Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology

Bsc ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING, Bsc ELECTRONIC

AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

(EEE 2213 CIRCUIT AND NETWORK THEORY II)

APRIL- JULY 2019

PREREQUISITES

Calculus, Physics I, Circuit and Network Theory I, Ordinary differential Equation

COURSE TEXTBOOK

Charles K. Alexander, Matthew N.O Sadiku (2007), Fundamentals of Electric circuits, Fourth

Edition.

Course outline

Chapter one :Introduction

Chapter Two :Nodal and Mesh Analysis:Analysis with nodal equations both in dc and ac.

Analysis with mesh or loop equations both in dc and ac

Chapter Three :Star delta transformation

Chapter Four :Methods of Analysis(AC and DC): Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems,Source
Transformation,Superposition Theorem Maximum power transfer theorems

Chapter Five :Two port network Parameters

Chapter Six:Laplace transforms,State space representation and Circuit Synthesis

Chapter Seven:Fourier Series

ii
Table of Contents

Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

1 Introduction 2

1.1 Nodes, Branches and Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Basic Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.1 Ohms Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.2 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2.3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (KVL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2.4 Series resistors and Voltage division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2.5 Parallel resistors and Current division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis 8

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.2 Nodal analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.2.1 Nodal analysis with voltage sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.3 Nodal Analysis for ac circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.4 Mesh Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.4.1 Mesh analysis for planar circuits with no current sources . . . . . . . 26

iii
 2.4.2 Mesh analysis with current sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.5 Mesh analysis for ac circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.6 Nodal and Mesh analysis by inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.7 Nodal versus Mesh analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3 Star Delta Transformation 44

3.0.1 Delta to Wye conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.1 Wye to Delta Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

4 Circuit Theorems 49

4.1 Linearity property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4.2 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

4.3 Source Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4.4 Thevenin’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4.5 Norton’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

4.6 Maximum power transfer theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4.6.1 Maximum power transfer for ac circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

5 Two Port Networks 65

5.1 Impedance Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

5.1.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

5.2 Admittance parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

5.2.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

5.3 Hybrid parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

iv
 5.3.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

6 Non-sinusoidal waveforms 82

6.1 Laplace transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

6.1.1 Definition and Properties of Laplace transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

6.1.2 Inverse Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

6.2 Application of Laplace transform to circuits and networks . . . . . . . . . . . 93

6.3 Transfer function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

6.4 State Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

6.5 Network synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

7 Fourier Series 109

7.1 Circuit Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

7.1.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

1
Chapter 1

Introduction

Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltage across(or the currents through) the

elements of the circuit. The most important active elements at this level are voltage and

current sources that generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them.

There are two kinds of sources:independent and dependent sources.

1. 1. An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage

or current that is completely independent of other circuit variables.

2. 2. An ideal dependent(controlled)source is an active element in which the source quan-

tity is controlled by another voltage or current.

1.1 Nodes, Branches and Loops

In network topology, we study the properties relating to the placement of elements in a

network. Such elements include branches, nodes and loops.

A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.

2
A node is the point connection between two or more branches usually indicated by a dot in

a circuit.A short circuit constitutes a single node.

A loop is any closed path in a circuit. It is formed by starting at a node, passing through

a set of nodes, and returning to the starting node without passing through any node more

than once.A loop is said to be independent if it contains a branch which is not in any other

loop, which results to an independent set of equations.

A network with b branches, n nodes and l independent loops will satisfy equation 1.1

b=l+n−1 (1.1)

1.2 Basic Laws

To determine the basic variables or parameters requires knowledge of some fundamental laws

that governor electric circuits. These laws are Ohms’s law and Kirchhoff’s law, Current di-

vider rule and Voltage Divider rule

1.2.1 Ohms Law

Ohm’s law states that the voltage V across a resistor is directly proportional to

the current i flowing through the resistor.

V = iR

Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits, However when coupled with Kirch-

hoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient set of tools for analyzing a large variety of electric circuits.

3
The laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)and Kirchhoff’s voltage law

(KVL).

1.2.2 Kirchhoff ’s current law (KCL)

KCL is based on the law of conservation of charge which requires that the algebraic sum of

charges within a system cannot change.

It states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a closed bound-

ary)is zero.

or

The sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving

the node.

1.2.3 Kirchhoff ’s Voltage law (KVL)

KVL states that in any closed loop in a network, the algebraic sum of the voltage

drops taken around the loop is equal to the resultant e.m.f acting in that loop.

Or

i.e sum of voltage drop= sum of voltage rises

NB:Determining series and parallel connection

• Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or connected sequentially and

4
 consequently carry the same current.

Two elements are in series if they share same node and no other element is

connected to that node.

• Two or more elements are in parallel if they have the same voltage across them.

Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected and to the same

two nodes(Top node and Bottom node)

1.2.4 Series resistors and Voltage division

Figure 1.1: Voltage divider

R1
V1 = V
R1 + R2
R2
V2 = V
R1 + R2

For n resistors connected in series

Rn
Vn = V
R1 + R2 + .... + Rn

5
 Figure 1.2: Current divider

1.2.5 Parallel resistors and Current division

R2
i1 = i
R1 + R2
R1
i2 = i
R1 + R2

Example

Find equivalent resistance for circuit in 1.3 answer= 11 OHms.

Figure 1.3:

answer= 7.8 OHms.

Example 2:Find v1 and v2, i1 and i2 and power dissipated in 12

6
 Figure 1.4:

Omega and 40 Ω resistor in the circuit of figure 1.5 Answer: 5v, 10 v, 416.7 mA, 250 mA,

Figure 1.5:

2.083 W, 2.5 W.

7
Chapter 2

Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.1 Introduction

Using the basic laws of circuit theory, two more powerful circuit analysis can be developed.

These are

1. Nodal analysis:This is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s current law.

2. Mesh analysis:This is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

The two techniques are quite powerful that they can be used to analyze almost any circuit

by obtaining a set of simultaneous equations that are then solved to determine the required

voltage or current values. Mathematical knowledge in solving simultaneous equations is

significant in this chapter.

8
2.2 Nodal analysis

Nodal analysis provides a method for analyzing circuits using node voltages as circuit vari-

ables.Choosing node voltages instead of element voltages as circuit variables is

convenient and reduces the number of equations one must solve simultaneously.

In nodal analysis, we are interested in finding node voltages. Given a circuit with

n nodes without voltage sources, the nodal analysis of the circuit involves taking the

following steps.

1. Select a node as the reference node (datum node). Assign voltages v1 ,v2 ....vn−1 to the

remaining n-1 nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.

2. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference nodes.Use Ohm’s law to express the branch

currents as the in terms of node voltages.

3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.

NB:

Step 1 :

The reference node is commonly called the ground since it is assumed to have zero potential.

Once a datum node is referenced, voltage designations are assigned to the non-reference nodes

as shown in figure 2.1.

Node voltages are defined with respect to the reference node. Each node voltage is the voltage

rise from the datum node.

9
 Figure 2.1:

Step 2:

Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference nodes as shown in figure 2.2 At node 1;

Figure 2.2:

I1 = I2 + i1 + i2

At node 2;

I2 + i2 = i3

We now apply Ohm’s law to express unknown currents i 1 ,i 2 ,i 3 in terms of node voltages.

The current in a resistor must always flow from a higher potential to a lower potential.

We can express the principle as

V higher − V lower
i=
R

10
Thus
v1 − 0
i1 = ; i1 = G1 v1
R1
v1 − v2
i2 = ; i2 = G2 (v1 − v2)
R2
v2 − 0
i3 = ; i3 = G3 (v2)
R3

Hence;
v1 v1 − v2
I1 = I2 + +
R1 R2
v1 − v2 v2
I2 + =
R2 R3

in terms of the conductances,

I1 = I2 + G1 v1 + G2 (v1 − v2 )

I2 + G2 (v1 − v2 ) = G3 v2

The third step in nodal analysis is to solve for the node voltages.If we apply KCL to n-

1 non-reference nodes , we obtain n-1 simultaneous equations. Standard methods such as

substitution, elimination, Cramer’s rule and Matrix inversion method may be used to obtain

the node voltages.

Cramers rule and matrix inversion requires that the equations are cast in a matrix form as

shown.

     
G1 + G2 −G2  v1  I1 − I2 
   = 
     
−G2 G2 + G3 v2 I2

Which can be solved to get v1 and v2

The simultaneous equations may also e solved using calculators and software packages such

11
as Matlab.

Example

Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown below.

Figure 2.3:

Consider figure 2.4 which has been prepared from figure 2.3for nodal analysis. Notice

how the currents are selected for application of KCL. The reference node is selected and

node voltages v1 and v2 are now determined. At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives

v1 − v2 v1 − 0
i1 = i2 + i3 ⇒ 5 = +
4 2

which gives

3v1 − v2 = 20 (2.1)

At node 2 we do the same thing and get

v1 − v2 v2 − 0
i2 + i4 = i1 + i5 ⇒ + 10 = 5 + = 3v1 − 3v2 + 120 = 60 + 2v2
4 6

12
 Figure 2.4:

which results in

−3v1 + 5v2 = 60 (2.2)

solving equation using a calculator 2.1 and 2.2 gives values of v1 =13.333 V and v2 =20 V

If we need currents we can easily calculate them from the values of the nodal voltages.

v1 − v2 v1 v2
i1 = 5A, i2 = = −1.6668A, i3 = = 6.666A, i4 = 10A, i5 = = 3.333A.
4 2 6

The fact that i2 is negative indicates that the current flows in the direction opposite to the

one assumed.

Problem Obtain node voltages in the circuit of figure 2.5 Answer:V1 = -2V, V2 =-14 V

13
 Figure 2.5:

Example:Determie the voltages at the nodes in Fig 2.6

Figure 2.6:

The circuit has three non-reference nodes. We assign voltages to the three nodes as shown

in figure 2.7

The equations are obtained as

3V 1 − 2V 2 − V 3 = 0

−4V 1 + 7V 2 − V 3 = 0

2V 1 − 3V 2 + V 3 = 0

14
 Figure 2.7:

Solving using a calculator V1=4.8 V, V2=2.4 V, V3-2.4 V

Exercise:

Find the voltages at the three non-reference nodes in the circuit of figure ?? Answer: V1=80

Figure 2.8:

V, V2=-64 V, V3=156 V

15
2.2.1 Nodal analysis with voltage sources

We now consider nodal analysis with voltage sources. Figure 2.9is used for illustration.Consider

the following two possibilities,

Figure 2.9:

Case 1: When a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a non-

reference node, we simply set the voltage at the non-reference node equal to the voltage of

the voltage source.e.g

v1 = 10V.

Thus, the analysis is somewhat simplified by the this knowledge of the voltage at this node.

Case 2: if the voltage source(dependent or independent) is connected between two non-

reference nodes, the two non-reference nodes form a generalized node or supernode. We

apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node voltages.

In figure 2.9, nodes 2 and 3 form a supernode.more than two nodes can still form a single

16
supernode.

A supernode is formed by any voltage source connected between two non-reference

nodes and any element connected in parallel with it

Circuits with supernodes are analyzed the same steps previously mentioned except that the

supernodes are treated differently reason being that an essential component of nodal analysis

is applying KCL which requires knowing the current through each element. There is no way

of knowing the current through a voltage source in advance.However KCL must be satisfied

at a supernode like any other node.Hence

i1 + i4 = i2 + i3

or
v1 − v2 v1 − v3 v2 − 0 v3 − 0
+ = +
2 4 8 6

To apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) to the supernode in figure 2.9,we redraw the circuit

as in figure 2.10 Going around the loop in the clockwise direction gives

Figure 2.10:

−v2 + 5 + v3 = 0

v2 − v3 = 5

17
Hence the node voltages can be obtained from all the equations in case 1.

Properties of a supernode

The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint equation needed to solve for

the node voltages.

A supernode has no voltage of its own.

A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL.

Examples

For the circuit in figure 2.11,find the node voltages.

Figure 2.11:

Exercise

• Find v and i in the circuit of ans:-0.6 V, 4.2 A.

• Find the node voltages in the circuit of figure 2.14 answer: V1=26.67 V, V2= 6.667V,

V3=173.33 V, V4= -46.67V

• Find v1, v2 and v3 of circuit of using nodal analysis

18
Figure 2.12:

19
 Figure 2.13:

Figure 2.14:

answer: V1=3.043 V, V2= -6.956V, V3=0.6522V

20
 Figure 2.15:

2.3 Nodal Analysis for ac circuits

Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws are applicable to ac circuits. Analyzing ac circuits usually

requires three steps.

1. Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency domain.(NB:not necessary if the prob-

lem is specified in frequency domain.)

2. Solve the problem using circuit techniques e.g nodal analysis or mesh analysis(NB: per-

formed same manner as dc circuit analysis except that complex numbers are involved.)

3. Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain.

The basis of nodal analysis is Kirchhoff’s current law. Since KCL is valid for phasors, the

analysis for ac circuits by nodal analysis is demonstrated using examples.

21
 Example

Find ix in the circuit of figure 2.16 using nodal analysis.

Figure 2.16:

22
 Example

Using nodal analysis, find v1 and v2 in the circuit of figure 2.17

23
Figure 2.17:

24
2.4 Mesh Analysis

Nodal analysis provides a method for analyzing circuits using mesh currents as the circuit

variables. Using mesh currents instead of element current as circuit variables is convenient

25
and reduces the number of equations that must be solved simultaneously.Recall a loop is a

closed path that with no node passed more than once. A mesh is a loop that does not

contain any other loop within it.Mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents. Mesh

analysis is not quite as general as nodal analysis because it is only applicable to a circuit

that is planar.

A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in a plane with no branches crossing one an-

other.otherwise it is non-planar. In figure 2.18, paths abefa and bcdebis are meshes, but

Figure 2.18: A circuit with two meshes

path abcdefa is not a mesh. The current through a mesh is known as mesh current.In

mesh analysis we are interested in applying KVL to find the mesh currents in a given circuit.

2.4.1 Mesh analysis for planar circuits with no current sources

In the mesh analysis of a circuit with n meshes,we take the following steps

1. Assign mesh currents to the i1 ,i2 ......in to the n meshes

2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms

of the mesh currents

3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.

26
Figure 2.18 is used to illustrate the steps.

Step 1:

It requires that the mesh currents are assigned to all meshes i.e 1 and 2. Although a mesh

current may be assigned to each mesh in an arbitrary direction, it is conventional to assume

that each mesh current flows clockwise.

Step 2:

We apply KVL to each mesh. Applying KVL to mesh 1 gives

−V1 + R1 i1 + R3 (i1 − i2 ) = 0

or

(R1 + R3 )i1 − R3 i2 = V1 (2.3)

Mesh 2 gives

−R3 i1 + (R2 + R3 )i2 = −V2 (2.4)

Note in equation 2.3, that the coefficient of i1 is the sum of the resistances in in the first

mesh, while coefficient of i2 is the negative of the resistances common to meshes 1 and 2.

The same is true in equation 2.4.

This can serve as a shortcut way of writing mesh equations

Step 3:

Solve for the mesh currents. Putting 2.3 and 2.4 in matrix form yields
     
R1 + R3 −R3  i1   V1 
   = 
     
−R3 R2 + R3 i2 −V2

Which can be solved to obtain the mesh currents i1 and i2 . Any method for solving the

simultaneous equation can be used unless otherwise specified.

27
NB: If a circuit has n nodes,b branches and l independent loops or meshes,then l=b-n+1,

hence l independent simultaneous equations are required to solve the circuit using mesh

analysis.

Branch currents are different form the mesh currents unless the mesh is isolated.To distinguish

between the two currents, i is used for mesh current and I for branch current. Hence I1 =i1 ;

I2 =i2 ; I3 =i1 -i2

Examples

28
29
30
2.4.2 Mesh analysis with current sources

Applying mesh analysis to circuits with current sources is much easier since it reduces the

number of equations.Consider the following two cases

Case 1:

When a current source exists only in one mesh. Consider figure 2.19,we set i2 =-5 A and write

Figure 2.19:

a mesh equation for the other mesh in the usual way.

Case 2:

When a current source exists between two meshes as in figure 2.20a,we create a supermesh

by excluding the current source and and any element connected in series with it as in figure

2.20b and treat it differently.

If a circuit has two or more supermeshes, that intersect, they should be combined to form

a larger supermesh.

A supermesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent)current source in

common.

A supermesh is treated differently because mesh analysis applies KVL which requires we

know the voltage across a current source in advance. However a supermesh must satisfy

KVL like any other mesh.

31
 Figure 2.20:

Applying KVL to the supermesh gives

6i1 + 14i2 = 20. (2.5)

We apply KCL to a node where the two meshes intersect, i.e node 0 gives

i2 = i1 + 6 (2.6)

solving equations 7.3 and 2.6 gives i1 =-3.2 A; i2 =2.8

A Properties of a supermesh

The current source in the supermesh is not completely ignored; it provides the constraint

equation necessary to solve for the mesh currents.

A supermesh has no current of its own.

a supermesh requires the application of both KVL and KCL.

Examples

32
33
2.5 Mesh analysis for ac circuits

34
35
2.6 Nodal and Mesh analysis by inspection

This is a shortcut approach based on mere inspection of a circuit. It is a generalized procedure

for both nodal and mesh analysis.

When all sources in a circuit are independent current sources,we do not need to apply KCL

to each node to obtain the node-voltage equations. These can be obtained by mere inspection

of the circuit. Using circuit in figure 2.21 a,The circuit has two non-reference nodes, and the

Figure 2.21:

36
node equations were derived previously as
     
G1 + G2 −G2  v1  I1 − I2 
   = 
     
−G2 G2 + G3 v2 I2

Observe that each of the diagonal terms is the sum of the conductances connected directly

to node 1 or 2. while the off diagonal terms are the negatives of conductances connected

between the nodes. Also each term on the right hand side is the algebraic sum of the currents

entering the node.

In general, if a circuit with independent current sources has N non-reference nodes, the

node voltage equations can be written in terms of the conductances as

     
 G11 G12 . . . G1N   v1   i1 
     
     
G
 21 G22 . . . G2N 
 v   i 
 2  2 
   = 
 . .. .. .. . .
 .. . . .  ..   .. 
     
     
     
GN 1 GN 2 ...GN N vn iN

or simply Gv=i

where

Gkk = sum of conductances connected to node k.

Gkj =Gjk = Negative of the sum of the conductances directly connecting nodes k and j, k6=j.

vk = unknown voltage at node k

ik =Sum of all independent current sources directly connected to node k, with currents en-

tering node treated as positive

G is called the conductance matrix and v is the output vector and i is the input vector.

Similarly we can obtain mesh current equations by inspection when a linear resistive circuit

has only independent voltage sources.consider figure 2.21b,the circuit has two nonreference

37
nodes,and the mesh equations were derived as
     
R1 + R3 −R3  i1   V1 
   = 
     
−R3 R2 + R3 i2 −V2

Each of the diagonal terms is the sum of resistances in the related mesh.

Each of the off diagonal terms is the negative of the resistances common to meshes 1 and 2

Each term on the right hand side is is the algebraic sum taken clockwise of all independent

voltage sources in the related mesh.

In general, if the circuit has N meshes, the mesh current equations can be expressed in terms

of the resistances as      
 R11 R12 . . . R1N   i1   v1 
     
     
R R . . . R  i   v 
 21 22 2N   2  2 
   = 
 . .. .. .. .  . 
 .. . . .  ..   .. 
     
     
     
RN 1 RN 2 ...RN N in vN

or simply Ri=v where Gkk = sum of resistances connected to node k.

Gkj =Gjk = Negative of the sum of the resistances directly connecting nodes k and j, k6=j.

vk = unknown mesh currents for mesh k in the clockwise direction

ik =Sum taken clockwise of all independent voltage sources in mesh k, with voltage rise treated

as positive

R is called the resistance matrix and i is the output vector and v is the input vector

write the node-voltage matrix equations for the circuit in figure 2.22 by inspection.

38
 Figure 2.22:

2.7 Nodal versus Mesh analysis

Both Nodal and Mesh analysis provide a way of analyzing a complex network.The choice of

the method to be applied for analysis is dictated by two factors;

1. Nature of a particular network;

Networks that contain many series-connected elements, voltage sources or supermeshes are

more suitable for mesh analysis.

Whereas networks with parallel connected elements, current sources or supernodes are more

suitable for nodal analysis.

Circuit with fewer nodes than meshes is better analysed using nodal analysis, while a circuit

with fewer meshes than nodes is better analyzed using mesh analysis.The key is to select the

method that results in smaller number of equations.

2. Information required;

If node voltages are required, it may be expedient to apply nodal analysis.

If branch or mesh currents are required, it may be better to use mesh analysis.

Mesh analysis is the only method to use in analyzing transistor circuits and Nodal analysis

39
is more amenable to solution by computer since it is easy to program.

Examples

40
41
42
43
Chapter 3

Star Delta Transformation

Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither in series nor in parallel.

Example, consider the bridge circuit in figure 3.1. How do we combine resistors R1 through

resistor R6 when the resistors are neither in series nor in parallel? Circuitsof this type can

be simplified using three-terminal equivalent networks. These are Wye or T networks shown

in figure 3.2 and delta network shown in figure 3.3. The networks occur as a part of a larger

network. They are used in three phase network, electrical filters and matching networks.

Main interest is to identify them when they occur as part of a network and how to apply

wye-delta transformation in the analysis of that network.

3.0.1 Delta to Wye conversion

Suppose it is more convenient to work with a Wye network in a place where the circuit

contains a delta configuration. We superimpose a Wye network on the existing delta network

and find the equivalent resistances in the Wye network. To obtain the equivalent resistances

in the WYE network, we compare the two networks and make sure that the resistances

44
 Figure 3.1:

Figure 3.2:

between each pair of nodes in the delta network is the same as the resistances between the

pair of nodes in the wye network.For teminals 1 and 2 in figure 3.2 and figure 3.3, for example

R12 (Y ) = R1 + R3

R12 (∆) = Rb k (Ra + Rc )(3.1)

Equating both equations

Rb (Ra + Rc )
R12 = R1 + R3 = (3.2)
Ra + Rb + Rc

45
 Figure 3.3:

Similarly
Rc (Ra + Rb )
R13 = R1 + R2 = (3.3)
Ra + Rb + Rc

Ra (Rb + Rc )
R34 = R2 + R3 = (3.4)
Ra + Rb + Rc

Subtracting 3.4 from 3.2 gives

Rc (Rb − Ra )
R1 − R2 = (3.5)
Ra + Rb + Rc

Adding 3.3 to 3.5 gives

Rb Rc
R1 = (3.6)
Ra + Rb + Rc

and subtracting 3.5 form 3.3 yields

Rc Ra
R2 = (3.7)
Ra + Rb + Rc

46
Subtracting 3.6from 3.2, we obtain

Ra Rb
R3 = (3.8)
Ra + Rb + Rc

We do not need to memorize 3.6 to 3.8,To transform a delta network to Y network, we create

an extra node and follow conversion rule.

Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the two

adjacent Delta branches, divided by the sum of the three delta resistors

47
3.1 Wye to Delta Conversion

To transform a wye network to an equivalent delta network, we note from 3.2 to 3.4 that

Ra Rb Rc (Ra + Rb + Rc )
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 = (3.9)
Ra + Rb + Rc

Ra Rb Rc
= (3.10)
Ra + Rb + Rc

Dividing 3.10 by each of the equations 3.6 to 3.8,leads to the following equations

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Ra = (3.11)
R1

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rb = (3.12)
R2

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rc = (3.13)
R3

Each resistor in the delta network is the sum of all possible products of Y resistors

taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.

For balanced WYE or DELTA network, conversion formulas become

R∆
RY =
3

R∆ = 3RY

Examples:Given during lecture/refer course textbook.

48
Chapter 4

Circuit Theorems

Kirchhoff’s laws offer advantage of analyzing circuits without tampering with its original

configuration. Major disadvantage is that for a large complex network, tedious computation

is involved.

Some theorems were developed to handle complex circuits.Such theorems include Thevenin’s

and Norton’s Theorems.These theorems are applicable to linear circuits and hence knowledge

on circuit linearity is required.

4.1 Linearity property

A linear circuit consists of only linear elements, linear dependent sources and independent

sources.

This is property of an element describing a linear relationship between cause and effect. This

is a combination of both the homogeneity(scaling) and the additivity property.

Homogeneity property requires that if input is multiplied by a constant, then the output is

49
multiplied by the same constant.

The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the

responses to each input applied separately.

A circuit is linear if it is both additive and homogeneous.

4.2 Superposition

If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine the variables(voltage

or current) is to use nodal or mesh analysis.

Another way is to determine the specific contribution of each independent source to the

variable and then add them up.This is referred to as Superposition.

The superposition theorem states that the voltage across(or current through)an element in

a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through)that element

due to each independent source acting alone.

This principle helps in analyzing a linear circuit with more than one independent source by

determining the contribution of each independent source separately.

The following conditions must therefore be observed;

1. We consider one independent at a time while all other independent sources are turned

off.a voltage source is replaced by 0V i.e short circuit and current source is replaced by 0 Ai.e

open circuit.

2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables

The superposition principle is applied in three steps

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output(voltage or current)

50
 due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis

2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.

3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to inde-

pendent sources.

NB: superposition is based on linearity and not applicable to the effect of power.If power is

needed, the current and voltage through the element must be first calculated using superpo-

sition.

4.3 Source Transformation

Source transformation is a tool for simplifying circuits.It is expedient in circuit analysis to

be able to substitute a voltage source in series with a resistor for a current source in parallel

with a resistor or vice versa as shown in figure 4.1 The two circuits in figure 4.1 are equivalent

Figure 4.1:

-provided they have the same voltage -current relation at the terminal a-b. it is easy to show

that they are equivalent by turning off both sources. The equivalent resistance at terminal

a-b is R.Also when terminals a-b are short circuited,the short circuit current flowing from a

51
to b is
Vs
isc =
R

and

isc = is

for circuit in right hand side. In order for the circuits to be equivalent

Vs
= is
R

Hence source transformation requires that

Vs
Vs = is R; is =
R

Source transformation is a powerful tool that allows circuit manipulations to ease circuit

analysis.

NB:The arrow of the current source is directed toward the positive terminal of the voltage

source.

Source transformation is not possible when R=0 which is the case with an ideal voltage

source.

4.4 Thevenin’s theorem

It often occurs in practice that a particular element in a circuit is variable(load)while other

elements are fixed.To avoid analyzing the circuit over and over again when the load changes,

Thevenin’s theorem provides a technique by which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by

an equivalent circuit.

52
 Figure 4.2:

According to Thevenin’s theorem,the linear circuit in figure 4.2a can be replaced by that in

figure 4.2b.

Thevenin’s theorem for dc circuits states that a linear two terminal circuit can

be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VT h in series

with a resistor RT h , where VT h is the open -circuit voltage at the terminals, and

RT h is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent

sources are turned off.

The task is to find Thevenin equivalent voltage VT h and resistance RT h . Suppose the two

circuits are equivalent, if terminals a and b are made opne circuited by removing the load,

no current flows so that the the open circuit voltage across the terminals a-b in RT h 4.2a

must be equal to the voltage source VT h since the two circuits are equivalent.Thus the open

circuit voltage across the terminals as shown in 4.3a that is

VT h = Voc

53
 Figure 4.3:

Again , with the load disconnected and terminals a-b open circuited, we turn off all the

independent sources.The input resistance or equivalent resistance of the dead circuit must

be equal to RT h .Thus RT h is the input resistance at the terminals when the independent

sources are turned off as shown in 4.3b. That is

RT h = Rin

To apply this idea in finding the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, two cases are considered;

Case 1:

If the network has no dependent sources,we turn off all independent sources.

VT h = Voc

RT h is the input resistance when of the network looking between terminals a and b as in

4.3b.

Case 2:

If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all the independent sources. As with

superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off.We apply a voltage source v0 and

at the terminals a-b and determine the resulting current i0 .Then

v0
RT h =
i0

54
 Figure 4.4:

as in 4.3a. Alternatively we may insert a current source and find the terminal voltage.Either

of the two approaches will give the same result.In either approach we may assume any value

of voltage or current.

The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit behaves the same way as the original circuit. Consider a

Figure 4.5:

55
linear circuit terminated by a load RL ,as in figure 4.5a, The current IL though the load and

voltage VL across the load are easily determined using the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit in

4.5b.Thus
VT h
IL =
RT h + RL
RT h
VL = RL IL = VT h
RT h + RL

NB: The Thevenin’s equivalent is a simple voltage divider yielding VL by mere inspection.

Thevenin’s theorem for ac circuits

Thevenin’s Theorem is applied into ac circuits the same way as they do in ac circuits.The

only additional effort arises from the need to manipulate complex numbers. The equivalent

circuit is shown in figure 4.6 where a linear circuit is replaced by a voltage source in series

with an impedance.

Figure 4.6:

Examples to be given in class/refer course textbook..

4.5 Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s Theorem states that a linear two terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent

circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN . Where IN is the short

56
circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the

terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

The circuit in figure 4.7a can be replaced by the one in figure 4.7b.

Figure 4.7:

Determining RN and IN

Thevenin’s and Norton’s resistances are equal based on source transformation principle and

thus

RN = RT h

To determine the Norton’s current, IN , we find the short circuit current flowing from terminal

a-b in both circuits in 4.7. It is evident the short current in 4.7b is IN . This must be the

same short circuit current from terminal a to b since in 4.7a since the two circuits are

equivalent.Thus

IN = Isc

shown in figure 4.8.

Dependent and independent sources are treated same way as in Thevenin’s theorem.

57
 Figure 4.8:

Relationship between Norton’s and Thevenin’s theorem

VT h
IN = (4.1)
RT h

This is essentially source transformation and hence it is often referred to as Thevenin- Norton

transformation. Since VT h ,IN and RT h are related according to equation 4.1,to determine

the Thevenin or Norton equivalent cicuit requires that we find:

1. The open-circuit voltage voc across terminals a and b.

2. The short-circuit current isc ,at terminals a and b.

3. The equivalent or input resistance Rin at terminals a and b when all independent

sources are turned off.

Two of the three parameters can be determined using method that takes least effort and find

the third using Ohm’s law.

NB:

VT h = voc ; IN = Isc ;

voc
RT h =
isc

The open circuit and short circuit tests are sufficient to find any Thevenin or Norton equiv-

alent.

58
Norton’s theorem for ac circuits

Norton’s’s Theorem is applied into ac circuits the same way as they do in ac circuits.The

only additional effort arises from the need to manipulate complex numbers. The equivalent

circuit is shown in figure 4.9 where a linear circuit is replaced by a voltage source in series

with an impedance.

Figure 4.9:

Examples to be given in class/Refer course textbook.

4.6 Maximum power transfer theorem

In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load. While for

electric utilities, minimizing power losses in the process of transmission and distribution is

critical for efficiency and economic reasons, there are other applications in areas such as

communications where it is desirable to maximize the power delivered to a load. We now

address the problem of delivering the maximum power to a load when given a system with

known internal losses. It should be noted that this will result in significant internal losses

greater than or equal to the power delivered to the load.

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is useful in finding the maximum power a linear circuit can

deliver to the load. We assume that we can adjust the load resistance RL . If the entire

59
circuit is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent except for the load, as shown in figure 4.10

With

Figure 4.10: Circuit used for max power transfer

VT h
VT h = IL (RT h + RL ) =⇒ IL = (4.2)
(RT h + RL )

The power delivered to the load is

VT2h
P = IL VL = IL2 RL = (4.3)
(RT h + RL )2

For a given circuit, thevenin’s voltage and resistance are fixed,by varying the load resistance,

RL , the power delivered to the load varies as shown in figure 4.11 Notice that the power

Figure 4.11: power delivered to the load as a function of load resistance.

is small for small or large values of RL but maximum for some value of RL between 0 and

∞. We now want to show that this maximum power occurs when RL is equal to RT h . This

is known as maximum power transfer theorem. It states Maximum power is transferred to

60
the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin’s resistance as seen from the load RL

=RT h .

To prove maximum power transfer theorem,we find the derivative of p with respect to RL

and set result to zero.

dp (RT h + RL )2 − 2RL(RT h +RL )

= VT2h [ ]
dRL (RT h + RL )4
RT h + RL − 2RL
= VT2h [ ]=0
(RT h + RL )3

RT h = RL

Showing that maximum power transfer takes place when the load resistance equals the

thevenin’s resistance.We can readily confirm that this gives maximum power by showing

that the second derivative of power is less than zero.

2
V Th
Pmax =
4RT h

when load resistance is not equal to the thevenin resistance power is computed using equation

4.3

Examples to be given in class/Refer course textbook.

4.6.1 Maximum power transfer for ac circuits

Consider the circuit in figure 4.12,where an ac circuit is connected to a load ZL and is rep-

resented by its Thevenin equivalent.The load is usually represented by an impedance, which

may model an electric motor, an antenna, a TV, ad so forth. In rectangular form the Thevenin

impedance ZT h and the load impedance ZL are

ZT h = RT h + jXT h (4.4)

61
 Figure 4.12: (a)Circuit with a load, (b)The Thevenin equivalent circuit.

ZL = RL + jXL (4.5)

The current through the load is

VT h VT h
I= + ZL = (4.6)
ZT h (RT h + jXT h ) + (RL + jXL )

The active or average power delivered to the load is given by

62
63
64
Chapter 5

Two Port Networks

Two port networks are useful in communications, control systems, a power systems, and

electronics.e.g they are used in electronics to model transistors and to facilitate cascaded

design.

Knowing the parameters of a two port network enables us to treat it as a ’black box’when

embedded within a larger network.

A pair of terminals through which a current may enter or leave a network is known as a

Port.

Two terminal devices or elements such as resistors, capacitors and inductors result in one

port networks. Most of the circuits we have dealt with so far are two terminal or one-

port circuits represented in figure 5.1a. Consider the voltage across or current through a

single pair of terminals such as the two terminals of a resistor, a capacitor or an inductor.

There are four terminals or two port circuits involving op amps, transistors and transformers

as shown in Figure 5.1b.

A port is an access to the network and consists of a pair of terminals; the current entering one

65
 Figure 5.1:

terminal leaves through the other terminal so that the net current entering the port equals

to zero.

A two-port network is an electrical network with two separate ports for input

and output.

Thus a two -port network has two terminal pairs acting as access points. The current entering

one terminal of a pair leaves the the other terminal in the pair. Three terminal devices such

as transistors can be configured into two port networks.

To characterize a two -port network requires that we relate the terminal quantities V1 , V2 ,

I1 and I2 in Fig 5.1b out of which two are independent. The various terms that relate these

voltages and currents are called parameters. It is assumed that the two port circuits contain

no independent sources although they can contain dependent sources.

66
Six set of parameters will be derived in this chapter.

5.1 Impedance Parameters

Impedance and admittance parameters are commonly used in the synthesis of filters. They

are also useful in the design and analysis of impedance-matching networks and power

distribution networks

A two port network may be voltage driven as in 5.2a, or current driven as in 5.2b. From

Figure 5.2: (a)voltage driven two port network, (b) Current driven two port network

either 5.2a or 5.2b,the terminal voltages can be related to the terminal currents as

V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2
(5.1)
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2

or in matrix form as

      
V1  Z11 Z12  I1  I1 
 
 
  =

  = z  
   
V2 Z21 Z22 I2 I2
where the Z terms are called the Impedance parameters, or simply Z parameters, and

have unit of ohms. The values of the parameters can be evaluated by setting I1 =0(input port

67
open circuited) or I2 =0(output port open circuited).Thus Since the impedance parameters

are obtained open-circuiting the input or output port. They are also called the -open circuit

impedance parameters. Specifically ,

Z11 =Open-circuit input impedance

Z12 =Open-circuit transfer impedance from port 1 Port 2

Z21 =Open-circuit transfer impedance from port 2 Port 1

Z22 =Open-circuit output impedance

Z11 and Z21 are obtained by connecting a voltage V1 (or a current source I1 ) to port 1with

port 2 open-circuited as in figure 5.3a and finding I1 and V2 ; we then get

V1 V2
Z11 = , Z21 = (5.2)
I1 I1

Similarly, we obtain Z12 and Z22 by connecting a voltage V2 (Or a current source I2 )to port 2

with port 1 open circuited as in figure 5.3b and finding I2 and V1 ; we then get

V1 V2
Z12 = , Z22 = (5.3)
I2 I2

This procedure provides us with means of calculating or measuring the Z parameters.

are also known as driving -point impedance while Z21 and Z12 are called transfer

impedances

68
 Figure 5.3:

When Z11 = Z22 , the two port network is said to be symmetrical.When the two port

network is linear and has no dependent sources, the transfer impedances are equal i.e Z12

= Z21 , and the two port network is said to be reciprocal. This means that if the points

of excitation and response are interchanged, the transfer impedances remain the same. As

shown in Figure 5.4,a two -port is reciprocal if interchanging an ideal voltage source at one

port with an ideal ammeter at the other port gives the same ammeter reading.The reciprocal

network yields V=Z12 I according to equation 5.1when connected as in figure 5.4a, but yields

V=Z21 I when connected as in fig reffig:para2b.

This is possible only if

Z12 = Z21

69
 Figure 5.4:

Any two port that is made entirely of resistors, capacitors, and inductors must be reciprocal.A

reciprocal network can be replaced by the T-equivalent circuit in figure 5.5a. If the network

is not reciprocal, a more general equivalent network is shown 5.5b which follows directly from

equation 5.1

Figure 5.5:

70
 5.1.1 Examples

1. Determine the z parameters for the circuit in figure 5.6

Figure 5.6:

To determine Z11 and Z21 , we apply a voltage source V1 to the input port and leave

the output port open as in fig 5.7a.Then

V1 (20 + 40)I1
Z11 = = = 60Ω
I1 I1
V2 40I1
Z21 = = = 40Ω
I1 I1

To find Z12 and Z22 ,we apply a voltage source V2 to the output port and leave the input

port open as in figure 5.7b.Then

V1 40I2
Z12 = = = 40Ω
I2 I2
V2 (30 + 40)I2
Z22 = = = 70Ω
I2 I2
 
 60 40 
Thus Z=



40 70

2. Find the z parameters of the two-port network of figure 5.8 Ans Z11 =28Ω,Z12 =Z21 =Z22 =12Ω,

3. Find I1 and I2 in the circuit in figure 5.9

71
Figure 5.7:

Figure 5.8:

Figure 5.9:

72
 Figure 5.10:

4.

73
 Figure 5.11:

5.2 Admittance parameters

In a case whereby impedance parameters do not exist for a two port network, there is need

for an alternative means of describing such a network. This may be met by a second set

of parameters which we obtain by expressing the terminal currents in terms of the terinal

voltages. In either figure 5.12a or 5.12b, the terminal currents can be expressed in terms of

the terminal voltages as

I1 = y11 V1 + y12 V2
(5.4)
I2 = y21 V1 + y22 V2

or in matrix form as       
I1  y11 y12  V1 
  V
 1
 
  =
  
 
 = y 
 

I2 y21 y22 V2 V2

The y terms are known as the admittance parametersor simply y parameters and have

units of measurement siemens.

74
 Figure 5.12:

The value of the parameters can be determined by setting V1 =0(Input port short circuited)

or V2 =0(output port short-circuited). Thus Since the y parameters are obtained by short-

Figure 5.13:

circuiting the input or output port, they are also called the short circuit admittance

parameters.

Specifically y11 =Short-circuit input admittance

75
y12 =Short-circuit transfer admittance from port 2 Port 1

y21 =Short-circuit transfer admittance from port 1 Port 2

y22 =Short-circuit output admittance

We obtain y11 and y21 by connecting a current I1 to port 1and short-circuiting port 2 as in

figure 5.12a finding V1 and I2 and then calculating

I1 I2
y11 = , y21 = (5.5)
V1 V1

Similarly we obtain y12 and y22 by connecting a current source I2 to port 2 and short circuiting

port 1 as in 5.12b. finding I1 and V2 and then getting

I1 I2
y12 = , y22 = (5.6)
V2 V2

The impedance and admittance parameters are collectively known as immittance parame-

ters.

For a two port network that is linear and has no dependent sources, the transfer admittances

are equal y12 =y21 . such a network can be modelled by the equivalent circuit in figure 5.14

If the network is not reciprocal, a more general equivalent network is shown in 5.15

Figure 5.14:

76
 Figure 5.15:

5.2.1 Examples

Obtain the y parameters for the network shown in figure

Figure 5.16:

Obtain the y parameters for the T network shown in figure 5.17

Figure 5.17:

Ans:

y11 =75.77 mS, y12 =y21 =-30.3 mS,y22 =45.47 mS.

Obtain the y parameters for the circuit in figure 5.18 Ans:

77
 Figure 5.18:

y11 =0.625 S, y12 =-0.125 S, y21 =0.375 S,y22 =0.125S.

5.3 Hybrid parameters

The z and y parameters of a two port network do not always exist.so there is a need for

developing another set of parameters.The third set of parameters is based on making V1 and

I2 the dependent variables. Thus we obtain

V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
(5.7)
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2

or in matrix form as       
V1  h11 h12   I1   I1 
 
 
  =

  = h  
   
I2 h21 h22 V2 V2

The h terms are known as the hybrid parameters or h paramaters because they are a hybrid

combination of ratios. They are very useful for describing electronic devices such as tran-

sistors and it is much easier to measure experimentally the z and y parameters.The ideal

transformer can be described by the hybrid parameters.

The value of the parameters are determined as Parameters h11 ,h12 ,h21 ,h22 represent an

78
 Figure 5.19:

impedance, a voltage gain, a current gain and an admittance, respectively.This is why they

are referred to as hybrid parameters.

Specifically, h11 =Short-circuit input impedance

h12 =Open-circuit reverse voltage gain.

h21 =Short-circuit forward current gain.

h22 =Open-circuit output admittance

The procedure for calculating the h parameters is similar to that used for z and y parameters.

We apply a voltage or current source for the appropriate port, short-circuiting or open cir-

cuiting the other port.Depending on the parameters of interest, and perform regular circuit

analysis.For reciprocal networks, h12 =- h21 . Figure 5.20 shows the hybrid model of a two

-port network.

Figure 5.20:

79
5.3.1 Examples

Find the hybrid parameters for the two-port network of fig 5.21 h11 =4Ω,h12 =0.667Ω,h21 =-

Figure 5.21:

0.667Ω,h22 =0.1111 S

Example 2: Determine the h parameters for the circuit in figure 5.22 h11 =2.4Ω,h12 =0.4Ω,h21 =-

Figure 5.22:

0.4Ω,h22 =200 mS

Example 3: Determine the Thevenin Equivalent at the output port of the circuit in figure

5.23 Example: Find the impedance at the input port of the circuit in figure 5.24 ans : 1.6667

KΩ.

NB: OTHER PARAMETERS AND EXAMPLES TO BE GIVEN IN CLASS.

80
Figure 5.23:

Figure 5.24:

81
Chapter 6

Non-sinusoidal waveforms

Frequency domain analysis done so far has been limited to sinusoidal time varying inputs in

all our non-dc circuits. Powerful tools for analyzing circuits with sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal

inputs include Laplace transform and Fourier series.

6.1 Laplace transform

When using phasors for the analysis of circuits, we transform the circuit from the time do-

main to the frequency or phasor domain. Once we obtain the phasor result, we transform

it back to the time domain. The Laplace transform method follows the same process.We

use Laplace transformation to transform the circuit from the time domain to the frequency

domain, obtain the solution and apply inverse Laplace transform to the result to transform

it back to the time domain.

Importance of Laplace transform

82
 1. Laplace transform can be applied to a wider variety of inputs than phasor analysis.

2. It provides an easy way to solve circuit problems involving initial conditions , because

it allows us to work with algebraic equations instead of differential equations.

3. The Laplace transform is capable of providing us, in one single operation , the total

response of the circuit comprising both natural and forced responses.

This section gives definition of the Laplace transform,and some properties of the Laplace

transform that are significant in circuit analysis. We also consider Inverse Laplace Transform

and transfer functions. Finally the section presents application of Laplace transform in

general circuit analysis,transfer functions and network synthesis.

6.1.1 Definition and Properties of Laplace transform

The Laplace transform is an integral transformation of a function f(t) from the time domain

into the complex frequency domain , giving F(s).

Properties of Laplace transform help us to obtain transform pairs directly without going into

the mathematical analysis.

Figure 6.1 shows some of important properties of Laplace transform in circuit analysis.

Figure 6.2 summarizes the Laplace transforms of some common functions.

83
 Figure 6.1:

Examples

Example 1:Linearity property.

Find the Laplace transform of

f (t) = cos2t + e−3t , t ≥= 0

s2 1
cos2t ⇒ ; e−3t ⇒
s+4 s+3
2 2
s 1 2s + 3s + 4
F (s) = + =
s+4 s+3 (s + 3)(s2 + 4)

84
 Figure 6.2:

Example 2:Frequency differentiation property

Determine the Laplace transform of

f (t) = t2 sin2tu(t)

s2
sin2t ⇒
s2 + 2 2

85
Using frequency differentiation

d2 2 12s2 − 16
F (s) = L[t2 sin2t] = (−1)2 ( ) =
ds2 s2 + 4 (s2 + 4)3

6.1.2 Inverse Laplace Transform

Suppose F(s has the general form of

N (s)
F (s) =
D(s)

i.e with both Numerator and Denominator polynomial, the roots of N(s)=0 are called the

zeros of F(s), while the roots of D(s)=0 are the poles of the F(s).We use partial fraction

expansion to break F(s)down into simple terms whose inverse transform we obtain from

table in figure 6.2.Finding inverse Laplace transform involves two steps;

1. Decompose F(s) into simple terms using partial fraction expansion

2. Find the Inverse of each term by matching entries in table shown in figure 6.2.

Let us consider the three possible forms F(s) may take and how to apply the two steps to

each from.

Simple poles

A simple pole is a first order pole. If F(s) has simple poles, then D(s) becomes a product of

factors, so that
N (s)
F (s) =
(s + p1)(s + p2)...(s + pn)

where s=-p1, s=-p2,...s=-pn are simple poles and the poles are distinct.Assuming the degree

of N(s) is less than the degree of D(s), we use partial fraction expansion to decompose F(s)

86
as
k1 k2 kn
F (s) = + + ... +
s + p1 s + p2 s + Pn

The expansion coefficients are k1 ,k2 and kn are known as the residues of F(s).One way of find-

ing the coefficients is using residue method.If we multiply both sides by (s+p1 ), andthisleavesonlyk 1

is left on the right-hand side. Thus in general,

ki = (s + pi )F (s)|s=−pi

This is known as Heaviside theorem. Once values of coefficients are known ,we find the

inverse Laplace using

f (t) = (k1 e−p1t ) + (k2 e−p2t ) + .. + (kn e−pnt )

Example

Find the Inverse laplace transform of

3 5 6
F (s) = − + 2 = 3u(t) − 5e−t + 3sin2t
s s+1 s +4

Find f(t) given that

s2 + 12
F (s) =
s(s + 2)(s + 3)

Since there are three poles, we let

s2 + 12 A B C
F (s) = = + +
s(s + 2)(s + 3) s s+2 s+3

where A, B and C are constants to be determined.Constants can be found using two ap-

proaches, Method 2:Algebraic method

87
 Repeated poles

Suppose F(s) has n repeated poles at s=-p, then we may represent F(s) as

kn kn−1 k2 k1
F (s) = + + .. + + + F1 (s)
(s + p)n (s + p)n−1 (s + p)2 (s + p)

88
where F1(s) is the remaining part of F(s) that does not have a pole at s=-p.The expansion

coefficient kn is determined as

Kn = (s + p)n F (s)|s=−p

Example

89
Calculate v(t) given that
10s2 + 4
V (s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)2

90
 Complex poles

A pair of complex poles is simple if it is not repeated.it is a double or multiple if repeated.

Simple complex poles may be handled the same as simple real poles, but because complex

algebra is involved the result is always cumbersome.An easier method is is completing the

square.The idea is to express each complex pole pair(or quadratic term) in D(s)as a complete

91
square such as

(s + α)2 + β 2

and use transform pairs to find the inverse of the term.

Since N(s) and D(s) always have real coefficients and we know that the complex roots of

polynomials with real coefficients must occur in conjugate pairs, F(s) may have the general

form;
A1 s + A2
F (s) = + F1 (s)
s2 + as + b

If we complete the square by letting

s2 + as + b = s2 + 2αs + α2 + β 2

and we also let

A1 s + A2 = A1 (s + α) + B1 β

A1 (s + α B1 β
F (s) = + + F1 (s)
(s + α)2 + β 2 (s + α)2 + β 2

The inverse transform is

f (t) = A1 e−αt cosβt + B1 e−αt cosβt + f1 (t)

92
6.2 Application of Laplace transform to circuits and

networks

Employing Laplace transform to analyze circuits involves three steps;

1. Transform the circuit from the time domain to the s domain.

2. Solve the circuit using a suitable circuit analysis technique.

3. Take the inverse transform of the solution and thus obtain the solution in the time

domain.

However since there are three passive elements, i.e RLC , we need to define their Laplace

impedance and voltage across the elements.

Impedance Voltage

Resistor R RI(s)

Inductor sL sLI(s)

1 I(s)
Capacitor sC sC

93
 Example

Find Vo (t)in the circuit in figure 6.3 assuming zero initial conditions.

Figure 6.3:

94
95
96
6.3 Transfer function

The transfer function is a key concept in signal processing because it indicates how a signal is

processed as it passes through a network.It is a fitting tool for for finding network response,

determining(or designing) for network stability and network synthesis.

The transfer function describes how the output behaves in respect to the input. It specifies

the transfer from the input to the output in the s domain, assuming no initial energy.

The transfer function H(s) is the ratio of the output response Y(s) to the input

excitation X(s), assuming all initial conditions are zero.

Thus
Y (s)
H(s) =
X(s)

The transfer function depends on what we define as input and output.Since the input and

output can be either current or voltage at any place in the circuit, there are four possible

transfer functions.

H(s)=Voltage gain= VV0i (s)

(s)

H(s)=Current gain= II0i (s)

(s)

H(s)=Impedance= VI(s)
(s)

H(s)=Admittance= VI(s)
(s)

Example

97
98
6.4 State Variables

The techniques considered so far are only suitable for analyzing systems with only one input

and only one output. Many Engineering systems have many inputs and outputs and thus

state variable method which is more general than transfer function is a very important tool

in analyzing such systems, and understanding highly complex systems.

In the state variable model, we specify a collection of variables that describe the internal

behavior of the system.These variables are known as state variablesof the system.The vari-

ables determine the future behavior of a system when the present state of the system and

input signals are known.If the state variables ae known, it allows all other system parameters

to be determined using only algebraic equations.

In general a state variable is a physical property that characterizes the state of

a system, regardless of how the system got to that state.

99
Common examples of state variables are pressure, volume and temperature. In an electric

circuit, the state variable are the inductor current and capacitor voltage since they collec-

tively describe the energy state of the system.

The standard way to represent the state equations is to arrange them as a set of first order

differential equations.

100
101
steps to apply the state variable method to circuit analysis

1. Select the inductor current i and capacitor voltage v as the state variables, making sure

they are consistent with the passive sign convention.

2. Apply KCL and KVL to the circuit and obtain circuit variables(voltages and currents)

in terms of the state variables. This should lead to a set of first order differential

equations necessary and sufficient to determine all state variables.

3. Obtain the output equation and put the final result in state space representation.

102
6.5 Network synthesis

Network synthesis may be regarded to as the process of obtaining an appropriate network to

represent a given transfer function. Network synthesis is easier in the s domain than in the

time domain.In network analysis, we find the transfer function of a given network.In network

synthesis, we reverse the approach : Given a transfer function, we are required to find a

suitable network. Network synthesis is finding a a network that represents a given

transfer function

Examples

103
104
105
106
107
108
Chapter 7

Fourier Series

Fourier series is concerned with a means of analyzing circuits with periodic, non-sinusoidal

excitations. It is based on expressing periodic functions in terms of sinusoids.Once the source

function is expressed in terms of sinusoids,we can apply the phasor method to analyze cir-

cuits. Fourier series finds applications in spectrum analyzers and filters.

Any practical periodic function can be represented as an infinite sum of sine or cosine func-

tions as shown in equation7.1

f (t) = a0 + a1 cosω0 t + b1 sinω0 t + a2 cos2ω0 t + b2 sin2ω0 t + a3 cos3ω0 t + b3 sin3ω0 t + ..... (7.1)

or
∞
X
f (t) = a0 + (an cosnω0 t + bn sinnω0 t) (7.2)
n=1

Equation 7.2 is the trigonometric Fourier series of f(t)

Where

the sinusoid sinnω0 t or cosnω0 t is called the nth harmonic of f(t). a0 is the dc component or

the average value of f(t)

109
an and bn are the Fourier coefficients which represent the amplitudes of the sinusoids in the

ac component.Thus

Fourier series of a periodic function f(t) is a representation that resolves f(t) into

a dc component and an ac component comprising an infinite series of harmonic

sinusoids. An alternative form of equation 2.4 is

∞
X
f (t) = a0 + An cos(nω0 t + θn ) (7.3)
n=1

Where
p
An = a2n + b2n

bn
θn = −tan−1
an

7.1 Circuit Applications

We find in practice that many signals are driven by non-sinusoidal periodic functions. To

find the steady-state response of a circuit to a non-sinusoidal periodic excitation requires

the application of a Fourier series, ac phasor analysis, and the superposition principle.The

procedure involves four steps

1. Express the excitation as Fourier series

2. Transform the circuit from the time domain to the frequency domain.

3. Find the response of the dc and ac components in the Fourier series.

4. Add the individual dc and ac responses using the superposition principle.

110
7.1.1 Examples

Example 1 :Find the response i0 (t) of the circuit of figure 7.1 if the input voltage v(t) has

the Fourier series expansion

∞
X 2(−1)n
v(t) = 1 + (cosnt − nsinnt)
n=1
1 + n2

Figure 7.1:

Solution

The input voltage can be expressed as

∞
X 2(−1)n
v(t) = 1 + √ (cosnt + tan−1 n)
1+n 2
n=1

= 1−1.414cos(t+45o )+0.8944cos(2t+63.45o )−0.6345cos(3t+71.56o )−0.4851cos(4t+78.7o +...)

We notice thatω0 =1,ωn =n rad/s,

The impedance at the source is

8 + jωn 8
Z=
2 + jωn

111
112
113
114