trees and birds that are extremely
sensitive to habitat disruption. The world's urban population has recently increased due to the perceived
ability to generate income in cities, contributing to rapid urbanization [6]. Nigeria's current population
is 215,875,451 as of Tuesday, May 31, 2022, according to Worldometer's analysis of the most recent
United Nations data. Nigeria accounts for 2.64% of the world's population. Nigeria has a population
density of 586 people per square kilometer [7]. High population density has led to LULC thereby putting
the wetland at threat. Cities host approximately 52.0% of Nigeria's population (107,112,526 people in
2020). Nigeria's average age is 18.1 years [8]. Remote sensing and GIS technologies provide a solid
foundation for assessing land use and land cover [9]. Furthermore, it also has extensive spatial coverage
and can be used to detect changes caused by repeated coverage satellites at short intervals. Remote
sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) provide some of the most detailed methods for
determining the extent and trend of changes in vegetation condition over time [10]. Detailed literatures
cited shows that the study on Spatio Temporal changes on the current status of the Protected Areas
(PAs), Nguru wetland Vegetational density and it's abundance is poorly known.
More so, there are little efforts made for the assessment of the Nguru wetland protected Areas (
PAs), and the situational analysis indicated that anthropogenic activities due to over defendance of
wetland resource by the local communities is increasing at alarming rate due to population growth, if
this situation is allowed to be continued unabated, may seriously cause adverse effects on socioeconomic
and ecological services in the study area and beyond. Detailed literature cited shows that the study on
Spatio-temporal changes on the current status of the Protected Areas (PAs), Nguru wetland Vegetational
density and it's abundance is poorly known. Therefore, the present study aims to examine the Spatio-
temporal variation and pattern of vegetational changes impacts so as to provide a snapshot for key actors,
stakeholders and lined institutions (MDAs) to prepare an effective conservation planning and
mainstreaming strategies for sustainable wetland resource management and control.
Any effective development in a region necessitates a thorough understanding of previous and
existing land use patterns. Adequate records on land and its uses are generally scarce in Nigeria [11].
This could be due to the time-consuming and expensive nature of conducting ground surveys, as well as
the volume of data collected. In their study of the Okara district in Punjab Pakistan [12], they discovered
that the district's vegetation had fallen by 89.3% by 2020, from 91.6% in 2000. The built-up area in
district Okara increased by 4.5% between 2000 and 2020 due to population growth. Their findings
indicated that the district of Okara's growing infrastructure and commercial districts have caused
previously vegetated land to be converted into a build-up region. [13] In his study of land use change
detection in Misau, Bauchi state Nigeria, observed that in 2010, forest area decreased by 83.84%. The
increased need for land for construction and demand for food has also prompted the removal of forest
lands that have been turned to farming.
In their study in Jibia Local Government Area of Katsina State, Nigeria, [12 14] found that while
the agricultural land declined from 728 km2 in 1986 to 622 km2, the settlement areas increased from
6.00 km2 in 1986 to 10.123 km2 in 2010. Similar to this, [13 15] found changes in the use/ land cover
features in Gombe Metropolitan area, Gombe State, Nigeria between 1991 and 2016, with bare surface
measuring a change of 18.158%, built-up areas increasing by 87.037%, rock out crop (27.346%), as well
as agricultural lands increasing to 44.083%, roads (20.461%) and a loss of vegetal cover in the area of -
97.087%. Population growth and unrestrained human expansion have converted the land's natural usage
as a forest to an artificial use in the study area.
2
Figure 1. Nguru Wetland, Yobe, Nigeria (Source: Yobe Ministry of Land and Survey).
Therefore, the adoption of remote sensing and GIS techniques to gather data and process it for
management, storage and routine updating acts as a trustworthy prospective replacement for traditional
methodology. As a result, overall comprehensive synoptic coverage of vast areas has been provided
through satellite imagery monitoring of land cover/land use (LCLU) [16]. Thus, one of the main
problems brought on by urbanization is vegetation deterioration. It describes a decline in an ecosystem's
diversity and quality of grasses, shrubs, and plants [17]. According to [18], approximately 14.8% of
agricultural land in Dutse Metropolitan area, Jigawa State, Nigeria, was developed between 1986 and
2014. From 1986 to 2014, grasslands experienced a 4.5% increase in built-up areas. Yobe state is one
of the regions identified by [19] and [20] as "hotspots" for vegetation degradation in the nation.
In their study, [21] revealed that species distribution models revealed that both landscape and within-
forest disturbance contributed significantly to biodiversity loss, with the greatest negative effects on
species of high conservation and functional value. Their findings highlight the urgent need for policy
interventions that go beyond maintaining forest cover to protect the hyper-diversity of tropical forest
ecosystems. According to [22], timber is used as firewood and building material, and trees are being cut
down at a rapid pace. This resulted in a decrease in the population of both woody and herbaceous species
in the Zarafshan Range (Western Tajikistan).
Man's economic activity today is the primary cause of disruptions in the course of natural processes,
resulting in dramatic changes in the structure and functioning of mountain biogeocenoses. Furthermore,
disturbances to the functioning of the high-mountain forest ecosystem could result in the extinction of
many valuable (and absent in other territories) species, as well as a significant biodiversity depletion of
the Zarafshan Range's mountain landscapes. [23] provided evidence for the effectiveness of protected
areas as biodiversity conservation tools in their study, which covered eight global biodiversity hotspots
and some of the planet's most diverse and threatened terrestrial ecosystems. Their findings added to the
body of evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of protected areas in preventing forest loss.
Nonetheless, the findings indicated that protected areas are already making a significant difference in
biodiversity conservation in several regions of the world where the stakes are highest. Their findings
also support the critical role of protected areas as tools for global biodiversity conservation.
2. Study Area
The Nguru Wetlands are a sizable floodplain area in Nigeria's northeastern Sudano-Sahelian region. It
is situated in the Nguru local government region, which covers an area of about 102,345 hectares and
experiences hot, dry weather for much of the year [24]. The region receives 200 to 600 mm of rainfall
annually, with a wet season spanning approximately three to four months, from late May to September
3
[25]. March, April, and May are the warmest months, with highs of 39 to 42 degrees Celsius (Hess,
Stephens and Maryah, 2010 [19]. The geography of this area is mainly flat, with heights between 450
and 480 meters above sea level [19]. With a population capacity of approximately 314,360 people, the
area is dominated by the Hausa, Fulani, Kanuri, and Bede ethnic groups; these people rely on this
wetland for water supply and other daily activities. [26].
The Komadugu-Yobe Basin's wetland is well known for its function in replenishing and recharging
subsurface water. It also provides an ecologically and commercially vital habitat for a diversity of
wildlife and vegetation. For migratory water birds from the Palaearctic and Afrotropical areas, the area
is a favorite tourist destination [27]. The Hadejia-Nguru wetland is the first wetlands in Nigeria to receive
the Ramsar site designation [28]. Given the aforementioned, it is imperative to Identify the spatial extent
of land use change and cover in Nguru Wetland. The Nguru Wetland is the first Ramsar site to be
recognized in Nigeria [22].
Figure 2. Nguru Local Government Area, Yobe, Nigeria(Source: Yobe Ministry of Land and Survey).
3. Materials and Method

3.1 Materials
Transformations in land cover were determined using remote sensing and GIS technology and
applications. The remotely sensed data were provided by the US Geological Survey
(http://glovis.usgs.gov/). The study uses multi-temporal Landsat images from two time periods:
Operational Land Imager (OLI) for 2021 and Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) for 2001 and 2011.
3.2 Methodology
To assess land cover for the two time periods, the downloaded images were preprocessed and processed
using IDRISI Selva, Erdas IMAGINE, and ArcGIS 10.6 software. A series of steps is used in digital
image processing to convert acquired images into information in the form of thematic maps. It includes
geo-referencing as well as classification (supervised). To extract and quantify critical information from
satellite data, image enhancement is required [29; 30].
3.2.1 Land Use Land Cover classifications

The study area's various LULC categories were categorized into five categories for easy analysis and
evaluation of change detection. Built-up areas, green land, thick vegetation, water body, and bare soil
were all classified as LULC.
4
3.2.2 Image classification

Supervised Classification was used in this study because the first Author is acquainted with the area.
Maximum Likelihood and a band composition of 1, 2, and 3 were used for the supervised classification.
The spectral signature of each category was extracted from the images using ERDAS Imagine software.
This is done by assigning a Region of Interest (ROI) to each LULC category (i.e., thick vegetation,
Waterbody, Greenland, Bare soil, Built-up land). By defining a map region according to the color
allocated to that class and the spectral uniformity of the pixels in the specified area, the ROI helped
create the map.
3.2.3 Change detection

Land use land cover analysis is used not only to observe the change, but in addition facilitate the
identification of the variations and evaluate their spatial and temporal extent and pattern [31].
3.2.4 Post classification.

To produce a change detection study, the three separately categorized images were compared after
classification. The post classification's change detection statistical method was used to compute and
evaluate the total area covered by the various land uses.
3.2.5 Measuring Extent of change

The degree of change indicates how much the land cover has grown or shrunk. A negative score indicates
that the amount of the Land cover class is decreasing, whereas a positive value indicates that the amount
of the LULC class is increasing [26 32].
Magnitude = Reference Year - Base year (e.g. 2001 - 2011)
4. Results and Discussion

4.1 Data Analysis
Tables, charts, and maps were used to analyze the result that was acquired. Calculated and expressed
in hectares are the size and area of the changes in land cover. These were chosen based on the size of
the study region as a whole.
4.2 Satellite data classification accuracy
To identify recent changes in land use and cover, change detection analysis was carried out. Table 1
shows the findings of the classification accuracy of the five classified LULC of 2001. With the help of
satellite photographs and understanding of local of the study area, random points were chosen as Regions
of Interest (ROI). The accuracy evaluation yielded a Kappa coefficient of 0.96 and an overall accuracy
of 97.40%. All classes have accuracy rates of at least 90% for both producers and users.
Table 1. Confusion matrix obtained from satellite image of 2001.

S/N Class Thick Water Green Baresoil Built-up Total U_Accuracy
vegetation body land areas
1 Thick 10 0 0 0 0 10 1
vegetation
2 Waterbody 0 10 0 0 0 10 1
3 Greenland 0 1 9 0 0 10 0.9
4 Baresoil 0 0 0 41 1 42 0.97619
5 Built-up 0 0 0 0 10 10 1
areas
Total 10 11 9 41 11 82 0
P_Accuracy 1 0.909091 1 1 0.909091 0 0.97561
Kappa accuracy: 0.96 Overall accuracy: 97.40
5
Table 2 presents the findings from the 2011 classified map. The results showed a Kappa coefficient
of 0.91 and an overall accuracy of 93.20 percent. All classes had accuracy levels above 88.89% for the
producer, and all classes have accuracy levels above 0.94% for the user.
Table 2. Confusion matrix table of LULC obtained from satellite data 2011.
S/N Class Thick Water Greenland Baresoil Built-up Total U_Accuracy
vegetation body areas
1 Thick 8 0 0 1 1 10 0.8
vegetation
2 Waterbody 0 10 0 0 0 10 1
3 Greenland 0 0 10 0 0 10 1
4 Baresoil 1 0 1 43 0 45 0.955556
5 Built-up 0 1 0 0 9 10 0.9
areas
Total 9 11 11 44 10 85 0
P_Accuracy 0.888889 0.909091 0.909091 0.977273 0.9 0 0.941176
Kappa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The findings of the 2021 classified satellite image are displayed in Table 3. A Kappa coefficient of
0.95 and an overall accuracy of 95.60% were also attained. Additionally, all classes were above 90.0%
in terms of producer accuracy and above 96.65% in terms of user accuracy.
Table 3. Confusion matrix table of LULC obtained from satellite data 2021.
S/N Class Thick Water Green Baresoil Built-up Total U_Accuracy
vegetation body land areas
1 Thick 10 0 0 0 0 10 1
vegetation
2 Waterbody 0 9 0 1 0 10 0.9
3 Greenland 1 0 9 0 0 10 0.9
4 Baresoil 0 0 1 46 0 47 0.978723
5 Built-up areas 0 0 0 0 10 10 1
Total 11 9 10 47 10 87 0
P_Accuracy 0.909091 1 0.9 0.978723 1 0 0.965517
Kappa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4.3 Spatio-temporal Land use land cover Analysis
The land use land cover map of Nguru LGA is shown in the below figure. Light yellow represents Bare
soil, Red represents built-up areas, green represents green land and light blue represents Waterbody.
Figure 3. Land use land cover for the year 2001.
6
4.3.1 Spatio-temporal land use land cover for the year 2001
In 2001, Thick vegetation overs 6.08% of the total area of Nguru LGA, Waterbody covers 0.91%,
Greenland 7.75%, Bare soil covered the largest area at 84.83% while Built-up land 0.43% of the study
area.
The study area has more thick vegetation in 2001 than the other periods. In figure 3, it is noticed that
green color is vastly reduced, slight reduction in light blue color, red color which represent Built-up land
massively increased. This indicated that by the year 2011, reasonable thick vegetation was tampered
with and converted to residential, commercial, recreational centers and lots more.
Thick vegetation decreased from covering 6.08% of the study area's overall area in 2001 to 2.70% in
2011. This demonstrates that certain highly vegetated terrain, plants, and forests were converted for
farming use and other uses. Waterbody also witnessed decrease to 1.70%. Similarly, Greenland also
decreased 6.26%, this could be attributed to deforestation and conversion of farmlands to Bare soil.
Bare soil covers the largest area at 89.24% while Built-up land increased to 0.75% of the study area.
Increase in Built-up land could be as a result of high population increase Nguru wetland. Green Areas
in Ramnagar, India was found to have reduced from 10.30 km2 in 1990 to 7.30 km2 in the year 2011 due
to an increase in settlement [33] which is similar with the findings of this research.
Thick vegetation covered 2,771 (2.71%) hectares, Waterbody 858(0.84%) hectares, Greenland 365
(0.35%) hectares, Bare soil 95,877 (93.68%) hectares, Built-up land 2,483 (2.42%) hectares.
4.4 Comparing the rate of land use land cover change 2001-2021
The comparison of the calculated land uses above will aid in giving us the magnitude of the change
that occur over the period of twenty (20) years.
Table 4. Land use land cover trajectory 2001 – 2021.

SN Land use/Land Area (Ha) Area (Ha) Area (Ha) % change Change
cover type 2001 2011 2021 2011 - 2001 2021 - 2011
1 Thick 6,224 2,102 2,771 -4122(66.23%) 669(31.83%)
vegetation
2 Waterbody 934 1,745 858 811(86.83%) -881(50.49%)
3 Greenland 7932 6,404 365 -1528(19.26%) -6,039(94.30%)
4 Bare soil 86,818 91,335 95,877 -4517(5.20%) 4,542(4.97%)
5 Built-up land 446 768 2,483 322(72.20%) 1,715(223.30%)
Total 102,345 102,345 102,345
As shown on Table 4, thick vegetation declined from 6,224 hectares in 2001 to 2,102 hectares in
2011, a drop of 4,122 hectares (66.23%). 811 hectares of waterbodies were lost, 1528 hectares of
Greenland were lost, 4,517 hectares of bare soil were lost, or 5.20%, and 322 hectares of Built-up land
were lost, or 72.20%. This is due to an increase in population and the conversion of non-residential and
residential uses of previously used land.
The conversion of thick vegetation to agricultural lands indicates a rapid rate of vegetation loss in
the study area. This finding supports the conclusion of [34] that deforestation is primarily caused by the
clearing of forest land for farming and uses. According to [35], forest clearance occurs each year as a
result of rural dwellers' desire for more agricultural lands. The fallow system is a typical farming practice
in which farmers leave a parcel of land for several years to restore.
7
Thick vegetation covered 2,102 hectares in 2011, and that amount increased to 2,771 hectares in
2021 and Waterbody reduced by 881 (50.49%) from 1,745 hectares in 2011 to 858 in 2021. Greenland
decreased by 6,039 (94.30%), Bare soil experience a little increase of 4,542 (4.97%) while Built-up land
marginally increase by 1,715 (223.30%) hectares. Due to the high rate of population expansion, there is
an urgent need for more land to meet rising demands for food, shelter, energy (especially fuelwood),
and building materials. In conclusion, population growth between the time periods is the main cause of
settlement and non-vegetated land expansion.
Guidelines have been established by the federal and state governments of Nigeria in cooperation to
ensure the sustainable use of wetlands for ecological and tourism purposes as well as to protect the
habitats of wetland species for various fauna and flora. The Yobe State Government recently launched
a 20 million tree planting campaign and the State Climate Change Action Plan in cooperation with the
Nigeria Union of Journalists (NUJ) Yobe state council, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and
other youth organizations.
4.5 Impact of spatio-temporal change of ULC on sustainability of Nguru Wetland

Human population growth has been unprecedented in recent centuries, resulting in increased resource
consumption, as evidenced by relatively high rates of agriculture and food production, industrial
development, energy production, and urbanization. These changes are evident in Nguru wetland as thick
vegetation was 6,224 hectares in 2011 compared to only 2,771 hectares in 2021. These human activities
cause local land-use and land-cover changes, which have a global impact on climate, hydrology,
biogeochemistry, biodiversity, and biological systems' ability to support human needs [36;37].
Changes in land use and land cover (LULC) are important in the study of global change. Data on
LULC changes that are available can provide critical input to environmental management decision
making and long-term planning [38]. Human/natural modifications to land use and land cover have
largely resulted in environmental destruction, biodiversity loss, global warming, and an increase in
natural disaster-flooding [39]. As the built-up area expands, there will be a greater demand for food and,
as a result, for firewood for commercial and residential purposes. Increased demand for firewood has
reduced the size of the dense vegetation in the study area and aid in the increase in temperature as a
result of the lack of vegetal cover. Another significant issue is the problem of soil erosion, which was
caused because the soil in the area has been stripped significantly of its vegetations. Some of the impacts
of the vegetal change in Nguru wetland include; bio-physical impacts, loss of vegetal cover, a decrease
in bird population, climate change, the conversion of farmlands to built-up areas and decrease in annual
rainfall.
5. Conclusion
Socio-economic development is severely hampered by ineffective and inefficient environmental
protection regulations. About thirty-five environmental regulations were created by the Federal
Government of Nigeria through NESREA, and they are now in effect after being published in the Federal
Republic of Nigeria Official Gazette. The National Environmental (Wetlands, River Banks and Lake
Shores) Regulations, S. I. No. 26, 2009, is one of the Regulations. The section stipulates sustainable use
of wetlands for ecological and tourism purposes as well as to protect wetland habitats for flora and fauna
species. It also provides for the conservation and sensible use of wetlands and their resources in Nigeria.
In Nigeria, all wetlands are protected by this Section. The goals of this regulation include ensuring that
wetlands are guarded as habitats for species of fauna and flora, ensuring the conservation and wise use
of wetlands and their resources in Nigeria, ensuring water catchments are conserved and floods are
controlled, ensuring the sustainable use of wetlands for ecological and tourism purposes for the benefit
of all citizens, and minimizing pollution control. Among the aims of the Nigerian government’s
environmental regulations set aside for wetlands and lake shore include ensuring that wetlands are
guarded as habitats for species of fauna and flora, ensuring the conservation and wise use of wetlands
and their resources in Nigeria, ensuring water catchments are conserved and floods are controlled.
8
Due to the study region's unrealized economic potential and socioeconomic effects on the local
population, it is advised that stakeholders and the government take the following into account while
monitoring and developing the area. The findings can then be communicated to the appropriate
policymakers so they can take the appropriate action. Effective Natural vegetation cover management
that is sustainable cover in many parts of the world depends on this kind of information. Incentives
should be provided to support conservation efforts, and the general public should be made aware of their
significance. Offering a substitute energy source. It is important to support strict legal enforcement of
agricultural activities that harm the local avifauna. Community education and promotion of alternative
income generating activities other than tree cutting should be encouraged among the local community.
This should go hand in hand with the restoration of the ecosystem through reforestation in most degraded
areas. Local residents should be encouraged to participate in community education programs and to
promote activities other than cutting down trees that can generate cash. The replanting of the
environment in the majority of damaged areas should go hand in side with this.
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Spatio-temporal analysis of land use and land cover changes

G Hassan 1* and M I Syakir 1, 2

*Corresponding Email: garbahassan126@gmail.com

Abstract. Rapid urbanization in Nguru has recently contributed to significant land

Keywords: Land Use/Land Cover (LULC), Urbanization, Sustainability, Wetland

3. Materials and Method

3.2.1 Land Use Land Cover classifications

3.2.2 Image classification

3.2.3 Change detection

3.2.4 Post classification.

3.2.5 Measuring Extent of change

4. Results and Discussion

Table 1. Confusion matrix obtained from satellite image of 2001.

Figure 3. Land use land cover for the year 2001.

Table 4. Land use land cover trajectory 2001 – 2021.

4.5 Impact of spatio-temporal change of ULC on sustainability of Nguru Wetland

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