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Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 312
Paweł J. Mitkowski
Mathematical
Structures
of Ergodicity and
Chaos in Population
Dynamics
Studies in Systems, Decision and Control
Volume 312
Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland
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Paweł J. Mitkowski
Mathematical Structures
of Ergodicity and Chaos
in Population Dynamics
123
Paweł J. Mitkowski
Kraków, Poland
ISSN 2198-4182 ISSN 2198-4190 (electronic)

Studies in Systems, Decision and Control
ISBN 978-3-030-57677-6 ISBN 978-3-030-57678-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57678-3
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I believe that mathematics is simply the
structure of the world. Not a description of
this structure, but the structure itself.
— Prof. ANDRZEJ LASOTA
taken from (A. Lasota and A. Klimek 2005)

To my Parents and Kasia
Preface
The presented monograph is based on the doctoral dissertation of the author

(Mitkowski 2011), (see also Mitkowski 2012) in the field of biocybernetics and
biomedical engineering presented in 2011 at AGH—University of Science
Technology in Kraków, Poland. This field includes issues related to medicine,
biology, biomathematics or cybernetics as practiced by engineers. Considered there
population dynamics models are still in the interest of researchers, and even this
interest is increasing, especially now in the time of SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus
pandemic, when models are intensively studied in order to help predict its beha-
viour within human population.
The presented monograph is written from the perspective of technical sciences,
engineering and applications. That is, basing on mathematical foundations, the
author presents population dynamics models. Identifies practically chaotic dynamics
in the strictly defined sense in spaces important from applied sciences point of view.
The identification was made using a computational, engineering approach to show
symptoms of chaotic behaviour experimentally. The results were interpreted on the
background of real medical data. In general, the research was developed with an idea
to create the possibility of comparing it with the measurements of real phenomena.
However, the issues studied here have a broader meaning than the area of applica-
tion. That is why the preliminary cognitive remarks were also presented. The key-
note of the book is words of the mathematician Prof. Andrzej Lasota: “I believe that
mathematics is simply the structure of our world. Not a description of this structure,
but the structure itself.” (Lasota and Klimek 2005).
In Chap. 1, the philosophical basis of research presented in the monograph is
presented. That is, two frequently occurring approaches to understanding what
mathematics is, and hence what mathematical modeling is discussed. The contraction
mapping theorem of Stefan Banach, which defines the fundamental principles of
scientific thinking is also stated with proof that is carried out using elementary
methods. Then, in Chap. 2, biological and medical data on the red blood cell (ery-
throcyte) dynamics are discussed. Particularly describing individual stages of the
erythropoiesis process, i.e. the production of erythrocytes. Further in Chap. 3, a set of
selected mathematical concepts is provided in order to direct the reader to important
ix
x Preface
groups of issues from the point of view of the presented research. In Chap. 4, ideas of
researching chaos on the basis of ergodic theory is presented. Then in Sect. 4.2 a
systematic discussion of mathematical theory concerning chaos in systems that
maintain measure is shown. In addition, in Chap. 4 calculation examples showing the
methodology of numerical studies on low-dimensional mapping are included. In
Chap. 6 they are appropriately transferred to the infinite-dimensional system in a form
of delay differential equation. In Chap. 5, the theory of the classic Lasota-Ważewska
equation is presented, which is necessary to understand the principles of the
infinite-dimensional model mentioned above. Chapter 6 includes computational
verification of Lasota hypothesis of nontrivial ergodic properties existence (what
means chaotic behaviour) in his delay differential equation with unimodal feedback.
During the work on the research presented in this monograph, many people
provided me substantive consultations and help. I express my sincere gratefulness
to my Father Prof. Wojciech Mitkowski from the Department of Automatics of
AGH—University of Science and Technology (AGH-UST), Cracow, Poland.
I would like to thank Prof. Maciej J. Ogorzałek from Jagiellonian University (JU),
Cracow, Poland, who was the promoter of my Ph.D. thesis, Prof. Ryszard Rudnicki
from Institute of Mathematics of Polish Academy of Sciences (IMPAS), Warsaw,
Poland, Prof. Antoni Leon Dawidowicz from JU, Prof. Józef Myjak from
AGH-UST, Prof. Michał Rams from IMPAS, Prof. Zbigniew Galias from
AGH-UST, Prof. Piotr Rusek from AGH-UST, Prof. Aleksander Skotnicki Head
of the Hematology Clinic of Collegium Medicum of the JU in the years 1993–2018,
Prof. Andrzej Szczeklik former Head of the Second Department and Clinic of
Internal Medicine of Collegium Medicum of the JU and former Vice President
of the Polish Academy of Art and Sciences (PAAS) in Kraków, Prof. Andrzej
Białas former President of the PAAS in Kraków, Poland, Ewa Gudowska-Nowak
from the Department of Physics of the JU, Dr. Zofia Mitkowska from the University
Children’s Hospital, Cracow, Poland, Dr. Teresa Wolska-Smoleń from the
Hematology Clinic of Collegium Medicum of the JU, Dr. Barbara Sokołowska
from the Second Department and Clinic of Internal Medicine of Collegium
Medicum of the JU and Dr. Robert Szczelina for Department of Mathematics of JU.
I would like to thank Prof. Eduardo Liz from the Department of Applied
Mathematics II of the University of Vigo, Spain for the discussion regarding delay
differential equations, what in some sense became the inspiration to write this book.
I express my deep gratitude to the Series Editor Prof. Janusz Kacprzyk from the
Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland for the
key support of the this book publication. Further more I wish to thank Dr. Thomas
Ditziger, Springer Editorial Director, Dieter Merkle, Guido Zosimo-Landolfo,
Sylvia Schneider, Prasanna Kumar. N and Monica Janet, M. from Springer Nature
for kind guiding and help in the publishing process.
Nothing could be done without the support of my Parents and Kasia.
Warsaw, Poland Paweł J. Mitkowski

May 2020
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Mathematical Study of the Reality Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Foundations of Scientific Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Banach Contraction Mapping Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Mathematical Modelling in Biology and Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Topics and Objectives of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Dynamics of the Red Blood Cell System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Erythrocytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Bone Marrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Erythropoiesis—The Production of Erythrocytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.1 Stages of Erythrocyte Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.2 Mechanisms for Erythropoiesis Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3 Mathematical Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1 Metric Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Measures and Measure Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Lebesgue Measure and Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4 Chaos and Ergodic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 19
4.1 The Gibbs Sets and the Simulations of States Density
Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1.1 Frobenius–Perron Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.1.2 Example of Density Evolution Approximation . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.2 Chaos for Measure-Preserving Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2.1 Ergodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.2.2 Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.2.3 Turbulence in Mixing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3 Ulam Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
xi
xii Contents
5 The Lasota–Ważewska Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5.1 McKendrick–Von Foerster Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.1.1 Method of Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.1.2 Method of Straight Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.2 Lasota–Ważewska Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.3 Reduced Lasota–Ważewska Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.3.1 Mackey–Glass Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6 Lasota Equation with Unimodal Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.1 Lasota Equation for Erythrocytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.1.1 Mackey-Glass Equation for Neutrophils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.1.2 Nicholson Australian Sheep Blowfly Equation . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.2 Lasota Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.3 Computational Verification of Lasota Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.3.1 Introduction to Computational Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.3.2 Defining the Space for Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.3.3 Ergodic Properties of the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.3.4 Mixing Properties and Turbulences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Chapter 1
Introduction
I will begin this book by discussing two cognitive issues that seem to be the foun-
dation for my further considerations. First of all, I will discuss two frequently cited
definitions of mathematics that are important here. Next, I will present a general
philosophy of conducting scientific research, the structure of which can be found in
the contraction mapping theorem of Stefan Banach.
1.1 Mathematical Study of the Reality Structure
Many centuries ago it was already noticed that in order to learn the true structure of
the world, it is necessary to study it through geometry and numbers (see e.g. Penrose
2010; Tatarkiewicz 1978, volumes 1-3). We intuitively feel that geometric concepts
such as figure, volume, surface, distance etc. naturally fit into the analysis of e.g. the
spatial structure of reality. It is also necessary to quantify the size of these elements in
space, and numbers are used naturally here. In modern mathematics, we have many
more and much more subtle structures that seem to be developments of these primal
ones, e.g. in various complicated spaces. Over the centuries, mathematical concepts
have been more and more precise, and thus whole new branches of mathematics have
been created, the source of which, however, has always been, and still is, the quest
for better learning about structures of reality.
Mathematics is often defined in two different ways. Some people think that it is
the language to describe the world, i.e. it has a similar function as the languages we
speak, e.g. Polish, English, Spanish, etc. When we want to describe our observations,
we choose appropriate words for this purpose, although we often realize that our
description does not reflect the complexity and richness of the phenomenon that we
describe. Still, while mathematics is considered to be the language for an approximate
description of the world, there is another approach to mathematics, called Platonic.
It goes further by defining mathematics as simply the structure of the world, not
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 1
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
P. J. Mitkowski, Mathematical Structures of Ergodicity and Chaos
in Population Dynamics, Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 312,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57678-3_1
2 1 Introduction
just the language to describe it. With this assumption, mathematical research (e.g.,
mathematical modeling of dynamics) becomes a search for structures existing in
the surrounding reality. In contrast to the Platonic approach, in the philosophy of
mathematics there is so-called intuitionism. This is intuitionism as defined by the
Dutch mathematician Brouwer (see Penrose 1996, p. 134), according to which one
cannot speak about the existence of mathematical beings in reality until one gives a
way to develop them.
1.2 Foundations of Scientific Thinking
Using mathematical reasoning, any problem we analyze can have one solution, a
finite number of solutions (more than one), infinitely many solutions, or may not
have a solution at all. It is worth to know before starting, e.g. complicated and
time-consuming computer calculations, whether the problem that we are studying
computationally has a solution at all, or how many of these solutions we should
expect. Reasoning as such seems to be fundamental from the perspective of con-
ducting any scientific research, understood here as finding the truth about the phe-
nomenon or object of reality being examined. The essence of scientific thinking can
be found in the contraction mapping theorem of Stefan Banach (Mitkowski 2006, p.
13; Kudrewicz 1976, p. 43; Rudnicki 2001, p. 94), (see e.g. Musielak 1976, p. 196).
1.2.1 Banach Contraction Mapping Theorem
Let (X, ρ) be a metric space with the metric ρ (see Sect. 3.1). A mapping F : X → X
is called Lipschitz map with the Lipschitz constant α > 0, if
∀x1 ∈ X ∀x2 ∈ X ρ(F(x1 ), F(x2 )) ≤ αρ(x1 , x2 ). (1.1)
Condition (1.1) is called Lipschitz condition. A map F : X → X is called contraction,

if it meets the condition (1.1) with a constant α < 1. Point x ∗ ∈ X is called a fixed
point of the map F : X → X , if F(x ∗ ) = x ∗ .
Theorem 1.1 (Banach) Let (X, ρ) be a complete metric space (see Sect. 3.1), and
F : X → X be the contraction. Then, there is exactly one fixed point x ∗ of the map
F. In addition, if
xn+1 = F(xn ), n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (1.2)
then for each x0 ∈ X

lim xn = x ∗ (1.3)
n→∞
1.2 Foundations of Scientific Thinking 3
and
αm
ρ(xm , x ∗ ) ≤ ρ(x0 , F(x0 )). (1.4)
1−α
Proof Let x0 be any point of a space X and xn+1 = F(xn ) for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

Condition (1.1) results in the following inequalities
ρ(x1 , x2 ) = ρ(F(x0 ), F(x1 )) ≤ αρ(x0 , x1 ),
ρ(x2 , x3 ) = ρ(F(x1 ), F(x2 )) ≤ αρ(x1 , x2 ) ≤ α 2 ρ(x0 , x1 ),
..
.
ρ(xn , xn+1 ) ≤ α n ρ(x0 , x1 ) dla n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Let us now estimate the distance ρ(xn , xm ) for n < m. From the triangle inequality
we have
ρ(xn , xm ) ≤ ρ(xn , xn+1 ) + ρ(xn+1 , xn+2 ) + · · · + ρ(xm−1 , xm ) ≤
αn
≤ (α n + α n+1 + · · · + α m−1 )ρ(x0 , x1 ) ≤ ρ(x0 , x1 ). (1.5)
1−α
Because α < 1, so for any > 0, there exists n 0 ∈ N (where N is the set of natural
numbers) such that
αn
ρ(x0 , x1 ) < for n 0 ≤ n. (1.6)
1−α
So (from (1.5) and (1.6)) ρ(xn , xm ) < for n 0 ≤ n, hence the sequence {xn } is the
Cauchy sequence (see Sect. 3.1) (one can also write that ρ(xn , xm ) → 0, at n, m →
∞). Space (X, ρ) is complete, so there exists a limit x ∗ = limn→∞ xn . We, therefore
have
ρ(x ∗ , F(x ∗ )) ≤ ρ(x ∗ , xn ) + ρ(xn , F(x ∗ )) ≤ ρ(x ∗ , xn ) + αρ(xn−1 , x ∗ ) → ∞
at n → ∞. This means ρ(x ∗ , F(x ∗ )) = 0, so x ∗ = F(x ∗ ). In addition, let us suppose

that y ∗ = F(y ∗ ). If ρ(x ∗ , y ∗ ) > 0, we would have
ρ(x ∗ , y ∗ ) = ρ(F(x ∗ ), F(y ∗ )) ≤ αρ(x ∗ , y ∗ ) < ρ(x ∗ , y ∗ ),
which is impossible. Therefore, ρ(x ∗ , y ∗ ) = 0, this means x ∗ = y ∗ . This proves the

uniqueness of the solution x ∗ of the equation x ∗ = F(x ∗ ). Let us check also the
inequality (1.4) from the thesis of Theorem 1.1. From (1.5), we receive
4 1 Introduction
αm
ρ(xm , x ∗ ) = lim ρ(xm , xn ) ≤ ρ(x0 , x1 ). (1.7)
n→∞ 1−α
The contraction map theorem determines the condition that must be fulfilled so that
the considered problem has exactly one solution. In addition, it provides the algorithm
of how to approach this solution “in practice” and specifies the estimation of the
distance from the solution at each step of the algorithm. This principle defines the
essence of scientific thinking. One can clearly see, how mathematics and algorithmic
methods (e.g. applied science methods) differ in terms of cognition. It is solely
through mathematics that we can prove the existence of a solution. Well-designed
algorithmic methods can only bring us closer to the solution, but it is obvious that in a
finite time (after a finite number of iterations) we will never reach the exact solution.
It could be said that the exact solution cannot be “materially touched”, but only
approached. In practice, however, it is enough only to “approach” to the solution.
After all, we cannot mathematically define the entire structure of the world around
us, and yet we are able to construct many complicated technical devices that are
useful. Therefore, it seems that both pathways of cognition, experimental (physical)
and structural (mathematical), functioning together are important.
1.3 Mathematical Modelling in Biology and Medicine
Let us now move on to the issues that this monograph directly concerns, i.e. to the
mathematical modelling of biological and medical processes. There are several stages
of modelling (see Rudnicki 2014, p. 9), (and also Ważewska-Czyżewska 1983, p.
155), (as well as Foryś 2005; Murray 2006):
1. Determining biological and medical assumptions using mathematical concepts.
2. Providing an appropriate mathematical model, e.g. function, differential equation,
etc.
3. Examining the model properties using mathematical and/or numerical methods.
4. Biological and medical interpretation of theoretical (mathematical and numerical)
results.
5. Comparing theoretical results with real measurements. Providing possible correc-
tion of the model in order to obtain better match to real data. Possible proposals
of new experimental studies for further model verification.
Specialists in biomathematics quite often emphasize (see e.g. Rudnicki 2014,
p. 9), (and also Ważewska-Czyżewska 1983, p. 155), (as well as Foryś 2005, p.
17) that skillful simplification of the model is a key procedure in the modeling
process. The essence is not to replace the complicated real biological and medical
process with an equally complicated mathematical model, but to identify the most
important biological and medical premises and include them in a possibly simple
1.3 Mathematical Modelling in Biology and Medicine 5
mathematical model (sometimes reduced from one that is more complex), which
can then be effectively studied through mathematical methods. Model reduction (see
Rudnicki 2014, p. 9) leads to a partial description of the studied phenomenon that
often does not entirely reflect its complexity. However, such a reduced model, if well
constructed, may show the important structure (e.g. dynamic) inherent in the studied
real process, which is responsible for some specific nature of its changes in time.
1.4 Topics and Objectives of the Book
Lasota (1977) noted that the irregular waveforms observed in the measurement results
of real biological and medical processes can be associated not only with the high
complexity of these processes and the imperfections of measurement methods, but
also with the very structure of these systems. In other words, real biological and
medical processes may simply be chaotic under certain conditions, i.e. they may
“contain” a mathematical structure that generates chaos. Note that depending on the
adoption of one of the two approaches to mathematics described in the this chapter,
the process of mathematical modeling can be considered as building a description
of this structure using mathematical language, or its direct search within the sys-
tem. Lasota believed that such mathematical structure “responsible” for chaos in
biological systems can be invariant measures with non-trivial ergodic properties (see
Chap. 4), we could also say that the system exhibits non-trivial ergodic properties.
Lasota formalized this approach for his proposed model of changes in the number of
circulating red blood cells in the bloodstream, putting forward a hypothesis about the
non-trivial ergodic properties of this model (see Chap. 6). The model is in the form
of a delay differential equation in which, with appropriate selection of parameters,
the function of erythrocyte production can be set in unimodal form (with one smooth
maximum—the unimodal function is precisely described in Definition 6.22). Such
nature of the dependence of the erythrocyte production intensity on their quantity
in the bloodstream medically corresponds to the pathological conditions that occur
in the body. It is also possible when the body is in a near-death state (Ważewska-
Czyżewska 1983, pp. 165–167). Normal erythropoiesis (production of erythrocytes)
is characterized by monotonically decreasing dependence. On this assumption, a
lot of mathematical models were constructed and studied, among others, the classic
Lasota-Ważewska model, about which we will write extensively in the further part
of the book (see Chap. 5). In this work, we are interested in the irregular dynamics of
the model with unimodal erythopoiesis in the form that the system has three station-
ary points (differences between the studied model and other biological models with
unimodal nonlinearities are presented in Chap. 6). Specifically, we want to compu-
tationally verify the hypothesis of Lasota, which in the language of ergodic theory
raises the problem of the existence of chaotic solutions for a certain class of delay
differential equations. In addition, it seems to be a generalization (for such class of
equations) of the earlier hypothesis proposed by Ulam (1960) about the non-trivial
ergodic properties of [0, 1] interval mapping into itself (see Sect. 4.3 and Chap. 6). It
6 1 Introduction
is important that this class of equations has very large applications in modeling bio-
logical processes. Evidence for the existence of periodic solutions of such equations
is known (see Chow 1974; Kaplan and Yorke 1977), (see also Ważewska-Czyżewska
1983; Rudnicki 2014; Alvarez et al. 2019), (in terms of computer-assisted proofs see
Szczelina and Zgliczyński 2018; Lessard and Mireles James 2019). Yet until now,
apart from special cases (see Walther 1981; Walther 1999; Lani-Wayda 1999), little
can be said about the existence of chaotic solutions in a precisely defined sense for
delay differential equations in general. We will conduct research on chaotic behavior
using numerical methods, therefore, we are aware that the results obtained can only
be an indication of some type of chaos and will not provide proof of its existence
in a mathematical sense. However, from the point of view of technical sciences, it
seems to us that the prepared calculations will be a valuable example of how, using a
numerical experiment, one can examine the existence of certain mathematical struc-
tures “responsible” for chaos in a specific way. In recent years, computer-assisted
proofs are being strongly developed (see e.g. Tucker 1999; Galias and Zgliczński
1998; Galias 2003; Szczelina and Zgliczyński 2018; Lessard and Mireles James
2019). From a bio-medical point of view, obtaining solutions indicating the non-
trivial ergodic properties of the model (and thus indicating the existence of chaotic
solutions in a certain sense) will suggest that with disturbed erythropoietic response
in unimodal form, irregular changes may occur in the quantity of erythrocytes circu-
lating in the bloodstream. Such irregular changes mean a strong disturbance in the
functioning of the entire red blood cell system, which, when working properly, has a
very strong tendency to maintain erythrocytes quantity at a constant level (Ważewska-
Czyżewska and Lasota 1976, p. 24). In addition to the numerical analysis of chaos,
we expand the bio-medical interpretation of the studied equation, among others by
providing the meaning of one of its parameters s (see Sect. 6.1), which according
to our knowledge was given first by Mitkowski (2011), (see also Mitkowski 2012),
and on whose value depends whether the erythropoietic response is physiologically
correct (monotonically decreasing) or distorted to an unimodal function.
Chapter 2
Dynamics of the Red Blood Cell System
The bio-medical data developed in this chapter were derived primarily from:
(Ważewska-Czyżewska 1983; Ważewska-Czyżewska and Lasota 1976; Lasota et al.
1981; Mackey and Milton 1990; Craig et al. 2010; Rudnicki 2009; Keener and Sneyd
1998).
2.1 Blood
Blood consists of two main elements; liquid plasma (constituting about 55% of
its total volume) and suspended in plasma cell components (about 40% of volume).
Cellular components are divided into three categories: erythrocytes (red blood cells),
leukocytes (white blood cells) and thrombocytes (platelets).
2.2 Erythrocytes
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) are shaped like small, double-sided concave discs
with a diameter of about 8 µm. They transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues
and carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. Erythrocytes contain a protein called
hemoglobin (the red blood pigment) that is responsible for the gas exchange between
tissues and lungs. They do not have a cell nucleus or mitochondria; they are flexible
and can pass through small capillary vessels. Red blood cells do not divide and do
not have a mechanism that could repair the damage that occurs in them over time.
In a healthy person, their lifetime is about 120 days, after which they are destroyed
mainly in the spleen (less frequently in the liver). The body must, therefore, constantly
produce new erythrocytes to replace those that have broken down. Under disease
conditions, red blood cells may die after a shorter period of time, what causes so-
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57678-3_2
8 2 Dynamics of the Red Blood Cell System
called anemia. Furthermore, certain diseases in which young erythrocytes or even

their precursors (cells from which they are formed) are destroyed can occur, which
leads to ineffective erythropoiesis. Erythropoiesis is the process of producing red
blood cells (we will refer to this later in the Sect. 2.4). In an adult human, 1 mm3 of
blood contains 4.2–5.4 million erythrocytes, while in a newborn, it is about 7 million.
2.3 Bone Marrow
Bone marrow is a soft, highly blood-filled, spongy tissue located inside the long
bone marrow cavities and in small cavities within the cancellous bone. It accounts
for about 5% of body weight in a healthy adult human. There are two types of bone
marrow; the so-called yellow bone marrow consisting mainly of adipose cells (this
type of bone marrow is hematologically inactive) and the so-called red bone marrow,
which produces erythrocytes, leukocytes and thrombocytes. In the post-natal child,
red bone marrow fills all the bones. With age, it is replaced by yellow bone marrow,
and in adults, red bone marrow is present only in the bones of the sternum, spine,
pelvis, ribs, clavicles, skull, humerus and femur. The amount of red bone marrow
may increase when blood cells are needed.
In the bone marrow, certain hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) exist, also called
pluripotential hematopoietic stem cells (PPSC). A group of mature cells that are
used in case of increased demand for morphotic elements is also located there. Normal
bone marrow has a characteristic organization; there are so-called nests of erythrocyte
precursors accumulating around a centrally located macrophage that stores iron, there
are also large cells called megakaryocytes producing and releasing platelets into the
vessels, and near the trabeculae there are cells responsible for production of white
blood cells. Mature cells migrate from the marrow cavities towards the vascular
sinuses.
Some studies suggest (Craig et al. 2010, p. 929) that the bone marrow contains
stem cells that can transform into other than hematopoietic cells, e.g. nerve, mus-
cle, skeletal and cardiomyocytes (myocardial cells), as well as hepatic and vascular
endothelial cells.
2.4 Erythropoiesis—The Production of Erythrocytes
In the body of a healthy human being, staying in stable conditions (Ważewska-

Czyżewska and Lasota 1976, p. 24), there is a strong tendency to maintain number
of circulating erythrocytes at a constant level. Reduction of their amount triggers the
process of forming erythrocytes in the bone marrow called erythropoiesis. Gener-
ally, a change in the number of red blood cells in the bloodstream causes stimulation
or inhibition of their production (Ważewska-Czyżewska and Lasota 1976, p. 26).
Response of the system (e.g. in the form of an increase in the number of erythro-
2.4 Erythropoiesis—The Production of Erythrocytes 9
cytes after their previous decrease) appears after the time needed to transform the
undifferentiated bone marrow cell into a mature erythrocyte. Therefore, the red blood
cell production system can be interpreted as a delayed argument feedback system.
The time needed for the production of mature erythrocytes according to Ważewska-
Czyżewska and Lasota (1976, p. 23) and Ważewska-Czyżewska (1983, p. 162) is 3–4
days. Mackey and Milton (1990, p. 6) and Mackey (1997, p. 156) state an average
of 5.7 days, whereas Keener and Sneyd (1998, p. 491) a time of 5–7 days, but not
less than 5 days, even at a high stimulation rate of red blood cell production. These
differences may result from the fact that the starting moment during erythropoiesis
from which the time starts to count is determined differently (see detailed description
of erythropoiesis stages below). E.g. Lasota et al. (1981, p. 151) hold that a signal
stimulating the production of erythropoietin, as a result of a decrease in oxygen
concentration in the arteries, is this starting moment.
Erythropoiesis in an adult healthy person occurs in the bone marrow. In the case
of the fetus, it proceeds in other locations at different stages of its growth. In adults
with significant disorders of the structure and functioning of the bone marrow, it can
occur in the liver or in the spleen.
2.4.1 Stages of Erythrocyte Development
2.4.1.1 Stem Cells
The youngest erythrocyte precursor cell is an undifferentiated hematopoietic bone

marrow stem cell (pluripotent stem cell—PPSC). This cell has the ability to self-
renew and to pass into the production lines of erythrocytes, leukocytes and thrombo-
cytes. At steady state, most PPSC cells are in the G 0 resting phase or in the G 1 active
phase of the cell cycle. From phase G 0 , PPSC can shift into the cell division cycle,
or they can differentiate into precursors of one of the blood cell differentiation
and maturation lines. We are going to discuss the red blood cell line.
2.4.1.2 Progenitor Cells
Differentiation of erythrocyte line precursors takes place in several stages (Ważewska-

Czyżewska 1983, p. 25); the primitive BFU-E cell (primitive burst-forming unit-
erythroid) is described as the least differentiated. Subsequent stages of development
include the mature BFU-E cell (mature burst-forming unit-erythroid), the transi-
tional cell and the CFU-E cell (colony-forming unit-erythroid). Differentiation of
these cells is induced by the hormone erythropoietin (Epo), which regulates the
erythropoiesis process.
The resulting population of differentiated erythrocyte precursor cells is
uniquely oriented to the formation of cells that, by losing the ability to prolifer-
ate (divide and thus renew their pool), gain the ability to carry oxygen. Two different
10 2 Dynamics of the Red Blood Cell System
processes occur simultaneously in this population; maturation and proliferation. The

maturation process is responsible for creating a functionally efficient "final" cell in
the production line, i.e. in the considered case of mature erythrocytes, while the
proliferation process ensures pool of diverse erythrocyte precursors replenishment.
Maturation and proliferation processes are interrelated, and when the cell reaches a
certain maturity level, proliferation stops.
It is also worth noting the differences between the concepts of cell differentiation
and maturation. Cell differentiation is an irreversible process of coding new infor-
mation into a developing cell, while cell maturity can be identified with its level of
morphological development.
2.4.1.3 Precursor Cells
The next stages in the development of maturing differentiated erythrocyte precur-

sors are proerythroblast, basophilic erythroblast, polychromatic erythroblast,
orthochromatic erythroblast and reticulocyte. The most important feature in the
maturation of these cells is the synthesis of hemoglobin, which beginning means
that the differentiation process has been achieved. Disturbances in the synthesis of
hemoglobin can cause ineffective erythropoiesis. The transition between polychro-
matic and orthochromatic erythroblast marks the point where proliferation property
is lost (Lasota et al. 1981, p. 150).
2.4.1.4 Peripheral Blood Cells
The cell nucleus is removed from the erythroblast, after which the cell remains as a
reticulocyte in the bone marrow. The maturation time of bone marrow reticulocyte is
about 50 h, the Epo hormone may cause reduction of this time (Ważewska-Czyżewska
1983, p. 58). Reticulocyte leave the bone marrow and, as mature erythrocyte, enter
the bloodstream through the walls of the myeloid sinuses.
2.4.1.5 Erythropoietin (Epo)
As we have already mentioned Erythropoietin (Epo) is a hormone that regulates

erythropoiesis. Its most important function is to induce differentiation of precursors
of the erythrocyte production line into a series of erythroblastic cells. In an adult
human, 80–90% of Epo is produced in the kidneys, the rest is produced, among
others, in the liver. In response, for example, to a decrease in oxygen concentration
in the arteries, as a result of a decrease in the number of erythrocytes circulating in
the bloodstream, the kidneys synthesize and release erythropoietin.
2.4 Erythropoiesis—The Production of Erythrocytes 11
2.4.2 Mechanisms for Erythropoiesis Regulation
The influx of cells from the PPSC population to the CFU-E population, giving rise
to the erythrocyte production line, is controlled by two types of mechanism; the
so-called short-range mechanism and the long-range mechanism.
2.4.2.1 Short-Range Mechanism
Short-range mechanisms relate to dynamics within the population of PPSC and CFU-
E cells, e.g. a decrease in the number of PPSC cells or an increased level of their
differentiation into one of the blood cell production lines results in an increase in the
level of proliferation (multiplication) of the PPSC population, while an increase in
the number of PPSC cells causes inhibition of their proliferation. Thus, short-range
mechanisms are responsible, e.g. for maintaining steady state in the bone marrow
stem cell population. Disorders of these mechanisms cause a hematological disease
called periodic hematopoiesis (PH) (see Mackey and Milton 1990, p. 17; Ważewska-
Czyżewska and Lasota 1976; Ważewska-Czyżewska 1983; Rudnicki and Wieczorek
2009), which is characterized by the occurrence of 17–28-day periodic oscillations
in the amount of formed blood elements. Hematopoiesis is the process of forming
erythrocytes, leukocytes and thrombocytes, therefore, erythropoiesis is one of its
subprocesses.
2.4.2.2 Long-Range Mechanism
When the oxygen concentration in the arteries is insufficient, the kidneys synthesize
and release erythropoietin (see Ważewska-Czyżewska 1983, p. 139; Lasota et al.
1981, p. 151). This not only induces differentiation of erythrocyte precursors to
erythroblasts, but also affects the kinetics of all cell groups in the erythrocyte pro-
duction system. As a result, the level of red blood cell production increases, among
other things, by increasing the maturation rate of their precursors. Therefore, the
signal stimulating the operation of the long-range erythropoietic feedback loop is
the discrepancy between the tissue’s need for oxygen and its supply by erythrocytes
circulating in the bloodstream. The existence of feedback between the bone mar-
row and tissues was first suggested by Paul Bert in 1878 (see Ważewska-Czyżewska
1983, p. 139). He stated that survival at high altitudes requires increased production
of erythrocytes to supply the tissues with the right amount of oxygen. Long-range
erythropoietic feedback is implemented with the help of the central nervous system
(see Ważewska-Czyżewska 1983, p. 139).
Chapter 3
Mathematical Basics
We will now present selected mathematical concepts relevant to the issues discussed
in this book.
Section 3.1 was developed based on (Rudnicki 2001; Myjak 2006; Mitkowski
2006; Kudrewicz 1976; Bronsztejn et al. 2004, p. 659). Whereas Sects. 3.2 and 3.3
were developed based on (Lasota and Mackey 1994; Rudnicki 2001; Myjak 2006;
Bronsztejn et al. 2004).
3.1 Metric Spaces
Definition 3.1 Non-empty set X with a map ρ : X × X → [0, ∞) fulfilling the

conditions
1. ρ(x, y) = 0 ⇔ x = y;
2. ρ(x, y) = ρ(y, x) for x, y ∈ X ;
3. ρ(x, z) ≤ ρ(x, y) + ρ(y, z) for x, y, z ∈ X
is called the metric space. The elements of the metric space are called points, the
map ρ is the metric in X , and the map value ρ(x, y) is the distance of the x and y
points in the metric ρ.
Example 3.1 Let X be any non-empty set. Function

1 for x = y
ρ(x, y) =
0 for x = y
is a metric in X , called a discrete metric. Space (X, ρ) is called a discrete space.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57678-3_3
14 3 Mathematical Basics
Example 3.2 Function
ρ(x, y) = |y − x| dla x, y ∈ R
is a metric in the set of real numbers R.
Example 3.3 In space R n , x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) functions:

n

ρ1 (x, y) = (xk − yk )2 ;
k=1

n
ρ2 (x, y) = |xk − yk |;
k=1
ρ3 (x, y) = max |xk − yk |;

1≤k≤n
are metrices. The ρ1 (x, y) metrice is called Euclidean metric, and the space (R n , ρ1 )
is called Euclidean space. In R 2 , the above metrics will have the form:

ρ1 (x, y) = (x1 − y1 )2 + (x2 − y2 )2 ;
ρ2 (x, y) = |x1 − y1 | + |x2 − y2 |;
ρ3 (x, y) = max{|x1 − y1 |, |x2 − y2 |}.
Example 3.4 A set of all functions x(t), y(t) continuous in the interval [a, b], with
a metric
ρ(x, y) = max |x(t) − y(t)|
a≤t≤b
is called a space C(a, b).
Definition 3.2 Let (X, ρ) be a metric space. We say that a sequence of points {xn }
of that space fulfills the Cauchy condition (or is a Cauchy sequence), if for any
there exists a natural number n 0 such that ρ(xm , xn ) < for m ≥ n 0 and n ≥ n 0 .
Definition 3.3 A metric space (X, ρ) is called complete, if each sequence satisfying
the Cauchy condition is convergent in this space.
Definition 3.4 A set D is dense in X , if D̄ = X , where D̄ is the closure of set D.

3.2 Measures and Measure Spaces 15
3.2 Measures and Measure Spaces
The family of sets will be called a set, the elements of which include certain sets.
Let X be any non-empty set.
Definition 3.5 A family A of sub-sets of set X is called the algebra of sets if:
1. ∅ ∈ A;
2. When A ∈ A then X \ A ∈ A;
3. When A ∈ A and B ∈ A, then A ∪ B ∈ A.
Definition 3.6 An algebra of sets A is called the σ -algebra of sets, if for any sets
An ∈ A, n = 1, 2, 3, . . ., we have
∞

An ∈ A. (3.1)
n=1
Therefore, σ -algebra A is a family of subsets of set X satisfying the Conditions 1 and

2 from the Definition 3.5 and the condition (3.1) from the Definition 3.6. Condition
3 from the Definition 3.5 is obtained from the Condition 1 from this definition and
from the condition (3.1) from the Definition 3.6. Elements of σ -algebra A are called
measurable sets, because a measure is defined for them.
Definition 3.7 The real-valued function μ defined on σ -algebra A is a measure if:
1. μ(∅) = 0;
2. μ(A) ≥ 0 for all A ∈ A;
3. μ(∪k Ak ) = k μ(Ak ) if {Ak } is finite or infinite sequence of pair-wise disjoint
sets from A, that is, Ai ∩ A j = ∅ for i = j.
We do not exclude the possibility that μ(A) = ∞ for some A ∈ A.
Definition 3.8 If A is a σ -algebra of subsets of a set X and if μ is a measure on A,
then (X, A, μ) is called measure space.
Remark 3.1 Let be any non-empty family of subsets of a set X . Then there exists
the smallest σ -algebra containing .
Remark 3.2 The smallest σ -algebra A containing a non-empty family of subsets

of set X is called σ -algebra generated by the family .
Remark 3.3 Let (X, ρ) be a metric space, and be a family of open (or closed) sets.
Then σ -algebra generated by the family is called σ -algebra of the Borel sets B,
and its elements are called Borel sets. Definition of σ -algebra of Borel sets depends
on the choice of metrice ρ, because metric determines what open sets are.
σ -algebra of Borel sets is the smallest σ -algebra containing all open, thus also closed
subsets X .
Remark 3.4 If X = [0, 1] or R (set of real numbers), then the most natural σ -
algebra is σ -algebra of Borel sets B. There exists, on σ -algebra of Borel sets, a
unique measure μ called the Borel measure, such that μ([a, b]) = b − a.
In applications, the following measure space is used:
Definition 3.9 The measure space (X, A, μ) is σ -finite if there exists a sequence
{Ak }, Ak ∈ A, satisfying
∞

X= Ak and μ(A) < ∞ for all k.
k=1
Remark 3.5 If X = R (set of real numbers) and μ is Borel measure, then Ak can
be specified in the form of intervals [−k, k], and in d-dimensional space R d in the
form of spheres with radius k.
Definition 3.10 The measure space (X, A, μ) is finite if μ(X ) < ∞. In particular,
if μ(X ) = 1, then measure space is normalized or probabilistic.
Definition 3.11 We say, that a certain property occurs almost everywhere (we will
write a.e.) if a set of these x, for which it is not satisfied has a measure 0.
3.3 Lebesgue Measure and Integral
We will give the theorem by which we will define the Lebesgue measure (see
Rudnicki 2001, p. 458).
Theorem 3.2 Let X = R n and let A be σ -algebra of Borel sets in X . Then there
exists exactly one measure λn specified on A such that for any rectangle
P = [a1 , b1 ] × · · · × [an , bn ]
we have
λn (P) = (b1 − a1 ) · . . . · (bn − an ).
The measure defined in the Theorem 3.2 is called Lebesgue measure on Borel sets.
The Lebesgue measure is a generalization of the concept of volume on Borel sets.
Definition 3.12 Let X be a non-empty set, A be a σ -algebra on X and R̄ = R ∪
{−∞, ∞}. Function f : X → R̄ is called measurable, if a set
{x ∈ X : f (x) > a}
is measurable with any a ∈ R.

3.3 Lebesgue Measure and Integral 17
Theorem 3.3 If X is a metric space, and A is a σ -algebra of Borel sets, then any
continuous function f : X → R is measurable.
Let X be a fixed set, and A σ -algebra of subsets of set X . For any set A ⊂ X
function
1, when x ∈ A,
1A = (3.2)
0, when x ∈
/ A
is called characteristic function of set A. If A ∈ A, then the characteristic function

1 A is measurable.
Let A1 , . . . , An be any subsets of X , and c1 , . . . , cn be any real numbers. Function
of the form
n
f (x) = ci 1 Ai (x)
i=1
is called simple function. If sets A1 , . . . , An are measurable, then the simple function
is measurable.
Definition 3.13 Let (X, A, μ) be a measure space. Let A1 , . . . , An , E be measur-
able sets, and c1 , c2 , . . . , cn positive real numbers. Lebesgue integral from a simple
function
n
f (x) = ci 1 Ai (x)
i=1
over a set E with respect to a measure μ is called a number

n
ci μ(Ai ∩ E) (3.3)
i=1
and is denoted
f (x)dμ(d x). (3.4)
E
If the function f is measurable and non-negative, and E is a measurable set, then

we assume

f dμ(d x) = sup gdμ(d x) : 0 ≤ g ≤ f, g − simple function . (3.5)
E E
Let
f + (x) = max(0, f (x)) i f − (x) = max(0, − f (x)).
Note that
f (x) = f + (x) − f − (x).
If at least one of integrals E f + dμ(d x), E f − dμ(d x) is finite, then the expression
f dμ(d x) = f + dμ(d x) − f − dμ(d x) (3.6)

E E E
is called Lebesgue integral from a function f over a set E. We say then, that the
function f has the Lebesgue integral on the set E. If the Lebesgue integral is finite,
then we say that the function f is integrable in the Lebesgue sense on the set E. If f
is integrable on X , then we simply say that f is integrable in the sense of Lebesgue.
Definition 3.14 Let (X, A, μ) be a measure space and let p be a real number 1 ≤
p ≤ ∞. Family of all possible measurable real functions f : X → R satisfying
| f (x)| p μ(d x) < ∞ (3.7)

X
is a space L p (X, A, μ) (we will write L p briefly).
When p = 1, then a space L 1 consists of all possible integrable functions.

The norm f in a space L p is defined by the following expression
1/ p
|| f || L p = | f (x)| μ(d x)
p
. (3.8)
X
Chapter 4
Chaos and Ergodic Theory
In the literature concerning dynamic systems, there are many definitions of chaos
and several different approaches to its study (see e.g. Rudnicki 2004; Devaney 1987;
Bronsztejn et al. 2004). In this book, we will be interested particularly in the approach
where chaos is studied using ergodic theory tools (Lasota 1979; Rudnicki 1985a,
2009, 2004; Dawidowicz 1992a). The moment when L. Boltzmann formulated the
ergodic hypothesis can probably be considered to be the beginning of ergodic theory.
It was in 1868 (see e.g. Nadzieja 1996; Górnicki 2001) or in 1871 according to
Lebowitz and Penrose (1973).
4.1 The Gibbs Sets and the Simulations of States Density

Evolution
Ergodic theory has its roots in the study of large number particle systems (e.g.
gases), in which microscopic chaos (irregular behavior of individual particles) leads
to macroscopic statistical regularity on the entire set of particles. This regularity
(characteristic of so-called ergodic systems) is expressed in the stationary density
of state distribution reached after a certain time of a system’s dynamic evolution.
Having considered that, we assume that the initial condition for a dynamic system is
a particular density function, and then we study its evolution over time. A book by
Lasota and Mackey (1994) is devoted to such approach of dynamic systems studying.
Density transformation is determined by a linear operator called the Frobenius–
Perron operator. It can be determined for some systems, and for others it is difficult,
and then one may attempt to approximate density evolution numerically, for example,
by determining a very large set of trajectories. It can be said that we then examine the
“average” behavior of the system. This concept was introduced by J.W. Gibbs (see
Dorfman 2001, p. 18, 65), who stated that since the initial condition of individual
trajectories is never exactly known (with infinite precision), the average behavior
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doctrine, and fills up the greater part of the epistle with reproofs of
these errors.
His argument against the doctrines of the servile Judaizers is

made up in his favorite mode of demonstration, by simile and
metaphor, representing the Christian system under the form of the
offspring of Abraham, and afterwards images the freedom of the true
believers in Jesus, in the exalted privilege of the descendants of
Sara, while those enslaved to forms are presented as analogous in
their condition to the children of Hagar. He earnestly exhorts them,
therefore, to stand fast in the freedom to which Christ has exalted
them, and most emphatically condemns all observance of
circumcision. Thus pointing out to them, the purely spiritual nature of
that covenant, of which they were now the favored subjects, he
urges them to a truly spiritual course of life, bidding them aim at the
attainment of a perfect moral character, and makes the conclusion of
the epistle eminently practical in its direction. He speaks of this
epistle as being a testimony of the very particular interest which he
feels in their spiritual prosperity, because, (what appears contrary to
his practice,) he has written it with his own hand. To the very last, he
is very bitter against those who are aiming to bring them back to the
observance of circumcision, and denounces those as actuated only
by a base desire to avoid that persecution which they might expect
from the Jews, if they should reject the Mosaic ritual. Referring to the
cross of Christ as his only glory, he movingly alludes to the marks of
his conformity to that standard, bearing as he does in his own body,
the scars of the wounds received from the scourges of his Philippian
persecutors. He closes without any mention of personal salutations,
and throughout the whole makes none of those specifications of
names, with which most of his other epistles abound. In the opening
salutation, he merely includes with himself those “brethren that are
with him,” which seems to imply that they knew who those brethren
were, in some other way,――perhaps, because he had but lately
been among them with those same persons as his assistants in the
ministry.
On this very doubtful point, I have taken the views adopted by Witsius, Louis Cappel,
Pearson, Wall, Hug and Hemsen. The notion that it was written at Rome is supported by
Theodoret, Lightfoot, and Paley,――of course making it a late epistle. On the contrary,
Michaelis makes it the earliest of all, and dates it in the year 49, at some place on Paul’s
route from Troas to Thessalonica. Marcion and Tertullian also supposed it to be one of the
earliest epistles. Benson thinks it was written during Paul’s first residence in Corinth.
Lenfant and Beausobre, followed by Lardner, conjecture it to have been written either at
Corinth or at Ephesus, during his first visit, either in A. D. 52, or 53. Fabricius and Mill date it
A. D. 58, at some place on Paul’s route to Jerusalem. Chrysostom and Theophylact, date it
before the epistle to the Romans. Grotius thinks it was written about the same time. From all
which, the reader will see the justice of my conclusion, that nothing at all is known with any
certainty about the matter.
the ephesian mob.
Paul having now been a resident in Ephesus for nearly three

years, and having seen such glorious results of his labors, soon
began to think of revisiting some of his former fields of missionary
exertion, more especially those Grecian cities of Europe which had
been such eventful scenes to him, but a few years previous. He
designed to go over Macedonia and Achaia, and then to visit
Jerusalem; and when communicating these plans to his friends at
Ephesus, he remarked to them in conclusion――“And after that, I
must also visit Rome.” He therefore sent before him into Macedonia,
as the heralds of his approach, his former assistant, Timothy, and
another helper not before mentioned, Erastus, who is afterwards
mentioned as the treasurer of the city of Corinth. But Paul himself
still waited in Asia for a short time, until some other preliminaries
should be arranged for his removal. During this incidental delay
arose the most terrible commotion that had ever yet been excited
against him, and one which very nearly cost him his life.
It should be noticed that the conversion of so large a number of

the heathen, through the preaching of Paul, had struck directly at the
foundation of a very thriving business carried on in Ephesus, and
connected with the continued prevalence and general popularity of
that idolatrous worship, for which the city was so famous. Ephesus,
as is well known, was the chief seat of the peculiar worship of that
great Asian deity, who is now known, throughout all the world, where
the apostolic history is read, by the name of “Diana of the
Ephesians.” It is perfectly certain, however, that this deity had no
real connection, either in character or in name, with that Roman
goddess of the chase and of chastity, to whom the name Diana
properly belongs. The true classic goddess Diana was a virgin,
according to common stories, considered as the sister of Apollo, and
was worshiped as the beautiful and youthful goddess of the chase,
and of that virgin purity of which she was supposed to be an
instance, though some stories present an exception to this part of
her character. Upon her head, in most representations of her, was
pictured a crescent, which was commonly supposed to show, that
she was also the goddess of the moon; but a far more sagacious
and rational supposition refers the first origin of this sign to a deeper
meaning. But when the mythologies of different nations began to be
compared and united, she was identified with the goddess of the
moon, and with that Asian goddess who bore among the Greeks the
name of Artemis, which is in fact the name given by Luke, as the
title of the great goddess of the Ephesians. This Artemis, however,
was a deity as diverse in form, character and attributes, from the
classic Diana, as from any goddess in all the systems of ancient
mythology; and they never need have been confounded, but for the
perverse folly of those who were bent, in spite of all reason, to find in
the divinities of the eastern polytheism, the perfect synonyms to the
objects of western idolatry. The Asian and Ephesian goddess
Artemis, had nothing whatever to do with hunting nor with chastity.
She was not represented as young, nor beautiful, nor nimble, nor as
the sister of Apollo, but as a vast gigantic monster, with a crown of
towers, with lions crouching upon her shoulders, and a great array of
pictured or sculptured eagles and tigers over her whole figure; and
her figure was also strangely marked by a multitude of breasts in
front. Under this monstrous figure, which evidently was no invention
of the tasteful Greeks, but had originated in the debasing and
grotesque idolatry of the orientals, Artemis of the Ephesians was
worshiped as the goddess of the earth, of fertility, of cities, and as
the universal principle of life and wealth. She was known among the
Syrians by the name of Ashtaroth, and was among the early objects
of Hebrew idolatry. When the Romans, in their all-absorbing
tolerance of idolatry, began to introduce into Italy the worship of the
eastern deities, this goddess was also added there, but not under
the name of Diana. The classic scholar is familiar with the allusions
to this deity, worshiped under the name of Cybele, Tellus and other
such, and in all the later poets of Rome, she is a familiar object, as
“the tower-crowned Cybele.” This was the goddess worshiped in
many of the Grecian cities of Asia Minor, which, at their first
colonization, had adopted this aboriginal goddess of those fertile
regions, of whose fertility, civilization, agricultural and commercial
wealth, she seemed the fit and appropriate personification. But in
none of these Asian cities was she worshiped with such peculiar
honors and glories as in Ephesus, the greatest city of Asia Minor.
Here was worshiped a much cherished image of her, which was said
to have fallen from heaven, called from that circumstance the
Diopetos; which here was kept in that most splendid temple, which
is even now proverbial as having been one of the wonders of the
ancient world. Being thus the most famous seat of her worship,
Ephesus also became the center of a great manufacture and trade in
certain curious little images or shrines, representing this goddess,
which were in great request, wherever her worship was regarded,
being considered as the genuine and legitimate representatives, as
well as representations of the Ephesian deity.
This explanation will account for the circumstances related by

Luke, as ensuing in Ephesus, on the success of Paul’s labors among
the heathen, to whose conversion his exertions had been wholly
devoted during the two last years of his stay in Ephesus. In
converting the Ephesians from heathenism, he was guilty of no
ordinary crime. He directly attacked a great source of profit to a large
number of artizans in the city, who derived their whole support from
the manufacture of those little objects of idolatry, which, of course,
became of no value to those who believed Paul’s doctrine,――that
“those were no gods which were made with hands.” This new
doctrine therefore, attracted very invidious notice from those who
thus found their dearest interests very immediately and unfortunately
affected, by the progress made by its preacher in turning away the
hearts of Ephesians from their ancient reverence for the shrines of
Artemis; and they therefore listened with great readiness to
Demetrius, one of their number, when he proposed to remedy the
difficulty. He showed them in a very clear, though brief address, that
“the craft was in danger,”――that warning cry which so often bestirs
the bigoted in defence of the object of their regard; and after hearing
his artful address, they all, full of wrath, with one accord raised a
great outcry, in the usual form of commendation of the established
idolatry of their city,――“Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!” This
noise being heard by others, and of course attracting attention, every
one who distinguished the words, by a sort of patriotic impulse, was
driven to join in the cry, and presently the whole city was in an
uproar;――a most desirable condition of things, of course, for those
who wished to derive advantage from a popular commotion. All
bawling this senseless cry, with about as much idea of the occasion
of the disturbance as could be expected from such a mob, the
huddling multitudes learning the general fact, that the grand object of
the tumult was to do some mischief to the Christians, and looking
about for some proper person to be made the subject of public
opinion, fell upon Gaius and Aristarchus of Macedonia, two traveling
companions of Paul, who happened to be in the way, and dragged
them to the theater, whither the whole mob rushed at once, as to a
desirable scene for any act of confusion and folly which they might
choose to commit. Paul, with a lion-like spirit, caring naught for the
mob, proposed to go in and make a speech to them, but his friends,
with far more prudence and cool sense than he,――knowing that an
assembly of the people, roaring some popular outcry, is no more a
subject of reason than so many raging wild beasts,――prevented
him from going into the theater, where he would no doubt have been
torn to pieces, before he could have opened his mouth. Some of the
great magistrates of Asia, too, who were friendly to him, hearing of
his rash intentions, sent to him a very urgent request, that he would
not venture himself among the mob. Meanwhile the outcry
continued,――the theater being crowded full,――and the whole city
constantly pouring out to see what was the matter, and every soul
joining in the religious and patriotic shout, “Great is Artemis of the
Ephesians!” And so they went on, every one, of course, according to
the universal and everlasting practice on such occasions, making all
the noise he could, but not one, except the rascally silversmiths,
knowing what upon earth they were all bawling there for. Still this
ignorance of the object of the assembly kept nobody still; but all, with
undiminished fervor, kept plying their lungs to swell the general roar.
As it is described in the very graphic and picturesque language of
Luke,――“Some cried one thing, and some, another; for the whole
assembly was confused;――and the more knew not wherefore they
were come together,”――which last circumstance is a very common
difficulty in such assemblies, in all ages. At last, searching for some
other persons as proper subjects to exercise their religious zeal
upon, they looked about upon the Jews, who were always a
suspected class among the heathen, and seized one Alexander, who
seems to have been one of the Christian converts, for the Jews
thrust him forward as a kind of scapegoat for themselves. Alexander
made the usual signs soliciting their attention to his words; but as
soon as the people understood that he was a Jew, they all drowned
his voice with the general cry, “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!”
and this they kept up steadily for two whole hours, as it were with
one voice. Matters having come to this pass, the recorder of the city
came forward, and having hushed the people,――who had some
reverence for the lawful authorities, that fortunately were not
responsible to them,――and made them a very sensible speech,
reminding them that since no one doubted the reverence of the
Ephesians for the goddess Artemis, and for the Diopetos, there
surely was no occasion for all this disturbance to demonstrate a fact
that every body knew. He told them that the men against whom they
were raising this disturbance had neither robbed their temples nor
blasphemed the goddess; so that if Demetrius and his fellow-craft
had anything justly against these men, as having injured their
business, they had their proper remedy at law. He hinted to them
also that they were all liable to be called to account for this manifest
breach of Roman law, and this defiance of the majesty of the Roman
government;――a hint which brought most of them to their senses;
for all who had anything to lose, dreaded the thought of giving
occasion to the awfully remorseless government of the province, to
fine them, as they certainly would be glad to do on any valid excuse.
They all dispersed, therefore, with no more words.
“‘Silver shrines,’ verse 24. The heathens used to carry the images of their gods in
procession from one city to another. This was done in a chariot which was solemnly
consecrated for that employment, and by the Romans styled Thensa, that is, the chariot of
their gods. But besides this, it was placed in a box or shrine, called Ferculum. Accordingly,
when the Romans conferred divine honors on their great men, alive or dead, they had the
Circen games, and in them the Thensa and Ferculum, the chariot and the shrine, bestowed
on them; as it is related of Julius Caesar. This Ferculum among the Romans did not differ
much from the Graecian Ναὸς, a little chapel, representing the form of a temple, with an
image in it, which, being set upon an altar, or any other solemn place, having the doors
opened, the image was seen by the spectators either in a standing or sitting posture. An old
anonymous scholiast upon Aristotle’s Rhetoric, lib. i. c. 15, has these words: Ναοποιοὶ οἱ
τοὺς ναοὺς ποιοῦσι, ἤτοι εἱκονοστάσια, τινα μικρὰ ξύλινα ἅ πωλοῦσι, observing the ναοι here to
be εικονοστάσια, chaplets, with images in them, of wood, or metal, (as here of silver,) which
they made and sold, as in verse 25, they are supposed to do. Athenaeus speaks of the
καδισκος, ‘which,’ says he ‘is a vessel wherein they place their images of Jupiter.’ The
learned Casaubon states, that ‘these images were put in cases, which were made like
chapels. (Deipnos. lib. ii. p. 500.) So St. Chrysostom likens them to ‘little cases, or shrines.’
Dion says of the Roman ensign, that it was a little temple, and in it a golden eagle, (Ρωμαικ,
lib. 40.) And in another place: ‘There was a little chapel of Juno, set upon a table.’ Ρωμαικ,
lib. 39. This is the meaning of the tabernacle of Moloch, Acts vii. 43, where by the σκηνη,
tabernacle, is meant the chaplet, a shrine of that false god. The same was also the ‫סכות דנות‬
the tabernacle of Benoth, or Venus.” Hammond’s Annotations. [Williams on Pearson, p. 55.]
Robbers of temples.――Think of the miserable absurdity of the common English

translation in this passage, (Acts xix. 37,) where the original ἱεροσυλοι is expressed by
“robbers of churches!” Now who ever thought of applying the English word “church,” to
anything whatever but a “Christian assembly,” or “Christian place of assembly?” Why then is
this phrase put in the mouth of a heathen officer addressing a heathen assembly about
persons charged with violating the sanctity of heathen places of worship? Such a building
as a church, (εκκλησια, ecclesia) devoted to the worship of the true God, was not known till
more than a century after this time; and the Greek word ἱερον, (hieron,) which enters into the
composition of the word in the sacred text, thus mistranslated, was never applied to a
Christian place of worship.
first epistle to the corinthians.
Paul’s residence in Ephesus is distinguished in his literary history,

as the period in which he wrote that most eloquent and animated of
his epistles,――“the first to the Corinthians.” It was written towards
the close of his stay in Asia, about the time of the passover;
according to established calculations, therefore, in the spring of the
year of Christ 57. The more immediate occasion of his writing to the
Corinthian Christians, was a letter which he had received from them,
by the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus and Achaicus. Paul had
previously written to them an epistle, (now lost,) in which he gave
them some directions about their deportment, which they did not fully
understand, and of which they desired an explanation in their letter.
Many of these questions, which this epistle of the Corinthians
contained, are given by Paul, in connection with his own answers to
them; and from this source it is learned that they concerned several
points of expediency and propriety about matrimony. These are
answered by Paul, very distinctly and fully; but much of his epistle is
taken up with instructions and reproofs on many points not referred
to in their inquiries. The Corinthian church was made up of two very
opposite constituent parts, so unlike in their character, as to render
exceedingly complicated the difficulties of bringing all under one
system of faith and practice; and the apostolic founder was, at one
time, obliged to combat heathen licentiousness, and at another,
Jewish bigotry and formalism. The church also, having been too
soon left without the presence of a fully competent head, had been
very loosely filled up with a great variety of improper
persons,――some hypocrites, and some profligates,――a difficulty
not altogether peculiar to the Corinthian church, nor to those of the
apostolic age. But there were certainly some very extraordinary
irregularities in the conduct of their members, some of whom were in
the habit of getting absolutely drunk at the sacramental table; and
others were guilty of great sins in respect to general purity of life.
Another peculiar difficulty, which had arisen in the church of Corinth,
during Paul’s absence, was the formation of sects and parties, each
claiming some one of the great Christian teachers as its head; some
of them claiming Paul as their only apostolic authority; some again
preferring the doctrines of Apollos, who had been laboring among
them while Paul was in Ephesus; and others again, referred to Peter
as the true apostolic chief, while they wholly denied to Paul any
authority whatever, as an apostle. There had, indeed, arisen a
separate party, strongly opposed to Paul, headed by a prominent
person, who had done a great deal to pervert the truth, and to lessen
the character of Paul in various ways, which are alluded to by Paul in
many passages of his epistle, in a very indignant tone. Other
difficulties are described by him, and various excesses are reproved,
as a scandal to the Christian character; such as an incestuous
marriage among their members,――lawsuits before heathen
magistrates,――dissolute conformity to the licentious worship of the
Corinthian goddess, whose temple was so infamous for its
scandalous rites and thousand priestesses. Some of the Corinthian
Christians had been in the habit of visiting this and other heathen
temples, and of participating in the scenes of feasting, riot and
debauchery, which were carried on there as a part of the regular
forms of idolatrous worship.
The public worship of the Corinthian church had been disturbed

also by various irregularities which Paul reprehends;――the abuse
of the gift of tongues, and the affectation of an unusual dress in
preaching, both by men and women. In the conclusion of his epistle
he expatiates too, at great length, on the doctrine of the resurrection
of the body, vehemently arguing against some Corinthian heretics,
who had denied any but a spiritual existence beyond the grave. This
argument may justly be pronounced the best specimen of Paul’s
very peculiar style, reasoning as he does, with a kind of passion, and
interrupting the regular series of logical demonstrations, by fiery
bursts of enthusiasm, personal appeals, poetical quotations,
illustrative similes, violent denunciations of error, and striking
references to his own circumstances. All these nevertheless, point
very directly and connectedly at the great object of the argument,
and the whole train of reasoning swells and mounts, towards the
conclusion, in a manner most remarkably effective, constituting one
of the most sublime argumentative passages ever written. He then
closes the epistle with some directions about the mode of collecting
the contributions for the brethren in Jerusalem. He promises to visit
them, and make a long stay among them, when he goes on his
journey through Macedonia,――a route which, he assures them, he
had now determined to take, as mentioned by Luke, in his account of
the preliminary mission of Timothy and Erastus, before the time of
the mob at Ephesus; but should not leave Ephesus until after
Pentecost, because a great and effectual door was there opened to
him, and there were many opposers. He speaks of Timothy as being
then on the mission before mentioned, and exhorts them not to
despise this young brother, if he should visit them, as they might
expect. After several other personal references, he signs his ♦ own
name with a general salutation; and from the terms, in which he
expresses this particular mark already alluded to in the second
epistle to the Thessalonians, it is very reasonable to conclude, that
he was not his own penman in any of these epistles, but used an
amanuensis, authenticating the whole by his signature, with his own
hand, only at the end; and this opinion of his method of carrying on
his correspondence, is now commonly, perhaps universally, adopted
by the learned.
♦ “ownn,ame” replaced with “own name”
“Chapter xvi. 10, 11. ‘Now, if Timotheus come, see that he may be with you without fear;
for he worketh the work of the Lord, as I also do: let no man therefore despise him, but
conduct him forth in peace, that he may come unto me, for I look for him with the brethren.’
“From the passage considered in the preceding number, it appears that Timothy was
sent to Corinth, either with the epistle, or before it: ‘for this cause have I sent unto you
Timotheus.’ From the passage now quoted, we infer that Timothy was not sent with the
epistle; for had he been the bearer of the letter, or accompanied it, would St. Paul in that
letter have said, ‘if Timothy come?’ Nor is the sequel consistent with the supposition of his
carrying the letter; for if Timothy was with the apostle when he wrote the letter, could he say,
as he does, ‘I look for him with the brethren?’ I conclude, therefore, that Timothy had left St.
Paul to proceed upon his journey before the letter was written. Further, the passage before
us seems to imply, that Timothy was not expected by St. Paul to arrive at Corinth, till after
they had received the letter. He gives them directions in the letter how to treat him when he
should arrive: ‘if he come,’ act towards him so and so. Lastly, the whole form of expression
is more naturally applicable to the supposition of Timothy’s coming to Corinth, not directly
from St. Paul, but from some other quarter; and that his instructions had been, when he
should reach Corinth, to return. Now, how stands this matter in the history? Turn to the
nineteenth chapter and twenty-first verse of the Acts, and you will find that Timothy did not,
when sent from Ephesus, where he left St. Paul, and where the present epistle was written,
proceed by a straight course to Corinth, but that he went round through Macedonia. This
clears up everything; for, although Timothy was sent forth upon his journey before the letter
was written, yet he might not reach Corinth till after the letter arrived there; and he would
come to Corinth, when he did come, not directly from St. Paul, at Ephesus, but from some
part of Macedonia. Here therefore is a circumstantial and critical agreement, and
unquestionably without design; for neither of the two passages in the epistle mentions
Timothy’s journey into Macedonia at all, though nothing but a circuit of that kind can explain
and reconcile the expressions which the writer uses.” (Paley’s Horae Paulinae, 1
Corinthians No. IV.)
“Chapter v. 7, 8. ‘For even Christ, our passover, is sacrificed for us; therefore let us keep
the feast, not with old leaven, neither with the leaven of malice and wickedness, but with the
unleavened bread of sincerity and truth.’
“Dr. Benson tells us, that from this passage, compared with chapter xvi. 8, it has been
conjectured that this epistle was written about the time of the Jewish passover; and to me
the conjecture appears to be very well founded. The passage to which Dr. Benson refers us,
is this: ‘I will tarry at Ephesus until Pentecost.’ With this passage he ought to have joined
another in the same context: ‘And it may be that I will abide, yea, and winter with you:’ for,
from the two passages laid together, it follows that the epistle was written before Pentecost,
yet after winter; which necessarily determines the date to the part of the year, within which
the passover falls. It was written before Pentecost, because he says, ‘I will tarry at Ephesus
until Pentecost.’ It was written after winter, because he tells them, ‘It may be that I may
abide, yea, and winter with you.’ The winter which the apostle purposed to pass at Corinth,
was undoubtedly the winter next ensuing to the date of the epistle; yet it was a winter
subsequent to the ensuing Pentecost, because he did not intend to set forwards upon his
journey till after the feast. The words, ‘let us keep the feast, not with old leaven, neither with
the leaven of malice and wickedness, but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth,’
look very much like words suggested by the season; at least they have, upon that
supposition, a force and significancy which do not belong to them upon any other; and it is
not a little remarkable, that the hints casually dropped in the epistle, concerning particular
parts of the year, should coincide with this supposition.” (Paley’s Horae Paulinae. 1
Corinthians. No. XII.)
second voyage to europe.
After the disturbances connected with the mob raised by

Demetrius had wholly ceased, and public attention was no longer
directed to the motions of the preachers of the Christian doctrine,
Paul determined to execute the plan, which he had for some time
contemplated, of going over his European fields of labor again,
according to his universal and established custom of revisiting and
confirming his work, within a moderately brief period after first
opening the ground for evangelization. Assembling the disciples
about him, he bade them farewell, and turning northward, came to
Troas, whence, six or seven years before, he had set out on his first
voyage to Macedonia. The plan of his journey, as he first arranged it,
had been to sail from the shores of Asia Minor directly for Corinth.
He had resolved however, not to go to that city, until the very
disagreeable difficulties which had there arisen in the church, had
been entirely removed, according to the directions given in the
epistle which he had written to them from Ephesus; because he did
not desire, after an absence of years, to visit them in such
circumstances, when his Corinthian converts were divided among
themselves, and against him,――and when his first duties would
necessarily be those of a rigid censor. He therefore waited at Troas,
with great impatience, for a message from them, announcing the
settlement of all difficulties. This he expected to receive through
Titus, a person now first mentioned in the apostle’s history. Waiting
with great impatience for this beloved brother, he found no rest in his
spirit, and though a door was evidently opened by the Lord for the
preaching of the gospel in Troas, he had no spirit for the good work
there; and desiring to be as near the great object of his anxieties as
possible, he accordingly took leave of the brethren at Troas, and
crossed the Aegean into Macedonia, by his former route. Here he
remained in great distress of mind, until his soul was at last
comforted by the long expected arrival of Titus. Luke only says, that
he went over those parts and gave them much exhortation. But
though his route is not given, his apostolic labors are known to have
extended to the borders of Illyricum. At this time also, he made
another important contribution to the list of the apostolic writings.
the second epistle to the corinthians.
There is no part of the New Testament canon, about the date of

which all authorities are so well agreed, as on the place and time, at
which Paul wrote his second epistle to the Corinthians. All
authorities, ancient and modern, decide that it was written during the
second visit of Paul to Macedonia; although as to the exact year in
which this took place, they are not entirely unanimous. The
passages in the epistle itself, which refer to Macedonia as the region
in which the apostle then was, are so numerous indeed, that there
can be no evasion of their evidence. A great topic of interest with
him, at the time of writing this epistle, was the collecting of the
contributions proposed for the relief of the Christian brethren in
Jerusalem; and upon this he enlarges much, informing the
Corinthians of the great progress he was making in Macedonia in
this benevolent undertaking, and what high hopes he had
entertained and expressed to the Macedonians, of the zeal and
ability of those in Achaia, about the contributions. This matter had
been noticed and arranged by him, in his former epistle to them, as
already noticed, and he now proposed to send forward Titus and
another person, (who is commonly supposed to be Luke,) to take
charge of these funds, thus collected. He speaks of coming also
himself, after a little time, and makes some allusions to the difficulties
which had constituted the subject of the great part of his former
epistle. Of their amendment in the particulars then so severely
censured, he had received a full account through Titus, when that
beloved brother came on from Corinth, to join Paul in Macedonia.
Paul assures the Corinthians of the very great joy caused in him, by
the good news of their moral and spiritual improvement, and renews
his ardent protestations of deep affection for them. The incestuous
person, whom they had excommunicated, in conformity with the
denunciatory directions given in the former epistle, he now forgives;
and as the offender has since appeared to be truly penitent, he now
urges his restoration to the consolations of Christian fellowship, lest
he should be swallowed up with too much sorrow. He defends his
apostolic character for prudence and decision, against those who
considered his change of plans about coming directly from Ephesus
to Corinth, as an exhibition of lightness and unsettled purpose. His
real object in this delay and change of purpose, as he tells them,
was, that they might have time to profit by the reproofs contained in
his former epistle, so that by the removal of the evils of which he so
bitterly complained, he might finally be enabled to come to them, not
in sorrow, nor in heaviness for their sins, but in joy for their
reformation. This fervent hope had been fulfilled by the coming of
Titus to Macedonia, for whom he had waited in vain, with so much
anxiety at Troas, as the expected messenger of these tidings of their
spiritual condition; and he was now therefore prepared to pass on to
them from Macedonia, to which region he tells them he had gone
from Troas, instead of to Corinth, because he had been disappointed
about meeting Titus on the eastern side of the Aegean. With the
exception of these things, the epistle is taken up with a very ample
and eloquent exhibition of his true powers and office as an apostle;
and in the course of this argument, so necessary for the re-
establishment of his authority among those who had lately been
disposed to contemn it, he makes many very interesting allusions to
his own personal history. The date of the epistle is commonly
supposed, and with good reason, to be A. D. 58, the fifth of Nero’s
reign, and one year after the preceding epistle.
MILETUS. Acts xx. 15‒17.
“Chapter ii. 12, 13. ‘When I came to Troas to preach Christ’s gospel, and a door was
opened unto me of the Lord, I had no rest in my spirit, because I found not Titus my brother;
but taking my leave of them, I went from thence into Macedonia.’
“To establish a conformity between this passage and the history, nothing more is
necessary to be presumed, than that St. Paul proceeded from Ephesus to Macedonia, upon
the same course by which he came back from Macedonia to Ephesus, or rather to Miletus
in the neighborhood of Ephesus; in other words, that, in his journey to the peninsula of
Greece, he went and returned the same way. St. Paul is now in Macedonia, where he had
lately arrived from Ephesus. Our quotation imports that in his journey he had stopped at
Troas. Of this, the history says nothing, leaving us only the short account, ‘that Paul
departed from Ephesus, for to go into Macedonia.’ But the history says, that in his return
from Macedonia to Ephesus, ‘Paul sailed from Philippi to Troas; and that, when the disciples
came together on the first day of the week, to break bread, Paul preached unto them all
night; that from Troas he went by land to Assos; from Assos, taking ship and coasting along
the front of Asia Minor, he came by Mitylene to Miletus.’ Which account proves, first, that
Troas lay in the way by which St. Paul passed between Ephesus and Macedonia; secondly,
that he had disciples there. In one journey between these two places, the epistle, and in
another journey between the same places, the history makes him stop at this city. Of the
first journey he is made to say, ‘that a door was in that city opened unto him of the Lord;’ in
the second, we find disciples there collected around him, and the apostle exercising his
ministry, with, what was even in him, more than ordinary zeal and labor. The epistle,
therefore, is in this instance confirmed, if not by the terms, at least by the probability of the
history; a species of confirmation by no means to be despised, because, as far as it
reaches, it is evidently uncontrived.
“Grotius, I know, refers the arrival at Troas, to which the epistle alludes, to a different
period, but I think very improbably; for nothing appears to me more certain, than that the
meeting with Titus, which St. Paul expected at Troas, was the same meeting which took
place in Macedonia, viz. upon Titus’s coming out of Greece. In the quotation before us, he
tells the Corinthians, ‘When I came to Troas, I had no rest in my spirit, because I found not
Titus, my brother; but, taking my leave of them, I went from thence into Macedonia.’ Then in
the seventh chapter he writes, ‘When we were come into Macedonia, our flesh had no rest,
but we were troubled on every side; without were fightings, within were fears; nevertheless,
God, that comforteth them that are cast down, comforted us by the coming of Titus.’ These
two passages plainly relate to the same journey of Titus, in meeting with whom St. Paul had
been disappointed at Troas, and rejoiced in Macedonia. And amongst other reasons which
fix the former passage to the coming of Titus out of Greece, is the consideration, that it was
nothing to the Corinthians that St. Paul did not meet with Titus at Troas, were it not that he
was to bring intelligence from Corinth. The mention of the disappointment in this place,
upon any other supposition, is irrelative.” (Paley’s Horae Paulinae. 2 Corinthians No. VIII.)
second journey to corinth.
Among his companions in Macedonia, was Timothy, his ever

zealous and affectionate assistant in the apostolic ministry, who had
been sent thither before him to prepare the way, and had been
laboring in that region ever since, as plainly appears from the fact,
that he is joined with Paul in the opening address of the second
epistle to the Corinthians,――a circumstance in itself sufficient to
overthrow a very common supposition of the critics,――that Timothy
returned to Asia; that Paul at that time “left him in Ephesus,” and at
this time wrote his first epistle to Timothy from Macedonia. It is also
most probable that Timothy was the personal companion of Paul, not
only during the whole period of his second ministration in
Macedonia, but also accompanied him from that province to Corinth;
because Timothy is distinctly mentioned by Luke, among those who
went with Paul from Macedonia to Asia, after his brief second
residence in that city. No particulars whatever are given by Luke of
the labors of Paul in Corinth. From his epistles, however, it is learned
that he was at this time occupied in part, in receiving the
contributions made throughout Achaia for the church of Jerusalem,
to which city he was now preparing to go. The difficulties, of which so
much mention had been made in his epistles, were now entirely
removed, and his work there doubtless went on without any of that
opposition which had arisen after his first departure. There is
however, one very important fact in his literary history, which took
place in Corinth, during his residence there.
the epistle to the romans.
From the very earliest period of apostolic labor, after the

ascension, there appear to have been in Rome, some Jews who
professed the faith of Jesus. Among the visitors in Jerusalem at the
Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit first descended, were some from
Rome, who sharing in the gifts of that remarkable effusion, and
returning to their home in the imperial city, would there in themselves
constitute the rudiment of a Christian church. It is perfectly certain
that they had never been blessed in their own city with the personal
presence of an apostle and all their associated action as a Christian
church, must therefore have been entirely the result of a voluntary
organization, suggested by the natural desire to keep up and to
spread the doctrines which they had first received in Jerusalem,
under such remarkable circumstances. Yet the members of the
church would not be merely those who were converted at the
Pentecost; for there was a constant influx of Jews from all parts of
the world to Rome, and among these there would naturally be some
who had participated in the light of the gospel, now so widely
diffused throughout the eastern section of the world. There is
moreover distinct information of certain persons of high
qualifications, as Christian teachers, who had at Rome labored in the
cause of the gospel, and had no doubt been among the most
efficient means of that advancement of the Roman church, which
seems to be implied in the communication now first made to them by
Paul. Aquilas and Priscilla, who had been the intimate friends of Paul
at Corinth, and who had been already so active and distinguished as
laborers in the gospel cause, both in that city and in Ephesus, had
returned to Rome on the death of Claudius, when that emperor’s
foolish decree of banishment, against the Jews, expired along with
its author, in the year of Christ, 54. These, on re-establishing their
residence in Rome, made their own house a place of assembly for a
part of the Christians in the capital,――probably for such as resided
in their own immediate neighborhood, while others sought different
places, according as suited their convenience in this particular. Many
other persons are mentioned by Paul at the close of this epistle, as
having been active in the work of the gospel at Rome;――among
whom Andronicus and Junias are particularly noticed with respect,
as having highly distinguished themselves in apostolic labors. From
all these evangelizing efforts, the church of Rome attained great
importance, and was now in great need of the counsels and
presence of an apostle, to confirm it, and impart to its members
spiritual gifts. It had long been an object of attention and interest to
Paul, and he had already expressed a determination to visit the
imperial city, in the remarks which he made to the brethren at
Ephesus, when he was making arrangements to go into Macedonia
and Achaia. The way was afterwards opened for this visit, by a very
peculiar providence, which he does not seem to have then
anticipated; but while residing in Corinth, his attention being very
particularly called to their spiritual condition, he could not wait till he
should have an opportunity to see them personally, to counsel them;
but wrote to them this very copious and elaborate epistle, which
seems to have been the subject of more comment among dogmatic
theologians, than almost any other portion of his writings, on account
of its being supposed to furnish different polemic writers with the
most important arguments for the peculiar dogmas of one or another,
according to the fancy of each. It undoubtedly is the most doctrinal
and didactic of all Paul’s epistles, alluding very little to local
circumstances, which are the theme of so large a part of most of his
writings, but attacking directly certain general errors entertained by
the Jews, on the subject of justification, predestination, election, and
many peculiar privileges which they attributed to themselves as the
descendants of Abraham.
This epistle, like most of the rest, was written by an amanuensis,
who is herein particularly named, as Tertius,――a word of Roman
origin; but beyond this nothing else is known of him. It was carried to
Rome by Phebe, an active female member of the church at
Cenchreae, the port of Corinth, who happened to be journeying to
Rome for some other purposes, and is earnestly recommended by
Paul to the friendly regard of the church there.
return to asia.
After passing three months in Corinth, he took his departure from

that city, on his pre-determined voyage to the east, the direction of
which was somewhat changed by the information that the Jews of
the place where he then was, were plotting some mischief against
him, which he thought best to avoid by taking a different route from
that before planned, which was a direct voyage to Syria. To escape
the danger prepared for him by them, at his expected place of
embarkation, he first turned northward by land, through Macedonia
to Philippi, and thence sailed by the now familiar track over the
Aegean to Troas. On this journey, he was accompanied by quite a
retinue of apostolic assistants,――not only his faithful disciple and
companion Timothy, but also Sosipater of Beroea, Aristarchus and
Secundus of Thessalonica, Gaius, or Caius of Derbe, and Luke also,
who now carries on the apostolic narrative in the first person, thus
showing that he was himself a sharer in the adventures which he
narrates. Besides these immediate companions, two brethren from
Asia, Tychicus and Trophimus, took the direct route from Corinth to
Troas, at which place they waited for the rest of the apostolic
company, who took the circuitous route through Macedonia. The
date of the departure of Paul is very exactly fixed by his companion
Luke, who states that they left Philippi at the time of the passover,
which was in the middle of March; and other circumstances have
enabled modern critics to fix the occurrence in the year of Christ 59.
After a five days’ voyage, arriving at Troas on Saturday, they made a
stay of seven days in that place; and on the first day of the week, the
Christians of that place having assembled for the communion usual
on the Lord’s day, Paul preached to them: and as it was the last day
of his stay, he grew very earnest in his discourse and protracted it
very late, speaking two whole hours to the company, who were met
in the great upper hall, where, in all Jewish houses, these festal
entertainments and social meetings were always held. It was, of
course, the evening, when the assembly met, for this was the usual
time for a social party, and there were many lights in the room,
which, with the number of people, must have made the air very
warm, and had the not very surprising effect of causing drowsiness,
in at least one of Paul’s hearers, a young man named ♦ Eutychus,
whose interest in what was said, could not keep his attention alive
against the pressure of drowsiness. He fell asleep; and the
occurrence must appear so very natural, (more particularly to any
one, who has ever been so unfortunate as to be sleepy at an
evening meeting, and knows what a painful sensation it is, though
the drowsiness is wholly beyond the control of the reason,) that it
can hardly be thought worth while to take pains, as some venerable
commentators do, to suppose that the devil was very specially
concerned in producing the sleep of Eutychus, and that the
consequences which ensued, were an exhibition of divine wrath
against the sleepy youth, for slumbering under the preaching of Paul.
If the supposition holds equally good in all similar cases, the devil
must be very busy on warm Sunday afternoons; and many a
comfortable nap would be disturbed by unpleasant dreams, if the
dozer could be made to think that his drowsiness was the particular
work of the great adversary of souls, or that he was liable to suffer
any such accident as Eutychus did, who, falling into a deeper sleep,
and losing all muscular control and consciousness, sunk down from
his seat, and slipping over the side of the gallery, in the third loft, fell
into the court below, where he was taken up lifeless. But Paul
hearing of the accident, stopped his discourse, and going down to
the young man, fell on him and embraced him, saying, “Trouble not
yourselves, for the life is in him.” And his words were verified by the
result; for they soon brought him up alive, and were not a little
comforted. Paul, certain of his recovery, did not suffer the accident to
mar the enjoyment of the social farewell meeting; but going up and
breaking bread with them all, talked with them a long time, passing
the whole night in this pleasant way, and did not leave them till day-
break, when he started to go by land over to Assos, about twenty-
four miles south-east of Troas, on the Adramyttian gulf, which sets
up between the north side of the island of Lesbos and the mainland.
His companions, coming around by water, through the mouth of the
gulf, took Paul on board at Assos, according to his plan; and then
instead of turning back, and sailing out into the open sea, around the
outside of Lesbos, ran up the gulf to the eastern end of the north
coast of the island, where there is an other outlet to the gulf between
the eastern shore of Lesbos and the continent. Sailing southward
through this passage, after a course of between thirty and forty
miles, they came to Mitylene, on the southeastern side of the island.
Thence passing out of the strait, they sailed southwestwards, coming
between Chios and the main-land, and arrived the next day at
Trogyllium, at the southwest corner of Samos. Then turning their
course towards the continent, they came in one day to Miletus, near
the mouth of the ♠Meander, about forty miles south of Ephesus.
♦ “Entychus” replaced with “Eutychus”
♠ “Maeander” replaced with “Meander”
Landing here, and desiring much to see some of his Ephesian

brethren before his departure to Jerusalem, he sent to the elders of
the church in that city, and on their arrival poured out his whole soul
to them in a parting address, which for pathetic earnestness and
touching beauty, is certainly, beyond any doubt, the most splendid
passage that all the records of ancient eloquence can furnish. No
force can be added to it by a new version, nor can any recapitulation
of its substance do justice to its beauty. At the close, took place a
most affecting farewell. In the simple and forcible description of
Luke, (who was himself present at the moving scene, seeing and
hearing all he narrates,)――“When Paul had thus spoken, he
kneeled down and prayed with them all.” The subjects of this prayer

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Mathematical Structures of Ergodicity

and Chaos in Population Dynamics 1st

Mathematical structures for computer graphics 1st

Stochastic Differential Equations: An Introduction with

Dynamics and Control of Advanced Structures and

Beautiful Fool Queens of Chaos 2 1st Edition L J

Trends in Biomathematics Mathematical Modeling for

Nonlinear dynamics and chaos: with applications to

Kings of Chaos Kings of Chaos 1 1st Edition Katie Ball

Nonlinear dynamics of structures under extreme

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13304

ISSN 2198-4182 ISSN 2198-4190 (electronic)

taken from (A. Lasota and A. Klimek 2005)

The presented monograph is based on the doctoral dissertation of the author

Warsaw, Poland Paweł J. Mitkowski

5 The Lasota–Ważewska Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

1.1 Mathematical Study of the Reality Structure

1.2 Foundations of Scientific Thinking

1.2.1 Banach Contraction Mapping Theorem

∀x1 ∈ X ∀x2 ∈ X ρ(F(x1 ), F(x2 )) ≤ αρ(x1 , x2 ). (1.1)

Condition (1.1) is called Lipschitz condition. A map F : X → X is called contraction,

then for each x0 ∈ X

Proof Let x0 be any point of a space X and xn+1 = F(xn ) for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

ρ(x1 , x2 ) = ρ(F(x0 ), F(x1 )) ≤ αρ(x0 , x1 ),

ρ(x2 , x3 ) = ρ(F(x1 ), F(x2 )) ≤ αρ(x1 , x2 ) ≤ α 2 ρ(x0 , x1 ),

ρ(xn , xn+1 ) ≤ α n ρ(x0 , x1 ) dla n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

ρ(xn , xm ) ≤ ρ(xn , xn+1 ) + ρ(xn+1 , xn+2 ) + · · · + ρ(xm−1 , xm ) ≤

ρ(x ∗ , F(x ∗ )) ≤ ρ(x ∗ , xn ) + ρ(xn , F(x ∗ )) ≤ ρ(x ∗ , xn ) + αρ(xn−1 , x ∗ ) → ∞

at n → ∞. This means ρ(x ∗ , F(x ∗ )) = 0, so x ∗ = F(x ∗ ). In addition, let us suppose

ρ(x ∗ , y ∗ ) = ρ(F(x ∗ ), F(y ∗ )) ≤ αρ(x ∗ , y ∗ ) < ρ(x ∗ , y ∗ ),

which is impossible. Therefore, ρ(x ∗ , y ∗ ) = 0, this means x ∗ = y ∗ . This proves the

1.3 Mathematical Modelling in Biology and Medicine

1.4 Topics and Objectives of the Book

called anemia. Furthermore, certain diseases in which young erythrocytes or even

2.3 Bone Marrow

2.4 Erythropoiesis—The Production of Erythrocytes

In the body of a healthy human being, staying in stable conditions (Ważewska-

2.4.1 Stages of Erythrocyte Development

2.4.1.1 Stem Cells

The youngest erythrocyte precursor cell is an undifferentiated hematopoietic bone

2.4.1.2 Progenitor Cells

Differentiation of erythrocyte line precursors takes place in several stages (Ważewska-

processes occur simultaneously in this population; maturation and proliferation. The

2.4.1.3 Precursor Cells

The next stages in the development of maturing differentiated erythrocyte precur-

2.4.1.4 Peripheral Blood Cells

2.4.1.5 Erythropoietin (Epo)

As we have already mentioned Erythropoietin (Epo) is a hormone that regulates

2.4.2 Mechanisms for Erythropoiesis Regulation

2.4.2.1 Short-Range Mechanism

2.4.2.2 Long-Range Mechanism

3.1 Metric Spaces

Definition 3.1 Non-empty set X with a map ρ : X × X → [0, ∞) fulfilling the

Example 3.1 Let X be any non-empty set. Function

is a metric in X , called a discrete metric. Space (X, ρ) is called a discrete space.

Example 3.2 Function

is a metric in the set of real numbers R.

Example 3.3 In space R n , x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) functions:

Remark 3.2 The smallest σ -algebra A containing a non-empty family of subsets