Oilfield Chemistry Caili Dai

Visit to download the full and correct content document:

https://textbookfull.com/product/oilfield-chemistry-caili-dai/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Handbook of Healthcare Analytics. 1st Edition Dai

https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-healthcare-
analytics-1st-edition-dai/

Stress Physiology of Woody Plants 1st Edition Wenhao

Dai

https://textbookfull.com/product/stress-physiology-of-woody-
plants-1st-edition-wenhao-dai/

After the Post Cold War The Future of Chinese History

Jinhua Dai

https://textbookfull.com/product/after-the-post-cold-war-the-
future-of-chinese-history-jinhua-dai/

Conflict Management and Intercultural Communication:

The Art of Intercultural Harmony 1st Edition Xiaodong
Dai

https://textbookfull.com/product/conflict-management-and-
intercultural-communication-the-art-of-intercultural-harmony-1st-
edition-xiaodong-dai/
Ferroic Materials for Smart Systems From Fundamentals
to Device Applications 1st Edition Jiyan Dai

https://textbookfull.com/product/ferroic-materials-for-smart-
systems-from-fundamentals-to-device-applications-1st-edition-
jiyan-dai/

Distributed Artificial Intelligence Second

International Conference DAI 2020 Nanjing China October
24 27 2020 Proceedings Matthew E. Taylor

https://textbookfull.com/product/distributed-artificial-
intelligence-second-international-conference-dai-2020-nanjing-
china-october-24-27-2020-proceedings-matthew-e-taylor/

Physical chemistry ; Quantum Chemistry and Spectroscopy

(What's New in Chemistry) 4th Edition Thomas Engel

https://textbookfull.com/product/physical-chemistry-quantum-
chemistry-and-spectroscopy-whats-new-in-chemistry-4th-edition-
thomas-engel/

Chemistry Zumdahl S.S.

https://textbookfull.com/product/chemistry-zumdahl-s-s/

Organophosphorus chemistry Allen

https://textbookfull.com/product/organophosphorus-chemistry-
allen/
Caili Dai · Fulin Zhao

Oilfield
Chemistry
Oilfield Chemistry
Caili Dai Fulin Zhao
•

Oilfield Chemistry

123
Caili Dai Fulin Zhao
School of Petroleum Engineering School of Petroleum Engineering
China University of Petroleum (East China) China University of Petroleum (East China)
Qingdao, Shandong, China Qingdao, Shandong, China

ISBN 978-981-13-2949-4 ISBN 978-981-13-2950-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2950-0
Jointly published with China University of Petroleum Press, Qingdao, China

The print edition is not for sale in China Mainland. Customers from China Mainland please order the
print book from: China University of Petroleum Press, Qingdao, Shandong, China.

ISBN of the China Mainland edition: 978-7-5636-6254-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018958357

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and China University of Petroleum Press 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publishers, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publishers, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Foreword

The complex chemistry of the oilfield gives rise to numerous problems in the
commercial exploitation of oil and gas fields. Addressing these problems is the
domain of oilfield chemistry, beginning with the study of the chemical phenomena
that give rise to these problems.
Because oilfield chemistry addresses chemical problems that arise during oil and
gas production, it is of necessity an interdisciplinary field, spanning both chemistry
and petroleum engineering. The oilfield chemist must understand both the process
of oil and gas production and the severe limitations imposed by the sheer scope of
oil and gas operations.
In the early years of oilfield exploitation, when many easily produced fields were
newly developed, there was little need to be concerned with the production barriers
created by poor understanding of the chemical phenomena involved. Today,
however, as production continues to shift to more and more difficult fields, there is a
critical need for understanding and controlling the chemistry of oilfield production.
This reality makes it a high priority for the petroleum engineer to understand the
chemical agents and chemical engineering technologies required for the commercial
exploitation of the oilfields being produced today, and for the oilfield chemist to
understand the production problems that require attention.
Oilfield chemistry is the youngest subdiscipline within petroleum science. It may
be considered to consist of drilling chemistry, production chemistry, and trans-
portation chemistry. These areas constitute the research targets of oilfield chemistry.
This English edition of “Oilfield Chemistry” is based on the 2010 Chinese
second edition of “Oilfield Chemistry,” edited by Fulin Zhao. It supplements that
edition with new theories, new technologies, and new chemical agents from the
intervening years. The book is divided into three parts, corresponding to drilling
chemistry, production chemistry, and transportation chemistry. The chemical nature
and principles of problems encountered during these operations are analyzed, the
chemical systems used to address these problems are explained, and the mecha-
nisms and synergistic effects of various chemical approaches are illustrated.

v
vi Foreword

The Chinese first edition of “Oilfield Chemistry” is based on “Oil Production

Chemistry,” which was published in 1990 and received first prize for national
excellence in teaching materials in 1991. After 10 years of effort and advances was
the first edition published in July 2000. It has since been adopted as part of the
curriculum by most of the petroleum-related programs in China. It has played an
important role in broadening and deepening students’ understanding of oil and gas
chemistry as well as their ability to address practical problems in the oilfield using
chemical methods. It was another 10 years before the second edition of “Oilfield
Chemistry” was published in 2010. In recognition of the 20 years of dedication and
academic accomplishments of Prof. Fulin Zhao and his team, as well as the
enormous efforts of the publishers and editors, the Chinese second edition of
“Oilfield Chemistry” was awarded TOP 1 recognition for highly cited books in the
discipline of petroleum and natural gas engineering in China.
The author of this English edition of “Oilfield Chemistry,” Prof. Caili Dai,
obtained her doctorate under the supervision of Prof. Fulin Zhao. She also partic-
ipated in the compilation of the Chinese edition of “Oilfield Chemistry.” This
English edition of “Oilfield Chemistry” has also been composed in consultation
with Prof. Zhao. Its development was supported by the National Publishing Fund
and will soon be published to meet the needs of large numbers of students and
scholars worldwide.
It is my pleasure and honor to extend my hearty congratulations on the publi-
cation of this book, along with the sincere hope that it will expand the impact of the
research achievements of China’s oilfield chemistry enterprise on the international
stage, provide English textbooks for international students in China, and promote
the development of the scientific and engineering infrastructure of the “Belt and
Road” countries in the field of oilfield chemistry.

Norman, OK, USA Jeffrey H. Harwell

July 2018 Asahi Glass Chair of Chemical Engineering
George Lynn Cross Research Professor
The University of Oklahoma
Preface

Oilfield chemistry is the science of studying the chemical problems encountered in

drilling, oil production, and oil gathering and transportation.
Oilfield chemistry is the youngest member in petroleum science.
Oilfield chemistry consists of three parts: drilling chemistry, oil production
chemistry, and oil gathering and transportation chemistry, which constitute the
research object of oilfield chemistry.
Although drilling, oil production, and oil gathering and transportation are dif-
ferent processes, they are connected to each other. Therefore, although the three
components of oilfield chemistry have their own respective development directions,
they are closely interrelated.
Drilling chemistry mainly studies the property of drilling fluid and cement slurry
and its control and adjustment.
Oil production chemistry mainly studies various chemical methods for enhanced
oil recovery and also for profile control, water shutoff, heavy oil viscosity reduction,
acid performance adjustment, sand control in water and oil wells, and paraffin
control and removal in oil wells.
Oil gathering and transportation chemistry mainly studies the issues of corrosion
and corrosion control of buried pipelines, demulsification of emulsified crude oil
and defoaming of foaming crude oil, pour point depression transportation of crude
oil and drag reduction transportation of crude oil, and natural gas treatment and
oilfield wastewater treatment.
When addressing different problems encountered in the three processes of oil-
field chemistry, many of the applied chemical agents are the same. Surfactants and
polymers are the most commonly used chemical agents.
The research content of oilfield chemistry mainly includes three parts.
1. Chemical nature of the problems encountered during processes of drilling, oil
production, and oil gathering and transportation.
2. Chemical agents applied for solving the existing problems.
3. Function mechanisms and synergistic effects of various chemical agents.

vii
viii Preface

Oilfield chemistry is studied by the following sequence.

General chemical
agent selection

Chemical principle
Oilfield problems
analysis

Special chemical
agent synthesis

Oilfield chemical Oilfield chemical

Performance Mechanism study
agent application agent improvement

Further chemical Further mechanism Further chemical

Performance …
agent application study agent improvement

It can be seen from the above diagram that the study of oilfield chemistry is
carried out according to the rules of practice–theory–practice, making oilfield
chemistry develop continuously.
Oilfield chemistry is closely related to other disciplines.
1. Enhanced oil recovery is an important task of oilfield chemistry. To enhance oil
recovery, the reservoir must be understood sufficiently. Oilfield geology is an
integral part of geology, and it mainly studies substance composition, structure
and distribution of oil, gas and water in reservoirs. Therefore, oilfield geology is
an important means to understand reservoirs, and it has a close connection with
oilfield chemistry.
2. Oilfield chemistry is an interdisciplinary subject between chemistry and drilling
engineering, oilfield production engineering (including reservoir engineering
and oil production engineering), and gathering and transportation engineering.
The problems to be solved by oilfield chemistry are all raised by the above
engineering science, and thus oilfield chemistry is closely linked with engi-
neering science.
3. Since chemistry is an important means for understanding reservoirs and solving
existing problems in oilfields, basic chemistry (inorganic chemistry, organic
chemistry, analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, surface chemistry, colloid
chemistry, etc.) naturally becomes the foundation of oilfield chemistry.
4. Oilfield chemistry solves existing problems in oilfields through oilfield chemi-
cals. Oilfield chemicals are usually used in various solvents (fluids). The dis-
solution of oilfield chemicals, followed by adsorption at the interface and
distribution in the phase, has significant impacts on the properties of the applied
system. These effects can be studied by means of fluid mechanics and seepage
mechanics. Therefore, oilfield chemistry is closely related to fluid mechanics
and seepage mechanics.
Preface ix

Taking into consideration the significance of knowledge of oilfield chemistry in

cultivating petroleum engineering students, the Oilfield Chemistry course was
established and the textbook was prepared for this course.
Since the publication in July 2000, “Oilfield Chemistry” (Chinese edition) has
been adopted by most petroleum-related majors in China. It has played an important
role in broadening and deepening the chemistry foundation of students and training
students to use chemical methods to solve practical problems in the oilfield, which
has achieved expected teaching effects.
As the development of related disciplines in recent years has put forward higher
requirements on oilfield chemistry, the achievements from the development of
oilfield chemistry science and technology should also be reflected in the textbooks
in a timely manner. Therefore, “Oilfield Chemistry” (Chinese edition) has been
approved as a revision topic of the “11th Five-Year” national textbook construction
plan. It was revised from 2007 to 2009 to become the current Chinese second
edition.
“Oilfield Chemistry” (English edition) is based on the “Oilfield Chemistry”
(Chinese second edition). Based on the principles of integrity, fundamentality,
prospectiveness, associativity, and regularity, some structures of the textbook have
been adjusted, and some new mechanisms of the oilfield chemical agents and new
agents emerged in recent years have been added. Basic concepts, formulas, and
laws of oilfield chemistry involved have also been reviewed, which has signifi-
cantly improved the textbook quality.
The authors would like to thank Prof. Zhengsong Qiu, Prof. Kaihe Lv, Prof.
Zexia Fan, Prof. Yefei Wang, Prof. Xiutai Zhao, Prof. Chuanxian Li, Prof. Dexin
Liu for their valuable comments during the compilation of this book.
It is sincerely hoped that readers can put forward valuable opinions on the
problems existing in this textbook, so that they can be revised in the next edition.

Qingdao, China Caili Dai

June 2018 Fulin Zhao
Contents

Part I Drilling Chemistry

1 Clay Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 3
1.1 Basic Structure of Clay Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 3
1.1.1 The Basic Tectonic Units and Basic
Tectonic Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 3
1.1.2 The Basic Structure Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 5
1.1.3 Concepts Derived from Repeating and Stacking
of the Basic Structure Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Clay Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Kaolinite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Montmorillonite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Illite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.4 Chlorite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.5 Palygorskite and Sepiolite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.6 Mixed Crystal-Layered Clay Mineral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Properties of Clay Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.1 Electrical Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.2 Adsorptivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.3 Expansibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.4 Cohesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2 Drilling Fluid Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1 Functions and Compositions of Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.1 Functions of Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.2 Compositions of Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 The Density of Drilling Fluid and Its Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 The Acid–Base Property of Drilling Fluid and Its Control . . . . . 27
2.4 The Filtration Property of Drilling Fluid and Its Control . . . . . . 29

xi
xii Contents

2.4.1 The Filtration Property of Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.4.2 Control of the Filtration Property of Drilling Fluid . . . . 31
2.5 The Rheological Property of Drilling Fluid and Its
Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.5.1 Basic Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.5.2 Rheological Models of Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5.3 Modification of the Rheological Properties of Drilling
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.6 The Solid Phase and Its Content Control in Drilling Fluid . . . . . 55
2.6.1 Solid Phase in Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.6.2 Control Method for Solid Content in
Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.6.3 Drilling Fluid Flocculant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.7 The Lubricity of Drilling Fluid and Its Improvement . . . . . . . . . 59
2.7.1 Drilling Fluid Lubricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.7.2 Improvement of Drilling Fluid Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.8 The Borehole Wall Stability and Its Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.8.1 Borehole Wall Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.8.2 Control Method for Borehole Wall Stability . . . . . . . . . 63
2.8.3 Shale Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.9 The Sticking and Stuck-Freeing of Drilling Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.10 The Leakage of Drilling Fluid and the Plugging of Adsorbent
Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.10.1 The Leakage of Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.10.2 The Plugging of Leakage Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.11 Drilling Fluid System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.11.1 Water-Base Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.11.2 Oil-Base Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.11.3 Gas Drilling Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3 Cement Slurry Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1 Function and Composition of Cement Slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1.1 Function of Cement Slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1.2 Composition of Cement Slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2 The Density of Cement Slurry and Its Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.2.1 Density-Reducing Admixture for Cement Slurry . . . . . . 89
3.2.2 Density-Increasing Admixture for Cement Slurry . . . . . 91
3.3 The Thickening of Cement Slurry and the Adjustment of
Thickening Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 92
3.3.1 The Thickening of Cement Slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 92
3.3.2 Adjustment of Cement Thickening Time . . . . . . . .... 94
3.4 The Rheological Property of Cement Slurry
and Its Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 100
Contents xiii

3.4.1 The Rheological Property of Cement Slurry . . . . . . . . . 100

3.4.2 Adjustment of the Rheological Property of Cement
Slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.5 The Filtration Property of Cement Slurry and Its Control . . . . . 101
3.5.1 The Filtration Property of Cement Slurry . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.5.2 The Control of the Filtrate Volume of
Cement Slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.6 Gas Channeling and Its Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.6.1 Hemihydrate Gypsum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.6.2 Aluminum Powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.6.3 Magnesium Oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.7 The Leakage of Cement Slurry and Its Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.8 Cement Slurry System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.8.1 Conventional Cement Slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.8.2 Special Cement Slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Part II Oil Production Chemistry

4 Chemical Flooding and Miscible Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.1 Polymer Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.1.1 Definition of Polymer Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.1.2 Polymers Used in Polymer Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.1.3 Thickening Ability of Polymer to Water . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.1.4 Viscoelasticity of Polymer Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.1.5 Retention of Polymer Molecules in Porous Media . . . . 121
4.1.6 Salt Sensitivity Effect of Polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.1.7 Enhanced Oil Recovery Mechanisms of Polymer
Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.1.8 Field Tests of Polymer Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.2 Surfactant Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.2.1 Definition of Surfactant Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.2.2 Surfactants Used in Surfactant Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.2.3 Active Water Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.2.4 Micellar Solution Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.2.5 Microemulsion Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.2.6 Foam Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.3 Alkaline Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.3.1 Definition of Alkaline Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.3.2 Alkalis Used in Alkaline Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.3.3 Reaction of Petroleum Acids and Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . 138
xiv Contents

4.3.4 Comparison of Alkaline Flooding and Water

Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.3.5 The Enhanced Oil Recovery Mechanism of Alkaline
Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.4 Combination Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.4.1 Concept of Combination Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.4.2 Comparison of the Oil Displacement Effects of Some
Floodings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.4.3 Synergistic Effect Among the Displacement
Components in Combination Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.4.4 Field Test of ASP Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.5 Miscible Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.5.1 Concept of Miscible Flooding and Miscible Phase
Injectant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.5.2 LPG Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.5.3 CO2 Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5 Profile Control and Water Shutoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.1 Profile Control in Water Injection Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.1.1 Concept of Profile Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.1.2 Importance of Profile Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.1.3 Profile Control Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.1.4 Selection of Profile Control Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.1.5 Field Test of Profile Control in Water
Injection Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.2 Water Shutoff in Oil Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.2.1 Concept of Water Shutoff in Oil Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.2.2 Importance of Water Shutoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.2.3 Water Shutoff Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.2.4 Selection of Water Shutoff Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.2.5 Field Tests of Water Shutoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6 Viscosity Reduction of Heavy Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.1 Heavy Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.2 Viscosity Reduction of Heavy Oil by Thermal Method . . . . . . . 200
6.3 Viscosity Reduction of Heavy Oil by Dilution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.4 Viscosity Reduction of Heavy Oil by Emulsification . . . . . . . . . 202
6.5 Viscosity Reduction of Heavy Oil by Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.6 Viscosity Reduction of Heavy Oil by Hydrothermal Catalytic
Pyrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Contents xv

7 Acids and Additives Used in Acidizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

7.1 Acids Used in Acidizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
7.1.1 Hydrochloric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
7.1.2 Hydrofluoric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.1.3 Phosphoric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.1.4 Sulfuric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.1.5 Carbonic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.1.6 Aminosulfonic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.1.7 Low Molecular Carboxylic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.2 Additives Used in Acidizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
7.2.1 Retardant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
7.2.2 Corrosion Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.2.3 Iron Stabilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.2.4 Emulsion Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.2.5 Clay Stabilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.2.6 Cleanup Additive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.2.7 Sludge Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.2.8 Wettability Reversal Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
7.2.9 Diverting Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
8 Fracturing Fluids and Fracturing Fluid Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
8.1 Fracturing Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
8.1.1 Water-Base Fracturing Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
8.1.2 Oil-Based Fracturing Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.2 Fracturing Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.2.1 Proppant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.2.2 Breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.2.3 Friction Reducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
8.2.4 Filtration Reducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
9 Sand Control in Oil and Water Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.1 Sand Control by Chemical Bridging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.1.1 Non-organic Cationic Polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
9.1.2 Organic Cationic Polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
9.2 Sand Control by Chemical Cementing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
9.2.1 Sand Control Procedures by Cementing . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
9.2.2 Cementing Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
9.3 Sand Control by Artificial Borehole Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
9.3.1 Sand Pack Cementing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
9.3.2 Resin-Coated Sand Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
9.3.3 Cement Slurry Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
9.3.4 Cement Clinker Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
xvi Contents

9.4 Sand Control by Screen Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

9.5 Sand Control by Wire Wrapped Screen Pipe with Gravel
Packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
10 Wax Control and Removal in Oil Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
10.1 Wax Control in Oil Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
10.1.1 Wax Control with Wax Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
10.1.2 Wax Control by Altering Surface Properties of Oil
Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
10.2 Wax Removal in Oil Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
10.2.1 Oil-Based Wax Remover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
10.2.2 Water-Based Wax Remover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
10.2.3 Oil-in-Water Wax Remover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

Part III Gathering and Transportation Chemistry

11 Corrosion and Anti-corrosion of Buried Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
11.1 Corrosion of the Buried Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
11.1.1 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
11.1.2 Soil Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
11.2 Anti-corrosion of the Buried Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
11.2.1 Anti-corrosion Coating Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
11.2.2 Cathodic Protection Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
12 Demulsification of the Emulsified Crude Oil and Defoaming of the
Foaming Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
12.1 Demulsification of the Emulsified Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
12.1.1 Types of Emulsified Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
12.1.2 Demulsification of W/O Emulsified Crude Oil . . . . . . . 314
12.1.3 Demulsification of O/W Emulsified Crude Oil . . . . . . . 322
12.2 Defoaming of the Foaming Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
12.2.1 Formation Mechanism of the Crude Oil Foam . . . . . . . 326
12.2.2 Defoaming of the Foaming Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
13 Pour Point Depression Transportation and Drag Reduction
Transportation of Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
13.1 Pour Point Depression Transportation of Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . 333
13.1.1 Classification of Crude Oil by Pour Point . . . . . . . . . . . 333
13.1.2 Viscosity–Temperature Curve of High-Wax Crude
Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
13.1.3 Pour Point Depression Transportation of Crude Oil . . . 335
Contents xvii

13.2 Drag Reduction Transportation of Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

13.2.1 Flow Pattern and Its Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
13.2.2 Drag Reduction Transportation of Crude Oil . . . . . . . . 346
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
14 Natural Gas Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
14.1 Dehydration of Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
14.1.1 The Necessity of the Dehydration of Natural Gas . . . . . 355
14.1.2 Representations of Water Content in Natural Gas . . . . . 356
14.1.3 Dehydration Methods of Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
14.2 Deacidification of Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
14.2.1 Adsorption Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
14.2.2 Absorption Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
14.3 Inhibition of the Generation of Natural Gas Hydrate . . . . . . . . . 365
14.3.1 Formation Conditions of Natural Gas Hydrate . . . . . . . 365
14.3.2 The Structure of Natural Gas Hydrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
14.3.3 Inhibition Methods of the Generation of Natural Gas
Hydrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
15 Oilfield Wastewater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
15.1 Oil Removal of the Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
15.1.1 Cationic Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
15.1.2 Branched Surfactants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
15.2 Oxygen Removal of the Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
15.3 Flocculation of Suspended Solids in Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
15.3.1 Coagulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
15.3.2 Coagulant Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
15.4 Scale Inhibition of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
15.4.1 Condensed Phosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
15.4.2 Phosphonates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
15.4.3 Amino Polycarboxylates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
15.4.4 Surfactants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
15.4.5 Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
15.5 Corrosion Inhibition of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
15.5.1 Oxidation Film Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
15.5.2 Precipitation Film Corrosion Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
15.5.3 Adsorption Film Corrosion Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
15.6 Sterilization of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
15.6.1 Oxidizing Bactericide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
15.6.2 Non-oxidizing Bactericides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
 Part I
Drilling Chemistry

Drilling chemistry is a part of oilfield chemistry.

Drilling chemistry is an edge discipline between drilling engineering and
chemistry.
Drilling chemistry studies how to use chemical methods to solve problems
encountered during the process of well drilling and cementing.
As the problems encountered during the process of well drilling and cementing
mainly come from drilling fluid and cement slurry, drilling chemistry can be
classified into two categories, drilling fluid chemistry and cement slurry chemistry.
Drilling fluid chemistry is a study on drilling fluid composition, performance,
and their control and adjustment, aiming at achieving drilling process with high
quality, high security, and time and economical efficiency. In achieving the control
and adjustment of the performance of drilling fluid, chemical method is the most
important one. Drilling fluid treatment agents are significant components of drilling
fluid chemistry; therefore, their types, structures, properties, and function mecha-
nisms must be clearly understood.
Cement slurry chemistry is a study on cement slurry composition, performance,
and their control and adjustment, aiming at plugging complex and leakage for-
mation and protecting production formation and casing. Therefore, the types,
structures, properties, and function mechanisms of cement slurry admixtures
become the main components of cement slurry chemistry.
Clay is an important raw material in preparing drilling fluid, and its major
component is clay mineral. The structure and basic characteristics of clay minerals
are closely associated with the performance of the drilling fluid and its control and
adjustment, so the structure and basic characteristics of clay minerals should be
understood. Thus, in Part I, three chapters are given including clay minerals, dril-
ling fluid chemistry, and cement slurry chemistry.
Chapter 1
Clay Minerals

Clay mineral is the major component of clay. Its crystal structure and basic char-
acteristics have a direct impact on the performance of drilling fluid.

1.1 Basic Structure of Clay Minerals

Although clay minerals differ vastly in types and structures, they all possess the same
basic tectonic units. These basic tectonic units form basic tectonic sheets, then basic
tectonic sheets form basic structure layers, and finally, these basic structure layers
compose various kinds of clay minerals (Velde 1992; van Olphen 1977; Grim 1953).

1.1.1 The Basic Tectonic Units and Basic Tectonic Sheets

Clay minerals have two basic tectonic units: silicon-oxygen tetrahedron and alu-
mina octahedron. These two basic tectonic units form two basic tectonic sheets
(also known as the chips).

1.1.1.1 Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron and Silicon-Oxygen

Tetrahedron Sheet

Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron is composed of a silicon atom and four much bigger

oxygen atoms located equidistantly to this silicon atom (Fig. 1.1). It can be
observed from Fig. 1.1 that in silicon-oxygen tetrahedron, three oxygen atoms lie in
the same plane, named as bottom oxygen atoms, while the one located on the top is
referred as the top oxygen atom.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and China University of Petroleum Press 2018 3
C. Dai and F. Zhao, Oilfield Chemistry,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2950-0_1
4 1 Clay Minerals

Fig. 1.1 Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron

Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron sheet is formed by multiple silicon-oxygen tetrahe-

drons sharing bottom oxygen atoms (Fig. 1.2). Therefore, each silicon-oxygen
tetrahedron sheet has bottom oxygen atom plane and top oxygen atom plane.
Obviously, the bottom oxygen plane contains more oxygen atoms than the top
oxygen plane does. Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron sheet can extend infinitely in the
plane, forming a structure with continuous hexagonal grids (Fig. 1.3). The inscribed
circle diameter of this hexagonal grid is around 0.288 nm, while the thickness of
silicon-oxygen tetrahedron sheet is about 0.5 nm.

Fig. 1.2 Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron sheet

Fig. 1.3 Hexagonal grid structure of silicon-oxygen tetrahedron sheet

1.1 Basic Structure of Clay Minerals 5

Fig. 1.4 Alumina octahedron

Fig. 1.5 Alumina octahedron sheet

1.1.1.2 Alumina Octahedron and Alumina Octahedron Sheet

Alumina octahedron is formed through coordination between an aluminum atom

and six oxygen atoms (or hydroxyl groups) (Fig. 1.4).
Similarly, alumina octahedron sheet is constructed by sharing oxygen atoms.
There are two parallel planes of oxygen atoms (or hydroxyl groups) in the alumina
octahedron sheet; all the oxygen atoms (or hydroxyl groups) in the alumina octa-
hedron sheet distribute in the two planes (Fig. 1.5).

1.1.2 The Basic Structure Layer

The basic structure layer (also called crystal layer) of clay mineral is constructed by
silicon-oxygen tetrahedron sheet and alumina octahedron sheet bonding with each
other at different ratios.
6 1 Clay Minerals

1.1.2.1 1:1 Basic Structure Layer

This kind of basic structure layer is constructed by a silicon-oxygen tetrahedron

sheet bonding with an alumina octahedron sheet. It is the simplest crystal structure
of layered-structured silicon aluminum acid salt clay mineral.
In the 1:1 basic structure layer, the top oxygen atoms of silicon-oxygen tetra-
hedron sheet form a part of alumina octahedron sheet, replacing part of the
hydroxyl groups in alumina octahedron sheet. Therefore, there are five layers of
atoms in the 1:1 basic structure, which are one layer of silicon atoms, one layer of
aluminum atoms, and three layers of oxygen atoms (or hydroxyl groups). The
crystal structure of kaolinite is composed of this basic structure layer.

1.1.2.2 2:1 Basic Structure Layer

This kind of basic structure is constructed by two silicon-oxygen tetrahedron

sheets sandwiching one alumina octahedron sheet. The top oxygen atoms of two
silicon-oxygen tetrahedron sheets substitute, respectively, the two oxygen atoms in
the alumina octahedron sheet, or part of the hydroxyl groups in the hydroxyl plane.
Therefore, there are seven layers of atoms in the 2:1 basic structure, which are one
layer of aluminum atoms, two layers of silicon atoms, and four layers of oxygen
atoms (or hydroxyl groups). The crystal structure of montmorillonite is constructed
by this kind of basic structure layer.

1.1.3 Concepts Derived from Repeating and Stacking

of the Basic Structure Layers

Clay minerals are constructed by stacking of the two kinds of basic structure layers
mentioned above. When the two basic structure layers stack repeatedly, the space
between two adjacent structure layers is called interlayer space. The basic structure
layer together with the interlayer space is called the unit structure of clay minerals.
The substances existing in the interlayer are called interlayer matter. If the matter is
water, then this kind of water is called interlayer water; if cations exist in the
interlayer space, these cations are called interlayer cations. The vertical distance
between corresponding crystal planes of adjacent basic structural layers is called
lattice spacing. These concepts are all derived from repeating and stacking of the
basic structure layers.
1.2 Clay Minerals 7

1.2 Clay Minerals

Clay minerals include kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, chlorite, palygorskite,

sepiolite, etc. And the first three are the most common ones.

1.2.1 Kaolinite

The basic structure layer of kaolinite is constructed by an oxygen silicon tetrahe-

dron sheet bonding with an alumina octahedron sheet, so kaolinite belongs to type
1:1 clay mineral. The kaolinite clay mineral crystal is constructed by the infinite
extension of basic structure layer along the layer level (i.e., the axis a and axis b in a
rectangular coordinate system) and the repetitive stacking of basic structure layer
along the direction perpendicular to the layer level (i.e., the axis c in a rectangular
coordinate system), and its lattice spacing is around 0.72 nm (Fig. 1.6).
In the structure of kaolinite, one side of the crystal layer is composed of oxygen
atoms only while the other side consists nothing but hydroxyl groups. Crystal layers
are joined tightly through hydrogen bonds and intermolecular forces, and thus, it is
difficult for water to enter the crystal structure.
Lattice substitution is rare in kaolinite. Lattice substitution refers to the
replacement of silicon atoms in oxygen silicon tetrahedron and aluminum atoms in
alumina octahedron by other atoms (usually metal atoms with lower valence state),
such as the replacement of silicon atoms by aluminum atoms and the replacement of
aluminum atoms by magnesium atoms. Lattice substitution results in the unbalance
of crystal electrovalence. To balance the electrovalence, certain amounts of cations

Fig. 1.6 Crystal structure of montmorillonite

8 1 Clay Minerals

are needed in crystal surface. These cations bonded for valence compensation are
exchangeable, so they are called exchangeable cations (or compensating cations).
Because lattice substitution occurs rarely in kaolinite, very few exchangeable
cations exist in its crystal surface.
Kaolinite is a kind of non-expansive clay mineral, which can be understood from
two aspects: the existence of hydrogen bonds between crystal layers and the rarity
of exchangeable cations on crystal surfaces.

1.2.2 Montmorillonite

The basic structure layer of montmorillonite is constructed by two oxygen silicon

tetrahedron sheets and an alumina octahedron sheet, so montmorillonite belongs to
type 2:1 clay mineral. In this basic structure layer, all the top oxygen atoms in
oxygen silicon tetrahedron point toward the alumina octahedron. Silicon-oxygen
tetrahedron sheets and alumina octahedron sheets bond with each other by sharing
oxygen atoms. The basic structure layer extends infinitely along axis a and b and
stacks repeatedly along axis c to construct montmorillonite clay mineral crystal
(Fig. 1.7).
Montmorillonite is a kind of expansive clay mineral. On one hand, in the
structure of montmorillonite, the two sides of crystal layers are composed purely of
oxygen atoms. The interactions between crystal layers are intermolecular forces
(no hydrogen bonds exist), so the crystal layers are loosely bonded and water can
get into the structure easily. On the other hand, a considerable amount of lattice
substitution exists, combining a large number of exchangeable cations in the
crystal surface. When water gets into the crystal layer, these exchangeable cations
dissociate in the water to form diffusible electrical double layer. Thus, the surfaces
of crystal layers are negatively charged, resulting in repulsion between layers and
the clay expansion. Due to the above-mentioned characteristics, the lattice spacing
of montmorillonite is variable, ranging usually between 0.96 and 4.00 nm.
The lattice substitution of montmorillonite occurs mainly in the alumina octa-
hedron sheet, by replacing the aluminum atoms in alumina octahedron with iron
atoms or magnesium atoms. The silicon atoms in silicon-oxygen tetrahedron are
rarely replaced. After lattice substitution, various exchangeable cations can be
bonded on the crystal surface. When the exchangeable cations are mainly sodium
ions, this kind of montmorillonite is called sodium montmorillonite; while when the
exchangeable cations are mainly calcium ions, this kind of montmorillonite is called
calcium montmorillonite. Similarly, there are hydrogen montmorillonite and
lithium montmorillonite, etc.
The main component of bentonite is montmorillonite, and it is an important
drilling fluid material. When the main component of bentonite is sodium mont-
morillonite, it is called sodium soil; while when the main component of bentonite is
calcium montmorillonite, it is called the calcium soil. They can be used as sus-
pending agents and tackifiers for drilling fluid.
1.2 Clay Minerals 9

Fig. 1.7 Crystal structure of montmorillonite

1.2.3 Illite

Similar as montmorillonite, the basic structure layer of illite is constructed by two

oxygen silicon tetrahedron sheets and one alumina octahedron sheet. Illite belongs
to type 2:1 clay mineral (Fig. 1.8).
The structural difference between illite and montmorillonite is that for illite the
lattice substitution mainly takes place in the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron sheets (about
1/6 of the silicon atoms are replaced by aluminum atoms), and exchangeable cations
for the electrovalence compensation are mainly sodium ions. As the diameter of
potassium ion (0.266 nm) is close to that of the inscribed circle in the six-party grid
structure of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron sheet (0.288 nm), it is easy for the
potassium ions to enter the six-party grid structure and get closer to the aluminum
atoms after lattice substitution, resulting in large electrostatic attraction. Due to this
electrostatic attraction, it is difficult for potassium ions to release from the six-party
grid structure of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron sheet. So crystal layers are tightly
10 1 Clay Minerals

Fig. 1.8 Crystal structure of illite

bonded and water cannot enter easily, therefore illite is a kind of expansive clay
mineral. The lattice spacing of illite is stable, generally around 1.0 nm.

1.2.4 Chlorite

The basic structure layer of chlorite consists of a sheet layer similar to illite (type
2:1) and a sheet layer of brucite (Fig. 1.9) (Zhao and Zhang 1990).
Chlorite also belongs to type 2:1 clay mineral. What differs it from other clay
minerals is that its interlayer space is filled by brucite sheets. The brucite sheet is
octahedral sheet, in which the silicon atoms are replaced by aluminum atoms,
resulting in its overall electropositivity. It can replace exchangeable cations to
compensate the unbalanced electrovalence generated by aluminum atoms substi-
tuting silicon atoms in a type 2:1 structure.
It can be observed in Fig. 1.9 that hydrogen bonds exist between crystal layers
of chlorite. On account of the electrostatic attraction between brucite and crystal
layer, the crystal layers of chlorite are tightly bonded and water cannot enter the
interlayer easily. So chlorite is also a kind of non-expansive clay mineral.
The lattice spacing of chlorite is also quite stable, generally around 1.42 nm.
1.2 Clay Minerals 11

Fig. 1.9 Crystal structure of chlorite

1.2.5 Palygorskite and Sepiolite

Palygorskite and sepiolite are both chain-layered clay minerals, which are different
from the aforementioned layered clay minerals (such as kaolinite, montmorillonite,
illite) (Yang et al. 1994; Ren 1992).
The crystal structure of palygorskite and sepiolite can be understood as type 2:1
layered structure. If the silica tetrahedron of type 2:1 layered crystal structure is
rotated 180° at regular intervals and stretched along axis a, the structure of paly-
gorskite and sepiolite could be formed. This structure combines the characteristics
of both chain-like clay minerals and layered clay minerals, and thus, they are called
chain-layered clay minerals.
12 1 Clay Minerals

Fig. 1.10 Crystal structure of palygorskite

Fig. 1.11 Three-dimensional schematic of palygorskite crystal structure

The crystal structure of palygorskite is shown in Fig. 1.10. It is constructed by a

type 2:1 layered sheet rotating 180° for every four silica tetrahedrons and extending
along axis a. The three-dimensional schematic of palygorskite crystal structure is
illustrated in Fig. 1.11, in which the dashed frame indicates the crystal structure
demonstrated in Fig. 1.10. It can be also observed in Fig. 1.11 that due to the
rotating and extending of silica tetrahedrons, a channel parallel to axis a is formed,
accommodating water molecules and exchangeable cations.
Figure 1.12 shows the crystal structure of sepiolite. It is constructed by a type
2:1 layered sheet rotating 180° for every six silica tetrahedrons and extending along
axis a. When rotating 180°, sepiolite needs to cross more silica tetrahedrons than
palygorskite does; thus in its structure, sepiolite has wider channel parallel to axis a.
1.2 Clay Minerals 13

Fig. 1.12 Crystal structure of sepiolite

Lattice substitution occurs rarely in palygorskite and sepiolite. For these two
kinds of clays, their crystals are slender and easily assembled to bundles, with
fiber-like appearance. Usually they have good water solubility and can entangle
with each other to generate structural viscosity; therefore, they can act as tackifier.
On the other hand, this tackifying effect is salinity-insensitive, so these two kinds of
clays possess good salt resistance. Clays containing palygorskite and sepiolite as
major components are called salt-resistant clays.

1.2.6 Mixed Crystal-Layered Clay Mineral

Mixed crystal-layered clay minerals are also called mixed layer minerals. They are
constructed by different kinds of clay mineral crystal layers stacking with each other
(orderly or disorderly). Some common examples are the mineral mixed by illite and
montmorillonite (referred as I/S mixed layer) and the mineral mixed by chlorite and
montmorillonite (referred as C/S mixed layer). Generally, mixed layer minerals are
more prone to expand and disperse in water as compared with single component
clay minerals.

1.3 Properties of Clay Minerals

The following properties of clay minerals are closely related to the performances of
drilling fluid (Swartzen-Allen and Matijevic 1974).
14 1 Clay Minerals

1.3.1 Electrical Property

The electrical property of the surface of clay minerals refers to the charge symbol
and capacity when the surface of clay minerals and water contact with each other.
There are two sources for the electrical properties of clay minerals.

1.3.1.1 The Dissociation of Exchangeable Cations

Certain amounts of exchangeable cations exist on the surface of clay minerals.

When clay minerals contact with water, these exchangeable cations will dissociate
from the surfaces of clay minerals and align around mineral surfaces by diffusion to
form diffused electric double layer, rendering mineral surfaces electronegative.
Therefore, larger number of exchangeable cations on mineral surfaces would result
in higher electrical capacity and stronger electronegativity after dissociation of the
surfaces.
The electrical capacity of the clay mineral surfaces can be expressed by cation
exchange capacity (CEC).
Cation exchange capacity is the total number of cations got exchanged from 1 kg
clay minerals in condition of pH 7 (demonstrated as the molar amount of univalent
cations). The unit is mmol
kg−1.
Different kinds of clay minerals have different cation exchange capacities.
Table 1.1 shows cation exchange capacities of various clay minerals (Gray et al.
1980). It can be observed from Table 1.1 that montmorillonite has the largest CEC
while kaolinite possesses the minimum CEC.
Generally speaking, the larger number of lattice substitution, the higher CEC.
However, there are some exceptions. For example, illite has the largest number of
lattice substitution among clay minerals. However, the positions where lattice
substitutions occur locate in silica tetrahedron sheet, which are close to surfaces of
crystal layers. On the other hand, the exchangeable cations are potassium ions,
which are not easily exchanged by other cations. Therefore, the cation exchange
capacity of illite is lower than that of montmorillonite.

Table 1.1 Cation exchange capacity of clay minerals

Clay minerals Cation exchange capacity (mmol/kg)
Kaolinite 30–150
Montmorillonite 800–1,500
Illite 200–400
Chlorite 100–400
Palygorskite 100–200
Sepiolite 200–450
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Manila. Many became ill from too free indulgence in the fruits
and manufactured drinks of the country, and indifference to
that care and attention of person which a tropical climate
makes necessary. Homesickness alone produced illness in
numerous cases, so that early in September the hospitals began
to be rapidly filled. This led to the adoption of judicious
precautionary measures. … In November improvement was
noticeable, and in January the health of this army would
compare favorably with those of any concentrated army of like
proportions in existence. To be sure the men had become by
this time fairly acclimatized, and new troops arriving here
will be obliged to pass through this period of acclimatization
before they become properly efficient for prolonged service in
the field.

{372}

"During my first weeks of duty here I was impressed with the

spirit of suspicion and the partially concealed unfriendly
feeling manifested by the Tagalos toward the American forces.
That they either had very little confidence in our promises or
were then forming conclusions to oppose any establishment of
United States authority in Luzon was apparent, however loudly
they might disclaim hostile intent or declare as an excuse for
their attitude fear of the return of Spain. I saw, however,
with satisfaction, their ablest men by education, and mental
equipment taking part in their authoritative deliberations,
and I had considerable confidence in the efficacy of their
suggestions and advice. Still, after carefully weighing
conditions, I was unable to arrive at any satisfactory
conclusions. …

"Measures were being applied constantly to improve the

sanitary condition of the city, to increase the efficiency of
the troops, and to meet any emergency which might develop from
an uprising of the inhabitants, or from hasty action by any
portion of our or the insurgent forces, which, though
maintaining amicable intercourse, were, in fact, in an
attitude of resistance and hostility upon all questions
involving the right of armed occupation of the suburbs and
defenses of Manila. The insurgent soldiers had looted
extensively the portions of the city to which they gained
access, and were greatly disappointed that this privilege over
other parts of the same was not accorded them. Their enforced
withdrawal to outer lines was the cause of discontent, and
augmented any desire which they may have formerly entertained
to resist or attack the American troops. This growing
discontent was observable among the lower classes of the
city's inhabitants, from whom a considerable share of
Aguinaldo's army was drawn, and was undoubtedly increased by
the reprehensible conduct and illegal actions of some of our
own men, who were severely punished for their misdeeds when
detected. Outwardly, however, relations of the most friendly
character were maintained. The officers and enlisted men of
the two armies mingled in friendly social intercourse. To the
casual observer the only discordant element in this dense
complex population, made up of every nation and tongue in
existence, were the hated Spanish prisoners, whom the
Filipinos still longed to persecute and kill, and who were
obliged to keep within the walls of Old Manila for safety.
Repeated conferences were held with influential insurgents,
whose chief aim appeared to be to obtain some authoritative
expression on the intent of the United States with regard to
the Philippines, and complained that they were unable to
discover anyone who could speak ex cathedra. They asserted
that their Malolos arrangement was a government de facto,
which had the right to ask an expression of intent from the
United States Government. …

"My own confidence at this time in a satisfactory solution of

the difficulties which confronted us may be gathered from a
dispatch sent to Washington on December 7, wherein I stated
that conditions were improving and that there were signs of
revolutionary disintegration; that I had conferred with a
 number of the members of the revolutionary government and
thought that the most of them would favor peaceful submission
to United States authority. I had strong reasons for this
expressed confidence from assurances made to me by some of the
ablest Filipinos who had occupied positions of importance in the
insurgent government and had signified their intention to
withdraw from it."

Report of General Otis,

August 31, 1899
(Message and Documents: Abridgement, 1899-1900,
volume 2, pages 1048-1052).

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1898 (August-December).

The state of things following the occupation of Manila,
as represented by English witnesses.

The writer of the following remarks, in an interesting book on

"The Inhabitants of the Philippines," published late in 1900, is
an English civil engineer, who had resided in Luzon for
fourteen years and knew the country and people thoroughly
well:

"Personally, I think that if a sympathetic and conciliatory

attitude had been adopted, had the local government
established been recognized, had Aguinaldo and his staff been
given commissions in the Native Army or Civil Service, and the
flower of the Tagal Army taken into the service of the United
States, a peaceful settlement could have been made on the
lines of a Protectorate. I therefore look upon the war as
unnecessary, and consider the lives already sacrificed, and
that will have to be sacrificed, as absolutely thrown away.
The tragical side of American unpreparedness is manifest in
the state of anarchy in which the whole Archipelago has been
plunged by the American unreadiness to occupy the military
posts as soon as they were vacated by the Spanish garrisons. A
hideous orgy of murder, plunder, and slave-raiding has
prevailed in Visayas, and especially in Mindanao.

"Three conditions were essential to a peaceful settlement:

First.
A broad-minded and sympathetic representative of America,
fully authorized to treat, and a lover of peace.

Second.
A strict discipline amongst the American forces.

Third,
The principal aim and object of the Tagal insurrection must be
secured.

"General Otis does not seem to me to fulfil the first

condition, he lacked prestige and patience, and he showed that
he had an insufficient conception of the magnitude of his task
by occupying himself with petty details of all kinds and by
displaying an ill-timed parsimony. Apparently he had no power
to grant anything at all, and only dealt in vague generalities
which the Tagals could not be expected to accept.

"As regards the second point, I regret that I am not

personally acquainted with the gentlemen from Nebraska,
Colorado, Dakota and other states serving in the United States
Army or volunteers. I have no doubt that they are good
fighting-men, but from all I can hear about them they are not
conspicuous for strict military discipline, and too many of
them have erroneous ideas as to the most suitable drink for a
tropical climate. Manila was in the time of the Spaniards a
most temperate city; a drunken man was a very rare sight, and
would usually be a foreign sailor. Since the American
occupation, some hundreds of drinking saloons have been
opened, and daily scenes of drunkenness and debauchery have
filled the quiet natives with alarm and horror. When John L.
Motley wrote his scathing denunciation of the army which the
 great Duke of Alva led from Spain into the Low Countries, to
enforce the high religious purposes of Philip II., he could
not foresee that his words would be applicable to an American
Army sent to subjugate men struggling to be free 'for their
welfare, not our gain,' nor that this army, besides bringing
in its train a flood of cosmopolitan harlotry, would be
allowed by its commander to inaugurate amongst a strictly
temperate people a mad saturnalia of drunkenness that has
scarcely a parallel.
{373}
Such, however, is undoubtedly the case, and I venture to think
that these occurrences have confirmed many of the Tagals in
their resolve rather to die fighting for their independence
than to be ruled over by such as these."

F. H. Sawyer,
The Inhabitants of the Philippines,
page 113-114 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons).

Substantially the same account of things at Manila in this

period has been given in a magazine article by Mr. John
Foreman, the well known writer on the Philippine Islands. "The
conduct," he declares, "of the boisterous, undisciplined
individuals who formed a large percentage of the first
volunteer contingents sent to Manila had had an ineffaceably
demoralizing effect on the proletariat, and has inspired a
feeling of horror and loathful contempt in the affluent and
educated classes who guide the Philippine public opinion. From
the outset it was a mistake to treat the Christian Philippine
population like savages ignorant of western civilization,
considering that there are thousands of Filipinos mentally
equal to the invading forces, and comparable, in intellectual
training, with the average middle-class Europeans.

"Within a fortnight after the capitulation of Manila the

drinking saloons had increased four-fold. According to the
latest advices, there are at least twenty to one existing in
the time of the Spaniards. Drunkenness, with its consequent
evils, is rife all over the city among the new white
population. The orgies of the new-comers, the incessant street
brawls, the insults offered with impunity to natives of both
sexes, the entry with violence into private houses by the
soldiery, who maltreated the inmates and laid hands on what
they chose, were hardly calculated to arouse in the natives
admiration for their new masters. Brothels were absolutely
prohibited under the Spanish rule, but since the evacuation
there has been a great influx of women of ill fame, whilst
native women have been pursued by lustful tormentors. During a
certain period after the capitulation there was indiscriminate
shooting, and no peaceable native's life was safe in the
suburbs. Adventurers of all sorts and conditions have flocked
to this centre of vice, where the sober native is not even
spoken of as a man by many of the armed rank and file, but, by
way of contempt, is called a yuyu. A few miles from Manila,
the villages of Mandaloyan and Sant Ana were looted by the
victors, much of the spoil being brought up to the capital and
included in auction sales or sold to the Chinese. In Taal the
houses of families, with whom I have been long acquainted,
were ransacked, effects of little value, or too difficult to
transport, being carelessly strewn about from sheer
wantonness. And presumably no greater respect for private
property was shown in the other numerous villages overrun by
the invaders. …

"The situation then during this period was somewhat as

follows: The Filipinos, aided by Dewey's victory, had driven
the Spaniards from practically the whole Archipelago except
the city of Manila, they had established a government of their
own, and they looked upon the country as belonging both by
nature and by right of conquest to them. We upon the other
hand, having destroyed the Spanish fleet and captured the city
of Manila, and being in the process of acquiring by treaty the
Spanish title to the whole country regarded it as belonging to
us. The situation was therefore critical."
 J. Foreman,
Will the United States withdraw from the Philippines?
(National Review, September, 1900).

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1898 (September-December).

Instructions from the President of the United States to the
Commissioners for the negotiation of peace with Spain
concerning the Philippine Archipelago.
Cession of the Islands to the United States.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1898 (JULY-DECEMBER).

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1898 (October-November).

State of the country under the native government of Aguinaldo,
as witnessed by two U. S. naval officers who traversed it.-
Conflicting opinions as to the fitness of the Filipinos
for self-government.

During October and November, 1898, while the only authority in

Luzon, outside of Manila and Cavite, was that exercised by the
native government organized under Aguinaldo, two American
naval officers, Paymaster W. B. Wilcox and Cadet Leonard R.
Sargent, with permission from Admiral Dewey, made a tour of
observation through seven provinces of the island, and
rendered a report of what they saw and what they experienced,
which Admiral Dewey sent to Washington, commending it to the
attention of the government as containing "the most complete
and reliable information obtainable in regard to the present
state of the northern part of Luzon Island." Subsequently Mr.
Sargent wrote articles descriptive of the journey, which were
published in "The Outlook" and "The Independent," and which
were reprinted, with the official report, in a document
compiled for the U. S. Senate. The following is from the
article in "The Outlook," September 2, 1899:
 "Although this government has never been recognized, and in
all probability will go out of existence without recognition,
yet it cannot be denied that, in a region occupied by many
millions of inhabitants, for nearly six months it stood alone
between anarchy and order. The military forces of the United
States held control only in Manila, with its environs, and in
Cavite, and had no authority to proceed further; while in the
vast remaining districts the representatives of the only
recognized power on the field were prisoners in the hands of
their despised subjects. It was the opinion at Manila during
this anomalous period in our Philippine relations, and
possibly in the United States as well, that such a state of
affairs must breed something akin to anarchy. I can state
unreservedly, however, that Mr. Wilcox and I found the
existing conditions to be much at variance with this opinion.
During our absence from Manila we travelled more than 600
miles in a very comprehensive circuit through the northern
part of the island of Luzon, traversing a characteristic and
important district. In this way we visited seven provinces, of
which some were under the immediate control of the central
government at Malolos, while others were remotely situated,
separated from each other and from the seat of government by
natural divisions of land, and accessible only by lengthy and
arduous travel. As a tribute to the efficiency of Aguinaldo's
government and to the law-abiding character of his subjects, I
offer the fact that Mr. Wilcox and I pursued our journey
throughout in perfect security, and returned to Manila with
only the most pleasant recollections of the quiet and orderly
life which we found the natives to be leading under the new
regime."

{374}

The following is from the official report, jointly made by

Cadet Sargent and Paymaster Wilcox:
"The Philippine officers, both military and civil, that we
have met in all the provinces we have visited, have, with very
few exceptions, been men of intelligent appearance and
conversation. The same is true of all those men who form the
upper class in each town. The education of most of them is
limited, but they appear to seize every opportunity to improve
it. They have great respect and admiration for learning. Very
many of them desire to send their children to schools in the
United States or Europe. Many men of importance in different
towns have told us that the first use to be made of the
revenues of their government, after there is no more danger of
war, will be to start good schools in every village. The
poorer classes are extremely ignorant on most subjects, but a
large percentage of them can read and write. …

"Of the large number of officers, civil and military, and of

the leading townspeople we have met, nearly every man has
expressed in our presence his sentiment on this question [of
independence]. It is universally the same. They all declare
that they will accept nothing short of independence. They
desire the protection of the United States at sea, but fear
any interference on land. …

"There is much variety of feeling among the Philippines with

regard to the debt of gratitude they owe the United States. In
every town we found men who said that our nation had saved
them from slavery, and others who claimed that without our
interference their independence would have been recognized
before this time. On one point they are united, however, viz.,
that whatever our Government may have done for them it has not
gained the right to annex them. They have been prejudiced
against us by the Spaniards. The charges made have been so
numerous and so severe that what the natives have since
learned has not sufficed to disillusion them. With regard to
the record of our policy toward a subject people, they have
received remarkable information on two points,—that we have
mercilessly slain and finally exterminated the race of Indians
that were natives of our soil, and that we went to war in 1861
to suppress an insurrection of negro slaves, whom we also
ended by exterminating. Intelligent and well-informed men have
believed these charges. They were rehearsed to us in many
towns in different provinces, beginning at Malolos. The
Spanish version of our Indian problem is particularly well
known."

United States, 56th Congress, 1st Session,

Senate Document 66.

In the third number of the first series of its publications,

the Philippine Information Society—see below: A. D. 1899
(JANUARY-FEBRUARY)—has brought together a number of
conflicting opinions expressed by various persons concerning
the capacity of the Filipinos for self-government, among them
the following:

"The population of Luzon is reported to be something over

3,000,000, mostly natives. These are gentle, docile, and under
just laws and with the benefits of popular education would
soon make good citizens. In a telegram sent to the department
on June 23 I expressed the opinion that 'these people are far
superior in their intelligence and more capable of
self-government than the natives of Cuba, and I am familiar
with both races.' Further intercourse with them has confirmed
me in this opinion."

Admiral Dewey,
Letter, August 29, 1898,
Replying to inquiry of War Department.

"They [the natives] would have to be educated up to it

[self-government]. They want a protectorate, but they do not
exactly understand what that means. Their idea is that they
should collect the revenues and keep them in their treasury,
and that we should be at the expense of maintaining an army
and a navy there for their protection, which is the kind of a
protectorate they would like very much."

General Merritt,
statement before United States Peace Commission at Paris,
October 4, 1898.

"If the United States should evacuate these islands, anarchy

and civil war will immediately ensue and lead to foreign
intervention. The insurgents were furnished arms and the moral
support of the navy prior to our arrival, and we cannot ignore
obligations, either to the insurgents or to foreign nations,
which our own acts have imposed upon us. The Spanish
Government is completely demoralized, and Spanish power is
dead beyond all possibility of resurrection. … On the other
hand, the Filipinos cannot govern the country without the
support of some strong nation. They acknowledge this
themselves, and say their desire is for independence under
American protection, but they have only vague ideas as to what
our relative positions would be—what part we should take in
collecting and expending the revenue, and administering the
government."

General F. V. Greene,
Memorandum concerning the Philippine Islands,
made August 27, 1898.

"The capability of the Filipinos for self-government cannot be

doubted. Such men as Arellano, Aguinaldo, and many others whom
I might name are highly educated; nine tenths of the people
can read and write, all are skilled artisans in one way or
another; they are industrious, frugal, temperate, and, given a
fair start, could look out for themselves infinitely better
than our people imagine. In my opinion they rank far higher
than the Cubans or the uneducated negroes to whom we have
given right of suffrage."
 General Charles King,
Letter to Milwaukee Journal,
June 22, 1899.

"Concerning the capacity of the Filipinos to govern themselves

I regret to say that I see no reason to change the opinion
previously expressed, that they are unfit. I wish my opinion
might be otherwise, for I prefer to believe them capable of
self-government. There are a number of Filipinos whom I have
met, among them General Aguinaldo and a few of his leaders,
whom I believe thoroughly trustworthy and fully capable of
self-government, and the main reliance for small official
positions and many larger ones would be upon people who know
no standard of government other than that the Spaniards have
furnished. Their sense of equity and justice seems not fully
developed, and their readiness to coerce those who come under
their power has been strongly illustrated in this city since
our occupation. A regularly organized system of blackmail has
been instituted under the guise of making subscriptions to the
insurgent cause."

Major J. F. Bell
[of Engineers, on "secret service"]
Letter to General Merritt, Manila, August 29, 1898.

{375}

"The people are the most enlightened and vigorous branch of

the Malay race, and have been Christians for centuries, in
fact longer than the principles of the Reformation were
established in Great Britain, and are the nearest akin to
European people of any alien race, and it is simply ridiculous
to imagine that eight to ten millions of such people can be
bought and sold as an article of commerce without first
obtaining their consent. Let all those who are greedy for a
slice of the archipelago ponder well over this before burning
their fingers."
 H. W. Bray
[merchant and planter in the islands for fifteen years],
Letter to Singapore Free Press, June 8, 1898.

"The native has no expansive ideas; he cannot go far enough to

understand what it is to rule matters for the benefit of the
common weal; he cannot get past his own most personal
interest, or his town, at the most. I think the greatest
length he would go would be his own town. But constructing
laws, and obeying them, for the benefit of the commonwealth, I
do not think he is capable of it at all. I think an attempt at
a native government would be a fiasco altogether."

John Foreman,
Testimony before United States Peace Commission at Paris.

"The excuse that they [the Filipinos] are not ripe for
independence is not founded on facts. The Filipinos number
more educated people than the kingdom of Servia and the
principalities of Bulgaria and Montenegro. They have fewer
illiterates than the states of the Balkan peninsula, Russia,
many provinces of Spain and Portugal, and the Latin republics
of America. There are provinces in which few people can be
found who do not at least read. They pay more attention to
education than Spain or the Balkan states do. There is no lack
of trained men fit to govern their own country, and indeed in
every branch, because under the Spanish rule the official
business was entirely transacted by the native subalterns. The
whole history of the Katipunan revolt and of the war against
Spain and America serves to place in the best light the
capability of the Filipinos for self-government."

F. Blumentritt,
The Philippine Islands,
page 61.
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1898-1899 (December-January).
Instructions by the President of the United States to
General Otis, Military Governor and Commander in
the Philippines.
Their proclamation to the people of the Islands as
modified by General Otis.
The effect.

On the 27th of December, 1898, the following instructions,

dated December 21, and signed by the President, were cabled by
the Secretary of War to General Otis, in command of the United
States forces in the Philippines. They were not made public in
the United States until the 5th of January following, when
they appeared in the newspapers of that day: "The destruction
of the Spanish fleet in the harbor of Manila by the United
States naval squadron commanded by Rear Admiral Dewey,
followed by the reduction of the city and the surrender of the
Spanish forces, practically effected the conquest of the
Philippine Islands and the suspension of Spanish sovereignty
therein. With the signature of the treaty of peace between the
United States and Spain by their respective plenipotentiaries
at Paris, on the 10th inst., and as the result of victories of
the American arms, the future control, fulfilment disposition
and government of the Philippine Islands are ceded to the
United States. In of the offices of the sovereignty thus
acquired, and the responsible obligations of government thus
assumed, the actual occupation and administration of the
entire group becomes immediately necessary, and the military
government heretofore maintained by the United States in the
city, harbor and bay of Manila is to be extended with all
possible despatch to the whole of the ceded territory. In
performance of this duty, the military commander of the United
States is enjoined to make known to the inhabitants of the
Philippine Islands that in succeeding to the sovereignty of
the islands, in severing the former political relations of the
inhabitants and in establishing a new political power, the
authority of the United States is to be exerted for the
security of the persons and property of the people of the
islands and for the confirmation of all their private rights.
It will be the duty of the commander of the forces of
occupation to announce and proclaim in the most public manner
that we come, not as invaders or conquerors, but as friends,
to protect the natives in their homes, in their employments
and in their personal and religious rights. All persons who,
either by active aid or by honest submission, cooperate with
the government of the United States to give effect to these
beneficent purposes, will receive the reward of its support
and protection. All others will be brought within the lawful
rule we have assumed, with firmness if need be, but without
severity so far as may be possible.

"Within the absolute domain of military authority, which

necessarily is and must remain supreme in the ceded territory
until the government of the United States shall otherwise
provide, the municipal laws of the territory in respect to
private interests and property and the repression of crime are
continued in force, the authority to be administered by the
ordinary tribunals so far as practicable. The operations of
civil and municipal government are to be performed by such
officers as may accept the supremacy of the United States by
taking the oath of allegiance, or by officers chosen, as far
as may be practicable, from the inhabitants of the islands.
While the control of all the public property and the revenues
of the state passes with the cession, and while the use and
management of all public means are of necessity reserved to
the authority of the United States, private property, whether
belonging to individuals or corporations, is to be respected
except for cause duly established. The taxes and duties
heretofore payable by the inhabitants to the late government
become payable to the authorities of the United States, unless
it be seen fit to substitute for them other reasonable rates
or modes of contribution to the expenses of government,
whether general or local. If private property be taken for
military use, it shall be paid for when possible in cash at a
 fair valuation, and when payment in cash is not practicable
receipts are to be given.

{376}

"All ports and places in the Philippine Islands in the actual

possession of the land and naval forces of the United States
will be opened to the commerce of all friendly nations. All
goods and wares not prohibited for military reasons by due
announcement of the military authority will be admitted upon
payment of such duties and other charges as shall be in force
at the time of their importation. Finally, it should be the
earnest and paramount aim of the military administration to
win the confidence, respect and affection of the inhabitants
of the Philippines by assuring to them in every possible way
that full measure of individual rights and liberties which is
the heritage of free peoples, and by proving to them that the
mission of the United States is one of benevolent
assimilation, substituting the mild sway of justice and right
for arbitrary rule. In the fulfilment of this high mission,
supporting the temperate administration of affairs to the
greatest good of the governed, there must be sedulously
maintained the strong arm of authority, to repress disturbance
and to overcome all obstacles to the bestowal of the blessings
of good and stable government upon the people of the
Philippine Islands under the free flag of the United States.

WILLIAM McKINLEY."

On receiving President McKinley's "proclamation," as the

instructions of December 21 were commonly described, General
Otis promptly forwarded a copy to General Miller, who had been
sent to occupy the city of Iloilo, and the latter made it public.
Meantime General Otis had studied the document with care and
arrived at conclusions which he sets forth in his subsequent
annual report as follows: "After fully considering the
President's proclamation and the temper of the Tagalos with
whom I was daily discussing political problems and the
friendly intentions of the United States Government toward
them, I concluded that there were certain words and
expressions therein, such as 'sovereignty,' 'right of
cession,' and those which directed immediate occupation, etc.,
though most admirably employed and tersely expressive of
actual conditions, might be advantageously used by the Tagalo
war party to incite widespread hostilities among the natives.
The ignorant classes had been taught to believe that certain
words, as 'sovereignty,' 'protection,' etc., had peculiar
meaning disastrous to their welfare and significant of future
political domination, like that from which they had recently
been freed. It was my opinion, therefore, that I would be
justified in so amending the paper that the beneficent object
of the United States Government would be brought clearly
within the comprehension of the people, and this conclusion
was the more readily reached because of the radical change [a
change of cabinet] of the past few days in the constitution of
Aguinaldo's government, which could not have been understood
at Washington at the time the proclamation was prepared. …

"The amended proclamation of January 4 appeared in the

English, Spanish, and Tagalo languages, and was published in
Manila through newspapers and posters. The English text is as
follows: 'To the people of the Philippine Islands:
Instructions of His Excellency the President of the United
States relative to the administration of affairs in the
Philippine Islands have been transmitted to me by direction of
the honorable the Secretary of War, under date of December 28,
1898. They direct me to publish and proclaim, in the most
public manner, to the inhabitants of these islands that in the
war against Spain the United States forces came here to
destroy the power of that nation and to give the blessings of
peace and individual freedom to the Philippine people; that we
are here as friends of the Filipinos; to protect them in their
homes, their employments, their individual and religious
liberty, and that all persons who, either by active aid or
honest endeavor, co-operate with the Government of the United
States to give effect to these beneficent purposes, will
receive the reward of its support and protection. The
President of the United States has assumed that the municipal
laws of the country in respect to private rights and property
and the repression of crime are to be considered as continuing
in force in so far as they be applicable to a free people, and
should be administered by the ordinary tribunals of justice,
presided over by representatives of the people and those in
thorough sympathy with them in their desires for good
government; that the functions and duties connected with civil
and municipal administration are to be performed by such
officers as wish to accept the assistance of the United
States, chosen in so far as it may be practicable from the
inhabitants of the islands; that while the management of
public property and revenues and the use of all public means
of transportation are to be conducted under the military
authorities, until such authorities can be replaced by civil
administration, all private property, whether of individuals
or corporations, must be respected and protected. If private
property be taken for military uses it shall be paid for at a
fair valuation in cash if possible, and when payment in cash
is not practicable at the time, receipts therefor will be
given to be taken up and liquidated as soon as cash becomes
available. The ports of the Philippine Islands shall be open
to the commerce of all foreign nations, and goods and
merchandise not prohibited for military reasons by the
military authorities shall be admitted upon payment of such
duties and charges as shall be in force at the time of
importation. The President concludes his instructions in the
following language: "Finally, it should be the earnest and
paramount aim of the Administration to win the confidence,
respect, and affection of the inhabitants of the Philippines
by insuring to them in every possible way the full measure of
individual rights and liberty which is the heritage of a free
people, and by proving to them that the mission of the United
States is one of beneficent assimilation, which will
 substitute the mild sway of justice and right for arbitrary
rule. In the fulfillment of this high mission, while upholding
the temporary administration of affairs for the greatest good
of the governed, there will be sedulously maintained the
strong arm of authority to repress disturbance, and to
overcome all obstacles to the bestowal of the blessings of
good and stable government upon the people of the Philippine
Islands."

"'From the tenor and substance of the above instructions of

the President, I am fully of the opinion that it is the
intention of the United States Government, while directing
affairs generally, to appoint the representative men now
forming the controlling element of the Filipinos to civil
positions of trust and responsibility, and it will be my aim
to appoint thereto such Filipinos as may be acceptable to the
supreme authorities at Washington. It is also my belief that
it is the intention of the United States Government to draw
from the Filipino people so much of the military force of the
islands as is possible and consistent with a free and
well-constituted government of the country, and it is my
desire to inaugurate a policy of that character.
{377}
I am also convinced that it is the intention of the United
States Government to seek the establishment of a most liberal
government for the islands, in which the people themselves
shall have as full representation as the maintenance of law
and order will permit, and which shall be susceptible of
development, on lines of increased representation and the
bestowal of increased powers, into a government as free and
independent as is enjoyed by the most favored provinces of the
world. It will be my constant endeavor to cooperate with the
Filipino people, seeking the good of the country, and I invite
their full confidence and aid.
E. S. OTIS, Major-General,
U. S. V., Military Governor.'
"Before publication of this proclamation I endeavored to
obtain from able Filipino residents of the city an expression
of opinion as to its probable effect upon the population, but
was not much encouraged. A few days thereafter they declared
the publication to have been a mistake, although the foreign
residents appeared to believe the proclamation most excellent
in tone and moderation, offered everything that the most
hostile of the insurgents could expect, and undoubtedly would
have a beneficial influence. It was received by the better
classes of natives with satisfaction, as it was the first
authoritative announcement of the attitude which the United
States assumed toward the islands and declared the policy
which it intended to pursue, and because the declared policy
was one which, in their opinion, conditions imperatively
demanded should be imposed for the interests of the Filipino
people who were incapable of self-government. The publication
separated more widely the friendly and war factions of the
inhabitants and was the cause of exciting discussion. The
ablest of insurgent newspapers, which was now issued at
Malolos and edited by the uncompromising Luna, … attacked the
policy of the United States as declared in the proclamation,
and its assumption of sovereignty over the islands, with all
the vigor of which he was capable. …

"Aguinaldo met the proclamation by a counter one in which he

indignantly protested against the claim of sovereignty by the
United States in the islands, which really had been conquered
from the Spaniards through the blood and treasure of his
countrymen, and abused me for my assumption of the title of
military governor. Even the women of Cavite province, in a
document numerously signed by them, gave me to understand that
after all the men were killed off they were prepared to shed
their patriotic blood for the liberty and independence of
their country. The efforts made by Aguinaldo and his
assistants made a decided impression on the inhabitants of
Luzon outside of Manila. … Shortly before this time the
insurgents had commenced the organization of clubs in the