ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The lungs are paired, pyramid-shaped

organs connected to the trachea via the right
and left bronchi, with their lower surfaces
bordered by the diaphragm. The diaphragm, a
flat, dome-shaped muscle positioned at the
lung's base and within the thoracic cavity, plays
a vital role as it undergoes contraction and
relaxation during the breathing process.
Additionally, it functions as a partition that
separates the chest cavity from the abdominal
cavity. Surrounding the ribcage, there are also
muscles that assist in expanding the chest to
facilitate the act of breathing.
The pleurae encompass the lungs and attach
to the mediastinum. The right lung is broader and shorter than the left lung, while the left
lung occupies a smaller volume. Notably, the left lung features a cardiac notch, a
depression on its surface that accommodates the heart. The apex denotes the
uppermost part of the lung, while the base is its lower region adjacent to the diaphragm.
The costal surface aligns with the ribs, while the mediastinal surface faces the midline.
The lungs are organized into distinct units known as lobes, and these lobes are
demarcated by fissures. In the right lung, there are three lobes: the superior, middle,
and inferior lobes, whereas the left lung contains two lobes: the superior and inferior
lobes. Within each lobe, there are smaller divisions called bronchopulmonary segments,
each of which possesses its own tertiary bronchus for air supply and is nourished by a
dedicated artery.
Each lung is situated within a cavity that is enveloped by a serous membrane
called the pleura. The pleurae, both right and left, encompass their respective lungs and
are divided by the mediastinum. These pleurae are comprised of two layers. The
visceral pleura forms the outermost layer, covering the surface of the lungs and
extending into the lung fissures. In contrast, the parietal pleura serves as the outer
layer, connecting to the thoracic wall, mediastinum, and diaphragm. The point of
connection between the visceral and parietal pleurae occurs at the hilum. The pleural
cavity represents the space that exists between the visceral and parietal layers.
The pleurae serve two primary functions, including the generation of pleural fluid
and the establishment of partitions that separate vital organs. Mesothelial cells within
both layers of the pleura produce this pleural fluid, which serves as a lubricant for their
surfaces. This lubrication serves the purpose of minimizing friction between the two
layers, thereby preventing potential injury during the breathing process. Additionally, the
pleural fluid possesses a property of surface tension, which aids in preserving the lungs'
positioning against the thoracic wall. This adhesive quality of the pleural fluid allows the
lungs to expand when the thoracic wall enlarges during ventilation, enabling them to fill
with air. Moreover, the pleurae create a distinct barrier between major organs. This
separation is critical as it prevents interference stemming from organ movement while
concurrently acting as a protective shield against the spread of infection.
 The primary function of the
lungs is to facilitate the exchange
of gases, a process that heavily
relies on the presence of blood
from the pulmonary circulation.
This blood, initially deoxygenated,
makes its way to the
lungs where erythrocytes, also
known as red blood cells, acquire
oxygen for subsequent distribution
to body tissues. The pulmonary
artery, originating from the
pulmonary trunk, serves as the
conduit for carrying this
deoxygenated arterial blood to the
alveoli.
As the pulmonary artery progresses along the bronchi, it repeatedly branches,
with each successive branch having a smaller diameter. One arteriole, accompanied by
a venule, is responsible for supplying and draining a single pulmonary lobule. These
vessels approach the alveoli and undergo a transformation into the pulmonary capillary
network.
The pulmonary capillary network is composed of minuscule vessels characterized
by exceedingly thin walls that lack smooth muscle fibers. These capillaries branch and
trace the path of the bronchioles and the structure of the alveoli. It is precisely at this
juncture where the capillary walls come into contact with the alveolar walls, forming
what is known as the respiratory membrane. Once oxygenation of the blood occurs, it
exits the alveoli via multiple pulmonary veins, ultimately departing the lungs through the
hilum.
Certain lung diseases can target specific bronchopulmonary segments, and in
such cases, it is feasible to surgically remove the affected segments without major
repercussions on the surrounding areas. A further subdivision of the lung is the
pulmonary lobule, which arises as the bronchi branch into bronchioles. Each pulmonary
lobule receives its large bronchiole, characterized by multiple branches. To keep these
lobules distinct, interlobular septa made of connective tissue act as walls, separating
one lobule from another.