The liquid magnetic compass, now almost universally used, is commonly

accompanied by an azimuth instrument for taking bearings of distant objects.

The compass consists of a set of steel needles with a compass card, attached
to a float, in a bowl of water and alcohol. In modern instruments, the
magnetic element is often in the form of a ring magnet, fitted within the float.
The card is usually of mica or plastic with photographically printed
graduations; metal cards with perforated graduations also are used. Cards are
usually graduated clockwise from 0° at north to 359°, with the eight principal
points indicated.
A jewel is fitted at the centre of the float to bear on an iridium-tipped pivot
attached to the bowl of the compass. The liquid in which the directional
system is placed serves two purposes: to reduce the weight on the pivot point,
and thereby to minimize friction; and to damp out oscillations from the ship’s
motion. The bowl is closed on the top and bottom by glass, the bottom glass
permitting illumination from below, and is mounted in gimbals. A flexible
diaphragm or bellows attached to the bowl accommodates the change in
volume of the liquid caused by temperature changes. The ship’s heading is
read with the aid of the lubber’s line, which is oriented toward the forward
part of the compass to indicate the direction of the ship’s centre line.
When the ship alters course, liquid at the side of the bowl tends to displace
slightly, deflecting the card and causing what is known as swirl error. To
minimize swirl error, the card is often made considerably smaller in diameter
than the bowl. The directional system is made sufficiently bottom-heavy
(pendulous) to counteract the downward pull of the vertical component of the
Earth’s magnetic field, which would otherwise cause the system to tilt.
The simplest, and probably earliest, azimuth instrument consists of two sights
on opposite sides of the compass bowl connected by a thread. The assembly
can be rotated to permit sighting on the distant object. Because it is
impossible to sight through the instrument and look at the compass card
simultaneously, a prism (mirror) is positioned to reflect an image of the card,
which is given a second set of graduations with reversed figures. Modern
azimuth instruments embody a number of refinements, but the principle
remains unchanged.
The binnacle, formerly called the bittacle, is the receptacle in which the
compass is mounted. Originally constructed in the form of a cupboard, it is
now usually a cylindrical pedestal with provision for illuminating the
compass card, usually from below. It contains various correctors to reduce
the deviations of the compass caused by the magnetism of the ship. These
usually consist of properly placed magnets, a pair of soft iron spheres (or
small strips close to the compass), and a vertical soft iron bar called the
Flinders bar, which originated in recommendations made by the English
navigator Matthew Flinders.
Binnacles are sometimes constructed so that an image of part of the compass
card can be projected or reflected through a tube onto a viewing screen on the
deck below. This arrangement can make it unnecessary to provide a second
compass for the helmsman and may allow the binnacle to be placed in a
position less susceptible to magnetic disturbances.

Compass Work

Magnetic Compass

Construction of a liquid card magnetic compass

Keeping the card practically horizontal in all latitudes

The weight of the card and magnets is supported partly by the buoyancy and partly by an iridium point
fitting into a sapphire bearing.

The point of support is above the centre of gravity of the card, so that the card remains substantially
horizontal in all latitudes.

Composition of the liquid and explains how allowance is made for changes in volume of the liquid

The bowl is filled with a mixture of distilled water and pure ethyl alcohol thereby making the mixture
to have the following properties:

· Low freezing point about -30°C

· Small coefficient of expansion

· Does not discolour the card

· Low relative density about 0.93

The top of the bowl is of transparent glass. The bottom is of frosted glass to diffuse the light coming
from an electric bulb below. This liquid has a small coefficient of expansion, but since its volume
changes slightly with change of temperature, a flexible corrugated plate or expansion chamber is fitted
to the bowl.

Removing Air Bubbles

Air bubbles often appear in a compass bowl. If the bubble is quite small it is preferred that it be left
alone. However if the bubble is too large then the frictionless movement of the card would be affected,
thus the need to remove the air bubble or at least to reduce it to quite a small one.

To remove the air bubble, first the gimbals are locked with the swivel plates provided. Next the bowl is
inverted and the filling hole is unscrewed. A syringe is filled with distilled water and slowly the water
is injected into the bowl. An estimate of the bubble size would give an indication of the extra fluid that
has to be injected, if the same is not possible then the bowl has to be tilted in the inverted condition
such that the highest point is the filling hole, this would drive the air space (bubble to the filling hole.
Once the water is injected to satisfaction the filling hole is screwed back, and the bowl returned to
normal position, and the gimbals unlocked.

Checking that the card is turning freely on its pivot.

The compass card may be tested for pivot friction by deflecting the compass cards a few degrees. If the
pivot is in good condition the card should return to and settle in its original position with no sign of
sticking or jerkiness.

Marking of the lubber line and its purpose

LUBBER’S ( LUBBER (clumsy fellow) LINE: The mark on the binnacle, which is brought to meet the
desired point on the compass card.

The lubber’s line marks the direction of the fore and aft line of the ship.

So called because a ‘real’ seaman can do without it.

Binnacle and the arrangement of correcting devices provided

The binnacle is a cylindrical container made of teakwood. No magnetic material is used in the
construction. The compass bowl is slung inside the top portion of the binnacle. The middle portion is
accessible by a door and contains an electric bulb. Light from this bulb passes upwards through a small
slot at the bottom of the compass bowl to illuminate the compass card from below.

A mechanical shutter can control the intensity of the light. The number of magnets in the bucket, the
bucket’s position with reference to the compass card and the number of hard iron magnets depend on
the disturbing forces. A qualified “compass adjuster” can calculate this force after conducting certain
tests.

Once the compass has been adjusted, the magnets should not be disturbed and the doors giving access
to tile corrector magnets should be kept locked.

‘Deviation’ and how it is named

Deviation is defined as deflection right or left of the magnetic meridian.

On a lifeboat (fibreglass) the lifeboat compass magnet is affected only by the Earth’s magnetic field. As
such the LB’s course would be the magnetic course – affected only by the variation caused by the
earth’s magnetism.

And the North of the LB compass would be the Magnetic North.

For a ship’s magnetic compass however the compass magnet is affected by the Earth’s magnetic field
as well as by the magnetic field caused by the magnetism of the ship’s hull. The ship’s hull becomes a
huge magnet due to the repeated high current used in fabricating the ship.

Thus the ship’s magnetic compass would show a different North than either the True North or the
Magnetic North – this is called compass North. The difference between the Magnetic North and the
Compass North is known as ‘Deviation’. If the compass North is west of the Magnetic North then the
deviation is termed ‘West’ and if the compass north is to the East of the Magnetic North then the
deviation is termed as ‘East’. is termed as ‘East’.

Care in the placing of portable items of magnetic material, including spare corrector magnets, or
electrical equipment in the vicinity of compasses

Since the magnetic compass is affected by magnetic fields, all Ferro magnetic material if brought close
to a magnetic compass will slowly be magnetised (over a period of time), this material may later exert a
magnetic field on the compass magnet.

Similarly any electrical wiring will produce a electrical field which will exert its influence on the
magnet of the compass. This is the reason all electrical/electronic bridge equipment like Radar’s
electrical/electronic bridge equipment like Radar’s etc come with a ‘compass safe distance’ marked on
Need for regular checking of the compass error

Due to change in latitude, course and speed the compass error should be taken at regular intervals.

Compass error should be checked after a major alteration of course

After alteration of course the gyro as well as the magnetic compass error should be taken. This since
both are affected differently, errors on different headings should be taken.
Regular comparisons of standard compass, steering compass and gyrocompass should be made

Comparisons between magnetic compass and gyrocompass should be made once a watch and after
every alteration of course.

All the repeaters should be compared with the Master gyrocompass and the Magnetic compass should
be compared with the Master Gyrocompass.

So that while taking bearings the error if any may be applied.

Since the gyro is based on the electrical current fed to the gyroscope any earthing of the supply would
result in the gyro spinning less than at optimum speed and thus errors may creep in.

Also the synchro motors for the repeaters may sometimes slow down resulting in errors of the
repeaters.

The sphere does not give any warning before it slows down so it is always better to compare before the
watch and after every alteration to a new course.

Gyro Compass may be used to approximate the error of the magnetic compass

Since the gyro compass basically works on the principle of the torque required to tilt a spinning wheel
from its position of rest and that the earth’s tilt does not vary sufficiently in a short time period, the
gyro compass is more stable and is less affected by local magnetism as well as the ships inherent
magnetism. Whereas the magnetic compass is affected by the twin factors of variation and deviation.
Variation being sufficiently constant over a short time interval change in distance the deviation is the
major factor in causing error on various headings. Thus a magnetic compass may be compared with a
gyro compass to arrive at a approximate of the error.

Compass Work

Magnetism of the Earth and the Ship’s Deviation

Theory of magnetism as applied to ferromagnetic materials

Ferromagnetic materials are those in which each molecule has a substantial magnetic moment. The
molecular fields interact and the crystalline structure of the materials is such that groups of molecules
become aligned over regions, which are called domains. If a bar of such material is subjected to an
impressed/inducing field, the domains tend to realign themselves with the field.

The degree of alignment depends upon the structure of the material and the strength of the inducing
field. When the maximum alignment has occurred the material is said to be magnetically saturated and
further increases in the inducing field will evoke no further contribution from the molecular fields.

Ferromagnetism is a strong effect and permeabilities are much greater than 1.

Above a certain temperature, thermal agitation of the molecules is sufficient to prevent the formation of
domains and ferromagnetic materials at normal temperatures may be made to exhibit ferromagnetic
properties if cooled sufficiently.

This is the temperature to which a Flinders bar and or spherical bar and or spherical correctors are
raised and then cooled slowly to get rid of any magnetism induced in them.

Any piece of metal on becoming magnetized will develop regions of concentrated magnetism called
poles.

Any such magnet will have at least two poles of opposite polarity.

Magnetic force (flux) lines connect one pole of such a magnet with the other pole.

The number of such lines per unit area represents the intensity of the magnetic field in that area.

If two such magnetic bars or magnets are placed close to each other, the like poles will repel each other
and the unlike poles will attract each other. The force between magnetic poles being directly
proportional to the strength of the poles and inversely proportional to the distance between them.

A unit pole is that which is associated with a magnetic flux of 1 weber (f).

Magnetic moment (M) is the product of the pole strength and the length of a magnet, thus,

M = 2 L f (Where L = half length of magnet)

Unit field strength is that which exerts a force of one style="font-size: 12pt; line-height:
150%;"Newton on a pole of strength 1 weber. The unit of field strength is the ampere per metre.
Normally field strength is denoted by ‘H’ but for magnetism ‘H’ is reserved for the horizontal
componenet of the Earth’s field.

The field stength (H) at a point distant ‘d’ metres from a magnetic pole of strength ‘f’ units is given by:

H = (f / d2) x 106 / 16

The field strength at a point end on to a short bar magnet at a distance of ‘d’ from its centre is:

H = (2M / d3) x (106 / 16)

And the field strength at a point broadside on to a short bar magnet at a distance ‘d’ is:

H = (M / d3) x (106 / 16)

Thus we see the effect of a corrector magnet of constant magnetic moment in a binnacle varies
inversely as the cube of its distance from the compass needles irrespective of whether the magnet is end
on or broadside on to the compass.

Magnetism can be either permanent or induced.

A bar having permanent magnetism will retain its magnetism when it is removed from the magnetizing
field.

Whether or not a bar will retain its magnetism on removal from the magnetizing field will depend on:

· The strength of that field,

· The degree of hardness of the iron (retentivity), and also

· Upon the amount of physical stress applied to the bar while in the magnetizing field.

The harder the iron, the more permanent will be the magnetism acquired

Magnetic induction and differences between ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ iron

Soft Iron: A bar of ferromagnetic material placed in a magnetic field becomes induced with magnetism.
If the material is easily magnetised, but loses most of its magnetism when removed from the inducing
field, it is said to be magnetically soft. Such materials usually, but not necessarily, have high have high
permeabilities and are mechanically soft.

Hard Iron: is a ferromagnetic material which is not easily magnetised by an inducing field, but which
retains a substantial proportion of its magnetism when the inducing field is removed. Such material
usually, but not necessarily, has lower permeability and is mechanically hard.

A uniformly magnetised bar has a pole approximately one twelfth of the length from each end and
gives rise to a magnetic field.

Intensity of magnetisation:

This is the Flux density established within a material due to its own magnetism.

It is related to pole strength and magnetic moment in uniform bar magnets.

Thus, the pole strength (_) is the total flux within a magnet and the flux density is therefore this
quantity divided by the cross sectional area (A) of the magnet.

Permeability

Is the ratio between the induction and the strength of the field in which the object lies or the number of
lines of force per square cm inside the object divided by the number of lines of force per square cm
outside the object.

It is also the ratio between the force that would be exerted on a unit pole inside and the force that would
be exerted on a unit pole outside.

It is therefore the number of gauss produced by 1 oersted.

Susceptibility

Magnetic susceptibility: This is the ratio of the intensity of magnetisation in a material (J) to the flux
density of an inducing field of strength.

Absolute susceptibility is sometimes used instead of the relative susceptibility as defined above. It
compares the intensity of magnetization with the strength of the inducing field rather than with its flux
density.

Terrestrial Magnetism

Consider the earth as a huge magnet surrounded by magnetic flux lines. connecting its two magnetic
poles.

These magnetic poles are near, but not coincidental with, the earth’s geographic poles.

Since the north-seeking end of a compass needle is conventionally called the North Pole, or positive
pole, it must therefore be attracted to a South Pole, or negative pole.

The flux lines enter the surface of the earth at different angles to the horizontal, at different magnetic
attitudes.

This angle is called the angle of magnetic dip, ‘q’, and increases from 0°, at the magnetic equator, to
90° at the magnetic poles.

The direction of the earth’s total field T at any point lies in the plane of the magnetic meridian and is
inclined to the horizontal by the angle of dip.

The total magnetic field is generally considered as having two components:

· H, the horizontal component; and

· Z, the vertical component.

These components change as the angle ‘q’, changes, such that:

H is maximum at the magnetic equator and decreases in the direction of either pole;

Z is zero at the magnetic equator and increases in the direction of either pole

Magnetic variation
Since the magnetic poles of the earth do not coincide with the geographic poles, a compass needle in
line with the earth’s magnetic field will not indicate true north, but magnetic north.

The angular difference between the true meridian (great circle connecting the geographic poles) and the
magnetic meridian (direction of the lines of magnetic flux) is called VARIATION

This VARIATION has different values at different locations on the earth.

These values of magnetic variation may be found on a Variation Chart, on pilot charts, and, on the
compass rose of navigational charts.

The VARIATION for most given areas undergoes an annual change, the Lines joining through places
on a chart having the same value of variation are called Isogonic Lines.

Lines drawn through places where the variation is zero are called Agonic Lines.

A compass needle which is constrained to the horizontal can respond only to the horizontal components
H of the earth’s total field and the field due to the ship’s magnetism

Here is a representation of the earth’s total field T as resolved into horizontal H and vertical Z
components:

Ship’s Magnetism

A ship under construction or major repair will acquire permanent magnetism due to hammering and
vibration while being stationary in the earth’s magnetic field.

After launching, the ship will lose some of this original magnetism as a result of vibration and
pounding in varying magnetic fields, and will eventually reach a more or less stable magnetic
condition.

The magnetism, which remains, is the permanent magnetism of the ship.

The fact that a ship has permanent magnetism does not mean that it cannot also acquire induced
magnetism when placed in the earth’s magnetic field.

The magnetism induced in any given piece of soft iron is a function of:
The field intensity,

The alignment of the soft iron in that field, and

The physical properties and dimensions of the iron.

This induced magnetism may add to, or subtract from, the permanent magnetism already present in the
ship, depending on how the ship is aligned in the magnetic field.

The softer the iron, the more readily it will be magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field, and the more
readily it will give up its magnetism when removed from that field.

The magnetism in the various structures of a ship, which tends to change as a result of sailing,
vibration, or ageing, but which does not alter immediately so as to be properly termed induced
magnetism, is called sub- permanent magnetism.

This magnetism, at any instant, is part of the ship’s permanent magnetism, and consequently must be
corrected by permanent magnet correctors.

It is the principal cause of deviation changes on a magnetic compass.

Thus when we refer to permanent magnetism the reference is to the apparent permanent magnetism,
which includes the existing permanent, and sub-permanent magnetism. and sub-permanent magnetism.

A ship, then, has a combination of permanent, sub-permanent, and induced magnetism

Therefore, the ship’s apparent permanent magnetic condition is subject to change from excessive
shocks, welding, and vibration.

The ship’s induced magnetism will vary with the earth’s magnetic field strength and with the alignment
of the ship in that field.

Magnetic Adjustment Magnetic Adjustment

A rod of soft iron, in a plane parallel to the earth’s horizontal magnetic field, H, will have a north pole
induced in the end toward the north geographic pole and a south pole induced in the end toward the
south geographic pole.

This same rod in a horizontal plane, but at right angles to the horizontal earth’s field, would have no
magnetism induced in it, because its alignment in the magnetic field is such that there will be no
tendency toward linear magnetisation, and the rod is of negligible cross section.

Should the rod be aligned in some horizontal direction between those headings which create maximum
and zero induction, it would be induced by an amount which is a function of the angle of alignment.

If a similar rod is placed in a vertical position in northern latitudes so as to be aligned with the vertical
earth’s field Z, it will have a south pole induced at the upper end and a north pole induced at the lower
end.

These polarities of vertical induced magnetisation will be reversed in southern latitudes. The amount of
horizontal or vertical induction in such rods, or in ships whose construction is equivalent to
combinations of such rods, will vary with the intensity of H and Z, heading and heel of the ship.

The magnetic compass must be corrected for the vessel’s permanent and induced magnetism so that its
operation approximates that of a completely nonmagnetic vessel. Ship’s magnetic conditions create
magnetic compass deviations and sectors of sluggishness and unsteadiness.

Compass Work

Compass Corrections
Definitions

True North: This refers to the geographical North Pole. This is a physical pole since the axis of the
earth passes through the same. All charts are aligned to this pole and the co-ordinate system refers to
this as the North Pole.

Magnetic North: This is the south-seeking pole of the earth when considered as a giant magnet. All
magnetic compasses point to this pole as North. The physical and the magnetic north pole do not
coincide. The magnetic pole shifts over time as the earth cools down and also due to other various
reasons. The physical pole remains stationary.

Compass North: This takes into account both variation and deviation experienced by the compass
while pointing the direction of North. It is not possible to have two ships compass point at the same
direction as North.

Magnetic Course:
The angle between the magnetic meridian and the direction of the ship’s head. It defines the direction
of the ship’s head relative to “Magnetic North”. The difference between the two is the Variation.

True Course: After allowing for Deviation and Variation to the Magnetic Course/bearing. Compass
Course: The angle between the compass needle and the direction of the ship’s head. It defines the
direction of the ship’s head relative to “Compass North”. The compass course is indicated by the
position of the ‘lubber’s line’ relative to the compass card. Both deviation and variation are involved in
this correction.

Finding deviation and variation from tables and charts

Variation may be found from variation charts as well as from that printed on the compass rose on any
navigational chart.
Calculating true course from compass course

Given: Compass Course - 110° and on this course the deviation is 3°E, the chart shows a Variation of
9°W, to find the True Course.

We may combine the two errors - 9°W and 3°E, this becomes a combined error of 6°W. Or we may say
that the compass error is 6°W.

Now using the quote:

‘Error West Compass Best – Error East Compass Least’

We see that the Error is West so the compass would be the best or the greater than the True.

So, the True course would be less than the compass course by 6°. The True course therefore would be -
104°

If we do this step by step then:

Compass Course - 110°

Deviation - 3°E

Magnetic Course - 113° (Error East Compass Least, so True in this case Magnetic is more so add)

Variation - 9°W

True Course - 104° (Error West Compass Best, so True is less, so subtract)

Calculating compass course from true course

Given: True Course - 110° and on this course the deviation is 3°E, the chart shows a Variation of 9°W,
to find the Compass Course.

We may combine the two errors - 9°W and 3°E, this becomes a combined error of 6°W. Or we may say
that the compass error is 6°W.

Now using the quote:

‘Error West Compass Best – Error East Compass Least’

We see that the Error is West so the compass would be the best or the greater than the True.

So, the Compass course would be greater than the True course by 6°. The Compass course therefore
would be - 116°

If we do this step by step then:

True Course - 110°

Variation - 9°W

Magnetic Course - 119° (Error West Compass Best, so Compass in this case Magnetic is more so add)

Deviation - 3°E

Compass Course - 116° (Error East Compass Least, so Compass is less, so subtract)

Using a transit bearing to find error

Transit bearings are usually taken within Pilotage waters or in very near coastal waters. Two prominent
marks are selected – generally a lighthouse and another beacon or a building (should be marked on the
chart). A line is drawn between the two and extended to cut the own vessel course line at a future time.

It thus becomes obvious that the transit line (the extended line) should cut the course line.

Once this is done the transit line is read off from the compass rose and the same is written on the chart
next to the line.

An estimated time is also written down of approaching this point where the transit line would be
cutting the course line.

A few minutes prior to the time the two objects are sighted through the azimuth mirror and at the time
of actual transit the bearing is noted. This is then compared with that which was read off the compass
rose. This gives the error of the compass.

While entering port the pilot generally looks up at the leading lights which are aligned at a certain
bearing and confidently tells the Master that the compass has an error or not and of the error amount.

Applying compass error to the ship's head and compass bearings to convert to true

Ships course Correction:

Given: Compass Course - 120° and on this course the deviation is 4°E, the chart shows a Variation of
9°W, to find the True Course.

We may combine the two errors - 9°W and 4°E, this becomes a combined error of 5°W. Or we may say
that the compass error is 5°W.

Now using the quote:

‘Error West Compass Best – Error East Compass Least’

We see that the Error is West so the compass would be the best or the greater than the True.

So, the True course would be less than the compass course by 5°. The True course therefore would be -
115°

If we do this step by step then:

Compass Course - 120°

Deviation - 4°E

Magnetic Course - 124° (Error East Compass Least, so True in this case Magnetic is more so add)

Variation - 9°W

True Course - 115° (Error West Compass Best, so True is less, so subtract)

Observed Bearing Correction:

Given: Compass Course - 110° and on this course the deviation is 3°E, the chart shows a Variation of
9°W, Bearing of a light - 145°, to find the True Bearing.

We may combine the two errors - 9°W and 3°E, this becomes a combined error of 6°W. Or we may say
that the compass error is 6°W.

Now using the quote:

‘Error West Compass Best – Error East Compass Least’

We see that the Error is West so the compass bearing would be the best or the greater than the True
bearing.

So, the True bearing would be less than the compass bearing by 6°. The True bearing therefore would
be - 139°

If we do this step by step then:

Compass bearing - 145°

Deviation - 3°E

Magnetic bearing - 148° (Error East Compass Least, so True in this case Magnetic is more so add)

Variation - 9°W

True bearing - 139° (Error West Compass Best, so True is less, so subtract)
REMEMBER THE DEVIATION IS OF THE COMPASS IS ON A PARTICULAR SHIPS HEADING
– (THE MAGNETIC LINES OF THE EARTH CUT THE SHIP DIFFERENTLY ON DIFERENT
HEADINGS) – AS SUCH DO NOT LOOK UP THE DEVIATION ON THE BASIS OF THE
BEARING BUT LOOK UP FOR THE SHIPS HEADING.