WMES 6101: Introduction to Environmental

Sciences

Professor A H M Saadat
B.Sc.(Hons.), M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D.
Department of Environmental Sciences, Jahangirnagar University
Email: ahmsaadat@juniv.edu;
Web: http://www.juniv.edu/teachers/ahmsaadat
Room # 406; PABX # 406
Outline

• Global warming
• Acid rain
• Ozone layer depletion
• The greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature that the
Earth experiences because certain gases in the
atmosphere trap heat from the Sun’s rays.

Green houses are used to grow plants, in the

winter.
How do greenhouses work?

• Greenhouses work by trapping

heat from the sun.

• The glass panels of the

greenhouse let in light but
keep heat from escaping.
The Greenhouse Effect

• The Earth’s atmosphere is all

around us. It is the air we
breathe.

• Greenhouse gases in the

atmosphere behave much like
the glass panes in a
greenhouse.
The greenhouse effect is important.
• Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would
not be warm enough for humans to live.

• But if the greenhouse effect becomes stronger, it

could make the Earth warmer than usual.

• Even a little warming

causes problems for
plants and animals.
Greenhouse Effect

• Without these gases, heat would escape back

into space and Earth’s average temperature
would be about -18°C.

• Because of how they

warm our world, these
gases are referred to
as greenhouse gases.
Green House Gases GHGs
• Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are trace gases in the atmosphere that
absorb and emit long wave radiation and there by keeps earth surface
temepearatue livable to life .
Global Warming % of Total
Greenhouse Gas Potential (GWP) Anthropogenic GHG
(over 100 years) Emissions
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 1 76%
Methane (CH4) 25 16%
Nitrous oxide (N2O) 298 6%
Hydrofluorocarbons 124-14,800 < 2%
(HFCs)
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) 7,390-12,200 < 2%
Sulphur hexafluoride 22,800 < 2%
(SF6)
Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) 17,200 < 2%
• There is more water in the atmosphere than carbon
dioxide so most of the greenhouse heating of the Earth’s
surface is due to water vapour.

• The water vapour content in the atmosphere is constant

which means it hasn’t changed.

• Water vapour is the biggest contributor to the

“natural greenhouse effect”
• Human activities have little impact on the level of
water vapour.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Important Greenhouse Gases: Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
• Most important greenhouse gas (contributes
~64% to total radiative forcing by long-lived
GHGs)
• Half of CO2 emitted by human activities is
being absorbed in the biosphere and in the
oceans
• Rest remains in the atmosphere for hundreds
to thousands of years

Since 1750 CO2 concentration in the

atmosphere has increased by 40%.
Where do all the carbon dioxide gases come from?

• Carbon dioxide comes from

 Human respiration.
 Industrialization
 Burning of fossil fuel to generate electricity
 Burning of forest (lesser trees)
 CO2 is now 1/3 more than before Industrial
Revolution
Important Greenhouse Gases:Methane (CH4)
• Second most significant greenhouse
gas (contributes ~18% to total radiative
forcing by long-lived GHGs)
• Approximately 40% of methane is
emitted into the atmosphere by natural
sources
• About 60% comes from human
activities
• Stays in the atmosphere for
approximately 12 years

Since 1750 CH4 concentration in the

atmosphere has increased by 150%.
Methane
• Human Activities
• An increase in livestock farming and
rice growing has led to an increase
in atmospheric methane. Other
sources are the extraction of fossil
fuels, landfill sites and the burning
of biomass.
• Methane concentration in the
atmosphere has more than doubled
during the last 200 yr. Some of this
methane is produced by ricefields
• Methane
 Produced by bacteria living in swampy areas.
• Wet rice cultivation
 Waste in landfills
 Rearing of livestock
• When cows belch (burp)
 Each molecule can trap 20 times as much heat as a
CO2 molecule.
 Important Greenhouse Gases:
Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
• The third most significant
greenhouse gas (contributes ~6% to
total radiative forcing by long-lived
GHGs)
• Stays in the atmosphere for
approximately 114 years
• Nitrous oxide is emitted into the
atmosphere from both natural (about
60%) and anthropogenic sources
(approximately 40%) Since 1750
N2O concentration in the atmosphere
has increased by 20%.

Section 2: Anthropogenic Drivers of Climate

16
Change
Nitrous Oxide
• The impact of human
activities
Burning fossil fuels and wood
Widespread use of fertilizers
Sewage treatment plants

• Nitrous Oxide
 Vehicle exhaust
 Nitrogen based fertilizers
Important Greenhouse Gases:
Fluorinated Gases
• Global warming effect up to 23,000 times greater
than carbon dioxide
• Stay in the atmosphere up to 50,000 years
• Three main groups: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride
(SF6)
• Mainly developed as substitutes for ozone-
depleting substances
Concentration of SF6 and Halocarbons in the
Atmosphere

Section 2: Anthropogenic Drivers of Climate

19
Change
• CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons)
 Aerosol sprays
 Making foam packaging
 Coolants in fridge and air cons
 Cleaning solvents
 Each CFC molecule can trap as much heat as
100 000 CO2 molecule.
 Can remain in the atmosphere for a long time
(up to 20 000 years)
Global Warming
• The average global temperature has increased by almost 1.5 C
over the past century.
• Scientists expect the average global temperature to increase
an additional 2C to 6 C over the next hundred years.
• Even a small increase in
temperature over a long time
can change the climate.
• When the climate changes,
there may be big changes in
the things that people
depend on.
Global Warming

• It is important to understand that scientists don’t

know for sure what global warming will bring.

• Some changes may be good.

Eg. If you live in a very cool climate , warmer
temperatures might be welcome.
Global Warming

• Days and nights would be more

comfortable and people in the
area may be able to grow
different and better crops than
they could before.
Global Warming

• Changes in some places will

not be good at all.
Human Health
Ecological Systems (Plants and
animals)
Sea Level Rise
Crops and Food Supply
Human Health
• Heat stress and other heat related health problems are
caused directly by very warm temperatures and high
humidity.

• Heat stress – A variety of problems associated with very

warm temperatures and high humidity eg. Heat exhaustion
and heat stroke.
Ecological Systems

• Plants and animals

Climate change may alter the world’s habitats.
All living things are included in and rely on these places.

Most past climate changes occurred slowly, allowing

plants and animals to adapt to the new environment or
move someplace else.

Plants and animals may not be able to react quickly

enough to survive if future climate changes occur as
rapidly as scientists predict.
 Sea Level Rise

• Global Warming may make the sea level become higher. Why?
• Warmer weather makes glaciers melt.
• Melting glaciers add more water to the ocean.
• Warmer weather also makes water expand.
• When water expands in the ocean, it takes up more space and the
level of the sea rises.
• When earth’s temperature rises, sea level is likely to
rise too:
 Higher temperature  sea water to expand in
volume
 Ice caps at poles to melt
 Sea Level Rise

• Sea level may rise between several inches and as much as 3 feet
during the next century.
• Coastal flooding could cause saltwater to flow into areas where
salt is harmful, threatening plants and animals in those areas.
• Oceanfront property would be affected by flooding.
• Coastal flooding may also reduce the quality of drinking water in
coastal areas.
Crops and Food Supply
• Global warming may make the Earth warmer in cold
places.
• People living in these areas may have the chance to
grow crops in new areas.
• But global warming might bring droughts to other
places where we grow crops.
 Climate Change

a change in the state of the climate that can be identified

(e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean
and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists
for an extended period, typically decades or longer.

• The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between “climate change”

attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric composition,
and “climate variability” attributable to natural causes.
Climate Change

The Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC), in its Article 1, defines “climate change” as:
“a change of climate which is attributed directly or
indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of
the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural
climate variability observed over comparable time
periods”.
• Global warming will lead to an increase in the
evaporation of water  more water vapour.
• With more water vapour, more rain fall is expected.
• But it is not evenly distributed:
 Dry areas  severe drought condition, water
shortage and heat waves occurs
 Wet areas  floods and avalanches (landslides)
What is Acid Rain
• Formed when gases, such as CO2 and SO2 react
with the water in the atmosphere
• The pH of Rain drops
• As low as pH of 2
• Very harmful to our living environment
Acidity- pH Scale

35
Examples
• When CO2 reacts with water, carbonic acid is
formed.
CO2 (g)+H2O(l)-H2CO3(aq)
• When SO2 reacts with water, sulfurous acid is
formed.
SO2 (g)+H2O(l)-H2SO3(aq)
• When NO2 reacts with water, nitric acid is
formed.
2NO2(g)+H2O(l)-HNO2(aq)+HNO3(aq)
 How does Acid Rain effect us
• It kills micro-organisms
• It poisons plants
• It damages metals and limestone
• It kills fish

• Acid rain and the dry deposition of acidic particles

contribute to the corrosion of metals (such as bronze) and
the deterioration of paint and stone (such as marble and
limestone). These effects seriously reduce the value to
society of buildings, bridges, cultural objects (such as
statues, monuments), and cars.
Effects of Acid Rain
• An example of acid precipitation
damage to an outdoor statue. The
statue, made of porous sandstone,
was created in 1702 as part of the
gable of the entrance of the Castle
at Herten, near Reclinhausen,
Germany. The left photo, taken in
1908, shows some stains and the
loss of the left hand, but most of
the face and right hand were intact
after 206 years of exposure. The
right photo, taken in 1969, shows
the loss of most of the detail of the
statue over 61 years

39
Visibility

• Sulfates and nitrates that form in

the atmosphere from sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides
(NOx) emissions contribute to
visibility impairment, meaning we
can't see as far or as clearly
through the air.
• Sulfate particles account for 50 to
70 percent of the visibility
reduction

40
The ozone layer

•Ozone is a triatomic form of

oxygen (O3) found in Earth’s upper
and lower atmosphere.

•The ozone layer, situated in the

stratosphere about 15 to 30 km
above the earth's surface.

•Ozone protects living organisms by

absorbing harmful ultraviolet
radiation (UVB) from the sun.

•The ozone layer is being destroyed

by CFCs and other substances.

• Ozone depletion progressing

globally except in the tropical zone.

www.epcc.pref.osaka.jp/apec/ eng/earth/ozone_layer_depletion/susumu.html
Stratospheric Ozone and Ultraviolet Radiation
(UVR)
• Ultra-violet radiation (UVR) high
energy electromagnetic wave emitted
from the sun. It is made up of
wavelengths ranging from 100nm to
400nm.

• UV radiation includes UV-A, the least

dangerous form of UV radiation, with a
wavelength range between 315nm to
400nm, UV-B with a wavelength range
between 280nm to 315nm, and UV-C
which is the most dangerous between
100nm to 280nm. UV-C is unable to
reach Earth’s surface due to
stratospheric ozone’s ability to absorb
it. (Last, 2006)
 Ozone formation [2]

Ozone (O3)
l Chemically forms when UV hits on stratosphere
l Oxygen molecules dissociate into atomic oxygen

O2 O+O

 Atomic oxygen quickly combines with other oxygen molecules

to form ozone

O + O2 O3
 Ozone formation
Ozone (O3)
l A pollutant on ground level
– A component of photochemical smog
l Important for our survival
– Absorbs some of the potentially harmful UV radiation
which can cause skin cancer and damage to vegetation
l Split and regenerate repeatedly
l Highest concentration in the upper atmosphere
l Concentration decreases at lower altitudes
 What is CFCs? [1]

l Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
l Composed of elements chlorine, fluorine, and
carbon
l Developed in 1930 by DuPont
l CFCs were welcomed by industries:
– Low toxicity
– Chemical stability
– Cheap
l Usage:
– As refrigerants
– As blowing agents
– For making flexible foam
– As cleaning agents
– As propellants
Ozone Depletion: What Causes Depletion?
GM Chemist discovered
Chlorofluorocarbons in
1930 (CFCs)
…also known as freon

• Very stable
• Nontoxic
• Noncorrosive
• Inexpensive

“Dream Chemical”
Ozone Depletion: What Causes Depletion?

CFCs used for:

• Coolant in refrigerators
and air conditioners
• Propellant in aerosol
sprays
• Cleaner for electronics
• Bubbles in plastic foams
• Insulations
Ozone Depletion:
What Causes
Depletion?
• CFCs remain stable in troposphere due to
unreactivity
• Over 11-20 years they get lifted into
stratosphere by convection and drift
• Once in stratosphere they break down by
UV rays releasing highly reactive chlorine
atoms (with others) that in a chain reaction
break apart ozone
Ozone Depletion: What Causes Depletion?
4) Each CFC molecule lasts in
stratosphere for 65-385
years

Can convert 100,000 of O3 to

O2 during that time.

DuPont and others fought

findings until 1988 when
they admitted problems.

1995 Nobel Prize Chemistry

Ozone
Depletion in
the
Stratosphere
Ozone Depletion: What Causes Depletion?

CFCs are not the only

culprit
• Halons (fire
extinguishers)
• Hydrogen chloride
(space shuttle)
• Some natural chemicals
Ozone “Hole”
“Ozone Hole” more
accurate “ozone thinning”

Polar Vortex: circular

winds blowing around
poles during winter
isolates atmosphere.

Warming at end of winter

releases frozen
chemicals destroying
ozone
Too much ultra-violet light can result in:
• Skin cancer
• Eye damage such as cataracts
• Immune system damage
• Reduction in phytoplankton
• Damage to the DNA in various life-forms
• this has been as observed in Antarctic ice-fish that
lack pigments to shield them from the ultra-violet light
(they've never needed them before)
• Possibly other things too that we don't know
about at the moment
 Effects of UV radiation on biological organisms
• DNA damage ………………………….. Maximum effect on small and single cell
organisms
• Impaired growth and photosynthesis ...poor crop yields
• Phytoplankton: ………………………...Reduced uptake of CO2
…………………………………………..mortality
…………………………………………..Impaired reproductive capacity
• Nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria…………. Reduced, damaged
• Human health effects:
Suppressed immune system……………..Enhanced susceptibility to infection
…………………………………………..Increase risk of Cancer
Dermatology (skin)……………………...Sunburn
…………….………………………….....Loss of skin elasticity (Premature aging)
…………….…………………………… Photosensitivity
Neoplasia (cancer)……………………....Melanocytic (malignant melanoma)
…………….………………………….....Squamous cell skin – cancer
…………….……………………………Basal skin – cancer
Still questionable if causes lip cancer or cancer of
the salivary glands
Oculur (Eye)….…………………….......Cataract
…………….…………………………....Pterygium
Phytoplankton
• UV-B penetrates water columns to depths of 30m

• Increased UV-B exposure

• Reduces productivity by interfering with processes of photosynthesis
• Damages DNA
• Alters nitrogen metabolism
• Inhibits mobility

• Studies (1993) conducted in the Weddle Sea

• Evaluated effects of photosynthesis to UV exposure in the presence of
vertical mixing, found:
• photosynthesis by phytoplankton was strongly inhibited near the
surface of the water
• rapid mixing, photic zone is extended, severe inhibition of
photosynthesis
• Play critical role in aquatic system Bacterioplankton
• Decomposers - absorb dissolved organic carbon and recycle it back
into the environment
• Primary producers – found at the center of food web

• Prone to UV-B stress

• Inhibits growth
• Interferes with mechanisms for nitrogen fixation and carbon dioxide
fixation
• High mortality

• Effects dependent on:

• Where found in the water column
• Amount of exposure
• Amount of protection when moving from one mixing layer to another

• Adaptive Strategy:
• Pigmentation – absorb more than 90% of UV-B before it penetrates to the
genetic material
• Form external filaments which protect them from excess UV-B
Macroalgae and Seagrasses
• Are sessile and restricted to growth site

• Have diverse habitats

• Above tidal zones
• Intertidal zones
• Some never exposed to air

• Have adapted to varying solar exposure

• Able to protect themselves from excessive radiation
using mechanisms of phototinhibition
• mechanisms (electron transport) decrease photosynthesis
during excessive radiation
 DNA & UV-B
• DNA absorbs UV-B radiation

• Changes shape in DNA

• Changes in the DNA molecule mean
that enzymes cannot “read” the DNA
code
• Results in mutated cells or the cells
die

• Cells have developed the ability to

repair DNA
• A special enzyme arrives at the
damage site
• removes the damaged section of
DNA
• replaces it with the proper
components

• This makes DNA somewhat

resilient to damage by UV-B
 Higher Plants
• Experiments were done to determine if
increased UV-B is a threat to terrestrial
vegetation:
• Found
• High UV-B exposure does induce some
inhibition of photosynthesis

However….
• Studies found no significant effects on
photosynthetic productivity
• Some researchers have concluded that
ozone depletion and increase of UV-B
not a direct threat to photosynthetic
productivity of crops and natural
vegetation
 Difficult to Unmask UV-B Effects

• Limitations in controlled and field studies include:

• Large differences in temperature, precipitation, soil types from year
to year and in different locations
• UV-B radiation masked by other stresses of land plants such as
drought
• Drought produces large reductions in photosynthesis and
growth masking the effects of UV-B

• Water stressed plants produce a high concentration of leaf

flavonoids (for pigmentation) providing greater UV-B
protection
 Flowering
• UV-B radiation can alter both
the time of flowering as well as
the number of flowers in
certain species.

• Differences in timing of
flowering may have important
consequences for the
availability of pollinators.

• The reproductive parts of

plants, such as pollen and
ovules are well shielded from
solar UV-B radiation.
 Global Decline Seen In Amphibians

• Range of explanations as to
why amphibians are declining,
which include:
• Habitat destruction
• Disease
• Parasites
• Introduction of exotic species
• Environmental contaminants and other
aspects of global climate change
UV-B radiation is still high on the list for
the decline in amphibians seen around
the world

• Causes damage to many species of amphibians at every

stage of their life cycle, from egg to adult
• Affects growth and development in larvae
• Causes
• Changes in behavior
• Deformities
• Make amphibians more vulnerable to disease and
death
• In adults, causes retinal damage and blindness
 Effects on Human Health
• Over exposure may:
• Increase risk of non-
melanoma and
malignant melanoma
skin cancer Non-malignant

• Higher risks of
malignant
melanoma from
severe sunburns –
especially in malignant
childhood
• Risk of malignant
melanoma has
increased 10%
• Risk of
nonmalignant
melanoma has
increased 26%
www.ldeo.columbia.edu/.../ lectures/ozone_health/
Over Exposure
• Suppress immune system
• Accelerate aging of skin due high exposure
• Cause an outbreak of rash in fair skinned people due
to photo allergy – can be severe

dermis.multimedica.de/.../ en/13007/image.htm
Skin Protection
• Protect the skin against the solar radiation using
skin creams with SPF
• The greater the numerical value of the SPF the greater
the protection
• Use lip balm with SPF
• Cover up