FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY

Mineral
 Mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous solid with a definite chemical composition
and a highly ordered atomic arrangement; it is usually formed by inorganic processes.
 There are numerous known mineral species, about a hundred of which constitute the major
mineral components of rocks; these are the so-called rock-forming minerals.
Element
 An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into any other substance. Every
element is made up of its unique atom. Therefore, all chemical elements are very different
from each other.
 Everything in the universe contains the atoms of at least one or more elements.
The Periodic Table
 The periodic table lists all the known elements and groups together those with similar
properties.
 Periodic Tables are used in order to find out important information about various elements.
 Periodic table was created by Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907), it orders all known elements
in accordance to their similarities.

 While grouping elements, Mendeleev noticed the Law of Chemical Periodicity. According
to this law "the properties of the elements are periodic functions of atomic number."
 The periodic table is in form of a chart that categorizes elements by "groups" and "periods."
All elements given their atomic number.
 The atomic number refers to the number of protons per atom. In a neutral atom, the number
of electrons is equal to the number of protons.
 The periodic table represents neutral atoms. The atomic number is generally mentioned
above the element symbol. Under the element symbol is the atomic mass.
 We measure atomic mass i in Atomic Mass Units where 1 amu = (1/12) mass of carbon
measured in grams.
 The atomic mass number equals the number of protons plus neutrons, which provides the
average weight of all isotopes of any given element. This number is generally found under
the element symbol.
 Atoms having the same atomic number, but different mass numbers are called isotopes.
 There are two main classifications in the periodic table, "groups" and "periods."
 The chemical elements sorted by symbol in an alphabetical order is given below:

Ato Elem Element 24 Cr Chromiu 36 Kr Krypton

mic ent name m 57 La Lanthanu
num symb 55 Cs Caesium m
ber ol 29 Cu Copper 3 Li Lithium
89 Ac Actinium 105 Db Dubnium 103 Lr Lawrenci
47 Ag Silver 110 Ds Darmstad um
13 Al Aluminiu tium 71 Lu Lutetium
m 66 Dy Dysprosi 116 Lv Livermori
95 Am Americiu um um
m 68 Er Erbium 115 Mc Moscoviu
18 Ar Argon 99 Es Einsteiniu m
33 As Arsenic m 101 Md Mendelev
85 At Astatine 63 Eu Europium ium
79 Au Gold 9 F Fluorine 12 Mg Magnesiu
5 B Boron 26 Fe Iron m
56 Ba Barium 114 Fl Flerovium 25 Mn Mangane
4 Be Beryllium 100 Fm Fermium se
107 Bh Bohrium 87 Fr Francium 42 Mo Molybden
83 Bi Bismuth 31 Ga Gallium um
97 Bk Berkeliu 64 Gd Gadoliniu 109 Mt Meitneriu
m m m
35 Br Bromine 32 Ge Germaniu 7 N Nitrogen
6 C Carbon m 11 Na Sodium
20 Ca Calcium 1 H Hydrogen 41 Nb Niobium
48 Cd Cadmium 2 He Helium 60 Nd Neodymi
58 Ce Cerium 72 Hf Hafnium um
98 Cf Californiu 80 Hg Mercury 10 Ne Neon
m 67 Ho Holmium 113 Nh Nihonium
17 Cl Chlorine 108 Hs Hassium 28 Ni Nickel
96 Cm Curium 53 I Iodine 102 No Nobelium
112 Cn Copernici 49 In Indium 93 Np Neptuniu
um 77 Ir Iridium m
27 Co Cobalt 19 K Potassiu 8 O Oxygen
m
 118 Og Oganess 104 Rf Rutherfor 65 Tb Terbium
on dium 43 Tc Technetiu
76 Os Osmium 111 Rg Roentgen m
15 P Phosphor ium 52 Te Tellurium
us 45 Rh Rhodium 90 Th Thorium
91 Pa Protactini 86 Rn Radon 22 Ti Titanium
um 44 Ru Rutheniu 81 Tl Thallium
82 Pb Lead m 69 Tm Thulium
46 Pd Palladiu 16 S Sulfur 117 Ts Tennessi
m 51 Sb Antimony ne
61 Pm Promethi 21 Sc Scandiu 92 U Uranium
um m 23 V Vanadiu
84 Po Polonium 34 Se Selenium m
59 Pr Praseody 106 Sg Seaborgi 74 W Tungsten
mium um 54 Xe Xenon
78 Pt Platinum 14 Si Silicon 39 Y Yttrium
94 Pu Plutoniu 62 Sm Samariu 70 Yb Ytterbium
m m 30 Zn Zinc
88 Ra Radium 50 Sn Tin 40 Zr Zirconium
37 Rb Rubidium 38 Sr Strontium
75 Re Rhenium 73 Ta Tantalum

Groups
 Vertical columns including elements with similar chemical and physical properties.
 Group 1A Known as Alkali Metals; Very reactive; Never found free in nature;
React readily with water
 Group 2A Known as Alkaline earth elements; All are metals; Occur only in
compounds; React with oxygen in the general formula EO (where O is oxygen and E
is Group 2A element)
 Group 3A Metalloids Includes Aluminium (the most abundant metal in the earth);
Forms oxygen compounds with a X2O3 formula
 Group 4A Includes metals and non-metals; Go from non-metals at the top of the
column to metals at the bottom; All oxygen form compounds with a XO2 formula
 Group 5A All elements form an oxygen or sulphur compound with E2O3 or E2S3
formulas
 Group 6A Includes oxygen, one of the most abundant elements; Generally,
oxygen compound formulas within this group are EO2 and EO3
 Group 7A Elements combine violently with alkali metals to form salts called
halogens, which mean "salt forming”; Are all highly reactive
 Group 8A Least reactive group; All elements are gases; Not very abundant on
earth; Given the name noble gas because they are not very reactive
 Periods are given the horizontal rows. Moving from left to right on the periodic table, we
find metals, then metalloids, and finally non-metals. The fourth, fifth, and sixth periods are
known as the transition metals. These elements are all metals and can be found pure in
nature. We know them for their beauty and durability. The transition metals include two
periods called the lanthanides and the actinides, which are given at the very bottom of the
periodic table.
Atomic Models and the Quantum Numbers
 The structure of the atom has different models.
 One of the initial models was developed by Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist. In this model,
electrons circle the nucleus in "orbits" around the nucleus, in the same manner as planets
orbit the sun. Each orbit implies an energy level which can be calculated using equations
given by Planck and others discussed in more detail below.
 Later on the Bohr model proved to be incorrect. Still, it provides a useful model for building
an explanation.
 The quantum model is the “accepted" model. It states that the electron cannot be found
precisely, but we can predict the probability, or likelihood, of an electron being at some
location in the atom.
Chemical Reaction
 A chemical reaction involves a process in which the identity of at least one substance
changes. In a chemical equation, a chemical reaction using symbols and chemical formulas
for the substances involved.
 Reactants are the substances that change and products are the substances that are produced
in a chemical reaction.
 The accepted format for writing a chemical equation is reactant1 + reactant2 + … →
product1 + product2 + …
 The accepted format for writing a chemical equation can be written in a short-hand version
as
 aA+bB+…→cC+dD+…
 where the lower-case letters are the stoichiometric coefficients needed to balance a specific
equation.
 Barring nuclear reactions, the Law of Conservation of Mass–matter is neither created nor
destroyed during a chemical reaction– is obeyed in “ordinary” chemical reactions.
 An equation must be balanced–the number of atoms of each element must be the same on
the reactants side of the reaction arrow as on the products side.
Air
 Air is a mixture of gases comprising the Earth’s atmosphere. The proportion of gases
present in the air is as under: of steady concentration (and their proportions in percentage
by volume) are as follows:
Nitrogen (N2) 78.084 Oxygen (O2) 20.946
Argon (Ar) 0.934 Neon (Ne) 0.0018
Helium (He) 0.000524 Methane (CH4) 0.0002
Krypton (Kr) 0.000114 Hydrogen (H2) 0.00005
Nitrous oxide (N2O) 0.00005 Xenon (Xe) 0.0000087
 Among the gases present as variable constituents water vapour, ozone, carbon dioxide,
sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide are of major importance. The typical concentration
ranges of these gases (in percentage by volume) are as follows:
Water vapour (H2O) 0 to 7 Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.01 to 0.1 (avg. 0.032)
Ozone (O3) 0 to 0.01 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) 0 to 0.0001
 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 0 to 0.000002
Water
 Water is a substance composed of two chemical elements hydrogen and oxygen. It exists
in gaseous, liquid, and solid states.
 It is a tasteless and odorless liquid at room temperature and has the important ability to
dissolve many other substances. Indeed, the versatility of water as a solvent is essential to
living organisms.
 It is believed that life originated in the aqueous solutions of the world’s oceans, and living
organisms depend on aqueous solutions, such as blood and digestive juices, for biological
processes.
 Water appears colorless in small quantities, but it inn fact has an intrinsic blue colour caused
by slight absorption of light.
 The physical and chemical properties of the compound are very complicated, and they are
not typical of most substances found on Earth
 For almost every other compound, the solid state is denser than the liquid state; thus, the
solid would sink to the bottom of the liquid. The fact that ice floats on water is exceedingly
important in the natural world, because the ice that forms on ponds and lakes in cold areas
of the world acts as an insulating barrier that protects the aquatic life below.
 Water occurs as a liquid on the surface of Earth under normal conditions, which makes it
invaluable for transportation, for recreation, and as a habitat for a myriad of plants and
animals.
 Water easily changes to a vapour (gas) and this enables it to be transported through the
atmosphere from the oceans to inland areas where it condenses and, as rain, nourishes plant
and animal life.
Important Gases
 A gas is a form of matter that does not have a definite shape or volume. Gases can consist of
a single element, such as hydrogen gas (H2) or they may also be a compound such as carbon
dioxide (CO2) or even a mixture of a number of gases.
Here are some of the important gases and their uses:
Gas Symbol Use
Oxygen O2 medical use, welding
Nitrogen N2 Fire, suppression, provides an inert atmosphere
Helium He balloons, medical equipment
Argon Ar welding, provides an inert atmosphere for materials
Carbon dioxide CO2 carbonated soft drinks
Acetylene C2H2 welding
Propane C3H8 fuel for heat, gas grills
Butane C4H10 fuel for lighters and torches
Nitrous N2O oxide propellant for whipped topping, anesthesia
Freon various coolant for air conditioners, refrigerators, freezers
chlorofluorocarbons

IMPORTANT LAWS OF CHEMISTRY

Law 1: The Conservation of Mass
 "Nothing comes from nothing" is the central idea in ancient Greek philosophy that states
that what exists now has always existed, since no new matter can be formed where there
was none before.
 Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) reaffirmed this idea for chemistry with the law of
conservation of mass, which implies that ‘the atoms of an object cannot be created or
destroyed, but can be moved around and be changed into different particles.’
 According to this law, when a chemical reaction rearranges atoms into a new product, the
mass of the reactants (chemicals before the chemical reaction) is the same as the mass of
the products (the new chemicals made). More simply, whatever you do, you will still have
the same amount of stuff (however, certain nuclear reactions like fusion and fission can
convert a small part of the mass into energy.
 According to the law of conservation of mass, the total mass present before a chemical
reaction is the same as the total mass present after the chemical reaction; in other words,
mass is conserved.
Law 2: Definite Proportions
 Joseph Proust (1754-1826) developed the law of definite proportions also known as the
Law of Constant Composition or Proust's Law.
 According to this law, if a compound is broken down into its constituent elements, the
masses of the constituents will definitely have the same proportions, irrespective of the
quantity or source of the original substance.
 The Law applies when elements are reacted together to form the same product. Thus, while
the Law can be used to evaluate two experiments in which hydrogen and oxygen react to
form water, the Law of Definite Proportions cannot be used to compare one experiment in
which hydrogen and oxygen react to form water, and another experiment in which
hydrogen and oxygen react to form hydrogen peroxide (peroxide is another material that
can be made from hydrogen and oxygen).
 Oxygen constitutes 88.8% of the mass of pure water, while hydrogen constitutes the
remaining 11.2% of the mass. We can get water by melting ice or snow, by condensing
steam, from river, sea, pond, etc. It can be from different places: USA, UK, Australia, or
anywhere. It can be produced by chemical reactions like burning hydrogen in oxygen.
 If the water is pure, it will always consist of 88.8 % oxygen by mass and 11.2 % hydrogen
by mass, regardless of its source or method of preparation.
Law 3: Multiple Proportions
 Multiple combinations of elements can react to produce more than one compound. This
law states that inn such cases, the weights of one element that combine with a fixed weight
of another of these elements are integer multiples of one another.
Dalton's Atomic Theory
 The English chemist John Dalton was formulated the modern atomic theory about 1803.
The theory is a fundamental concept that says that all elements are made up of atoms.
 Formerly, an atom was called as the smallest part of an element that maintains the identity
of that element. Individual atoms are very small; even the largest atom has an approximate
diameter of only 5.4 × 10−10 m. It takes over 18 million of such atoms, placed side by side,
to equal the width of the human little finger (about 1 cm).
 The theory was very important as it explained the three laws of chemical combination and
recognized a workable distinction between the fundamental particle of an element (atom)
and that of a compound (molecule).
 There are six assumptions involved in Dalton's Atomic Theory:
 All matter are made up of indivisible particles called atoms.
 Atoms of the same element are similar in shape and mass, but differ from the atoms of
other elements.
 Atoms cannot be produced or destroyed.
 Atoms of different elements may combine with each other in a fixed, simple, whole
number ratio to generate compound atoms.
 Atoms of same element can combine in more than one ratio to form two or more
compounds.
  The atom is the smallest unit of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction.

Drawbacks of Dalton’s theory

 The indivisibility of an atom proved to be wrong: an atom can be subdivided into protons,
neutrons and electrons. However, an atom is the smallest particle that takes part in chemical
reactions.
 Atoms of some elements vary in their masses and densities. These atoms of different masses
are known as isotopes. For example, chlorine has two isotopes with mass numbers 35 and
37.
 According to Dalton, atoms of different elements are different in all respects. This has been
proven wrong in certain cases: argon and calcium atoms each have a same atomic mass (40
amu).
 Dalton believed that atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number ratios to
form compounds. This is not observed in complex organic compounds like sugar.
 The theory failed as it was unable to explain the existence of allotropes (different forms of
pure elements); it does not account for differences in properties of charcoal, graphite,
diamond.

METALS AND NON-METALS

 An element is the simplest form of matter that cannot be divided into simpler substances or
built from simpler substances by any ordinary chemical or physical method. There are 118
known elements. 92 of them are found naturally, while the rest have been produced
artificially. Elements are further classified into metals, non-metals, and metalloids based
on their properties, which are correlated with their placement in the periodic table.
Metallic Elements Non-metallic elements
Distinguishing lustre (shine) Non-lustrous, various colours
Malleable and ductile (flexible) as solids Brittle, hard or soft
Conduct heat and electricity Poor conductors
Metallic oxides are basic, ionic Non-metallic oxides are acidic, covalent
Form cations in aqueous solution Form anions, oxyanions in aqueous solution
Metals and Non metals
 Barring hydrogen, all elements forming positive ions by losing electrons during chemical
reactions are known as metals.
 Metals are electropositive elements with relatively low ionization energies.
 Barring Mercury, all metals are solids under normal conditions.
Physical Properties of Metals
 State: Barring Mercury, all metals are solids at room temperature. Mercury is liquid at
room temperature (Gallium is liquid on hot days).
 Luster: Metals reflect light from their surface and can be polished e.g., gold, silver and
copper.
 Malleability: Metals withstand hammering and can be made into thin sheets known as
foils. For example, a sugar cube sized piece of gold can be hammered into a thin sheet that
can cover a football field.
 Ductility: Metals can be turned into wires. For example, 50 g of silver can be drawn into a
thin wire about 100 meters long.
 Hardness: Barring sodium and potassium all metals are hard.
 Valency: Metals generally have 1 to 3 electrons in the outermost shell of their atoms.
 Conduction: Metals are good conductors because they have free electrons. Silver and
copper are the two best conductors of heat and electricity. Lead is the poorest conductor of
heat.
 Density: Metals have high density and they are bulky. Iridium and osmium have the highest
densities whereas lithium has the lowest density.
 Melting and Boiling Points: Metals have high melting and boiling points. Tungsten has
the highest melting and boiling points whereas mercury has the lowest.
Chemical Properties of Metals
 Metals are electropositive elements that normally produce basic or amphoteric oxides with
oxygen.
 Electropositive Character: Metals have low ionization energies, and generally lose
electrons (i.e. are oxidized) when they are in chemical reactions. They normally do not
accept electrons.
 Compounds of metals with non-metals are generally ionic in nature. Most metal oxides are
basic oxides and dissolve in water to produce metal hydroxides.
 Metal oxides exhibit their basic chemical nature by reacting with acids to form metal salts
and water:
Non-metals
 Elements that gain electrons to produce anions during chemical reactions are called non-
metals. These are electronegative elements with high ionization energies. They are non-
lustrous, brittle and poor conductors of heat and electricity (except graphite). Non-metals
can be gases, liquids or solids.
Physical Properties of Nonmetals
 Physical State: Most of the non-metals are found in two of the three states of matter at
room temperature: gases (oxygen) and solids (carbon). Only bromine is found as a liquid
at room temperature.
 Non-Malleable and Ductile: Non-metals are very brittle, and cannot be rolled into wires
or pounded into sheets.
 Conduction: They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
 Luster: These have no luster and do not reflect light.
 Melting and Boiling Points: The melting points of non-metals are generally lower than
metals, but are highly variable.
 Seven non-metals exist under standard conditions as diatomic molecules: H2(g) , N2(g) ,
O2(g) , F2(g) , Cl2(g) , Br2(l) , I2(s) .
Chemical Properties of Nonmetals
 Non-metals gain or share electrons with other atoms. They are electronegative in character.
Nonmetals, when reacting with metals, tend to gain electrons (typically attaining noble gas
electron configuration) and become anions.
 Compounds composed entirely of nonmetals are covalent substances. They generally form
acidic or neutral oxides with oxygen that that dissolve in water to form acids:
 Nonmetal oxides can combine with bases to form salts.
Metalloids
 Metalloids have properties midway between the metals and nonmetals.
 Metalloids are useful in the semiconductor industry.
 Metalloids are all solid at room temperature.
 They can form alloys with other metals.
 Metalloids such as silicon and germanium, can act as electrical conductors under suitable
conditions, therefore, they are called semiconductors. Silicon for example appears lustrous,
 but is not malleable nor ductile (it is brittle - a characteristic of some nonmetals). It is a
much poorer conductor of heat and electricity than the metals.
 The physical properties of metalloids tend to be metallic, but their chemical properties tend
to be non-metallic.
Metals Non-metals Metalloids
Gold Oxygen Silicon
Silver Carbon Boron
Copper Hydrogen Arsenic
Iron Nitrogen Antimony
Mercury Sulfur Germanium
Zinc Phosphorus
Trends in Metallic and Nonmetallic Character
 Metallic character is strongest for the elements in the leftmost part of the periodic table,
and tends to decrease as we move to the right in any period (nonmetallic character increases
with increasing electronegativity and ionization energy values).
 Within any group of elements (columns), the metallic character increases from top to
bottom (the electronegativity and ionization energy values generally decrease as we move
down a group). This general trend is not necessarily observed with the transition metals.

Alloys
 Alloy are made up of two or more elements. The components of alloys are generally
themselves metals, though carbon, a nonmetal, is an important constituent of steel.
 Almost all metals are used as alloys—that is, mixtures of several elements—because these
have properties superior to pure metals.
 Alloys are normally produced by melting the mixture of ingredients.
 The most important are the alloy steels, chiefly defined as steels containing significant
amounts of elements other than iron and carbon.
 The chief alloying elements for steel are chromium, nickel, manganese, molybdenum,
silicon, tungsten, vanadium, and boron.
 Alloy steels have special properties, such as hardness, toughness, corrosion resistance,
magnetizability, and ductility.
 Nonferrous alloys, such as copper–nickel, bronze, and aluminum alloys, are much used in
coinage.
 The major difference between an alloying metal and an impurity is sometimes elusive. For
instance, in aluminum, silicon may be considered an impurity or a valuable component,
depending on the application, because silicon adds strength though it reduces corrosion
resistance.

IMPORTANT ALLOYS, THEIR COMPOSITION AND USES

Alloy Composition Uses

Brass 70% copper Cu) and 30% zinc (Zn). used in making utensils.
Bronze 90% copper (Cu) and 10% tin (Sn). used in making coins, bell and utensils
German Silver 60% copper (Cu), 20% zinc (Zn), and 20% used in making utensils.
nickel (Ni).
Rolled Gold 90% copper (Cu) and 10% aluminium (Al). used in making cheap ornaments.
 Gun Metal 88% copper (Cu), 10% tin (Sn), 1% zinc (Zn) used in making gun, barrels, gears and
and 1% lead (Pb). bearings.
Delta Metal 60% copper (Cu), 38% zinc (Zn) and 2% iron used in making blades of aeroplane.
(Fe).
Munz Metal 60% copper (Cu) and 40% zinc (Zn). used in making coins.
Dutch Metal 80% copper (Cu) and 20% zinc (Zn). used in making Artificial ornaments.
Monel Metal 70% copper (Cu) and 30% nickel (Ni). used for base containing container.
Rose Metal 50% bismuth (Bi), 28% lead (Pb) and 22% tin used for making automatic fuse.
(Sn).
Solder 50% lead (Pb) and 50% tin(Sn). used for soldering.
Magnalium 95% aluminium (Al) and 5% magnesium (Mg). used for making frame of Aeroplane.
Duralumin 94% aluminium (Al), 3% copper (Cu), 2% used for making utensils.
magnesium (Mg) and 1% manganese (Mn).
Type Metal 5% tin (Sn), 80% lead (Pb) and 15% Antimony Used in printing industry.
(Sb)
Bell Metal 80% copper (Cu) and 20% tin (Sn). used for casting bells, statues.
Nickel Steel 95% iron (Fe) and 5% nickel (Ni). used for making electrical wire,
automobile parts.
Stainless Steel 75% iron (Fe), 15% chromium (Cr), 10% used for making utensils and surgical
nickel (Ni) and 0.05% carbon (C). cutlery.

IMPORTANT CHEMICAL PROCESSES

 Chemical process refers to changing of one or more chemicals or chemical compounds. It
involves chemical reactions. Burning of wood is a chemical process. Let us learn about
some chemical processes, and see how these processes occur and what happened to the
chemical compounds.
NAME OF THE IMPORTANT INFORMATION
PROCESS
Bessemer It is a method of making steel from pig iron by blowing air through the molten
Process metals to oxidize impurities such as carbon, silicon, phosphorus and
manganese usually present in pig iron.
Clemmensen It is a process used to change aldehydes and ketones to the corresponding
Reduction hydrocarbons by heating with amalgamated zinc and hydrochloric acid.
Gattermann It is a process used to change an aromatic amine in to the corresponding
Reaction halogen derivative through diazonium salt formation using copper as a
catalyst.
Haber Process It is an industrial process for producing ammonia by the reaction of nitrogen
with hydrogen in the presence of the catalyst.
Kolbe Reaction It is used for producing saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbons by the
electrolysis of solutions of the alkalis salts of aliphatic carboxylic acids.
Solvay Process It is a process of snaking sodium carbonate from calcium carbonate and sodium
chloride on industrial scale. The process involves heating of calcium carbonate
to give calcium oxide and carbon dioxide which is bubbled into a solution of
sodium chloride in ammonia. Sodium hydrogen carbonate is precipitated
which on heating gives sodium carbonate.
Bayer Process It is a process used to obtain aluminium oxide Al2O3 or alumina by treating
powdered bauxite with hot caustic soda solution under pressure. A German
chemist, Karl Joseph Bayer developed this process in 1888.
Bergius Process It is a process for producing lubricants and synthetic fuel e.g. petrol from coal
by heating a mixture of powdered coal and heavy oil or tar with hydrogen
 under pressure in the presence of a catalyst (iron, tin or lead). A German
chemist, Friedrich Bergius, who shared the 1931 Nobel Prize developed the
process.
Bosch Process It is a process used to produce industrial hydrogen by passing steam over
white-hot coke to produce water gas which in the presence of a catalyst reacts
with more steam to release hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The process is named
after the German Chemist, Carl Bosch (1874-1940).
Down Process It is a process of producing sodium metal by electrolysis of molten sodium
chloride. The molten sodium and calcium produced at the cathode are
separated.
Frasch Process It is a process used to obtain sulphur from subterranean deposits in which
superheated water is flowed down the deposits which melts the sulphur under
the ground. Molten sulphur is collected by forcing compressed air from another
side. A German chemist, Herman Frasch developed this process in 1891.
Hall-Heroult It is a process used to produce aluminium by electrolysis in which alumina
Process (Hall- (aluminium oxide) is dissolved in cryolite (sodium aluminium fluoride) and
Heroult) electrolyzed. Charles Hall of the US and P.T.Heroult of France developed the
process in 1885.
Parkes Process It is a process used to obtain silver traces from lead ore galena. Molten zinc is
added to molten galena and lead is separated leaving zinc-silver which on
heating distils off zinc freeing the silver.

IMPORTANT CHEMICAL TESTS

NAME OF THE IMPORTANT INFORMATION
TEST
Sandmeyer It is a chemical reaction which is used to synthesize aryl halides from aryl
Reaction diazonium salts. It is a method for substitution of an aromatic amino group
by producing diazonium salt that is followed by its displacement and copper
salts often catalyze it.
The Br, Cl and Cn nucleophiles can be easily present in the benzene ring of
benzene diazonium salt in the presence of Copper ion.
Gattermann Bromine and Chlorine can be present in the benzene ring by preparing the
Reaction benzene diazonium salt solution with similar halogen acid present with
copper powder in this reaction.
Balz-Schiemann When ne-diazonium chloride is produced with fluoroboric acid, arene
Reaction diazonium fluoroborate is precipitated and decomposes to yield aryl
fluoride on heating.
Finkelstein In this reaction, Alkyl iodides are produced easily by the reaction of alkyl
Reaction chlorides with Nal in dry acetone.
Swarts Reaction On heating alkyl chloride in the presence of a metallic fluoride like AgF,
Hg2F2, SbF3 or CoF2, we get alkyl fluorides.
Wurtz Reaction When Alkyl halides get reacted with sodium with dry ether, we get
hydrocarbons that include the double number of carbon atoms present in
the halide.
Wurtz-Fittig When a mixture of alkyl halide and aryl halide gets treated with sodium in
Reaction dry ether, we get an alkyl arene.
Fittig Reaction Aryl halides is produced with sodium in dry ether to give analogous
compounds where two aryl groups are joined.
Friedel-Crafts Benzene is produced with an alkyl halide in the presence of anhydrous
alkylation Reaction aluminium chloride to give Alkylbenzene.
Friedel-Crafts We get acyl benzene when an acyl halide reacts with benzene in the
acylation reaction presence of Lewis acids.
Reimer-Tiemann While producing phenol with chloroform in the presence of sodium
Reaction hydroxide, -CHO group is present at the ortho position of the benzene ring
which results into salicylaldehyde.
Kolbe’s Reaction Phenol reacts with sodium hydroxide to give sodium phenoxide which then
reacts with carbon dioxide in acidic medium to give hydroxybenzoic acid.
Rosenmund Acyl chloride is hydrogenated to an aldehyde over a catalyst, known as
Reduction Rosenmund catalyst which is either palladium or barium sulfate.
Stephen reaction Nitriles with stannous chloride in the presence of hydrochloric acid
reduced to the corresponding imine and give the corresponding aldehyde
after hydrolysis.
Etard reaction Chromyl chloride oxidizes methyl group to get chromium complex which
on hydrolysis provides corresponding benzaldehyde.
Gatterman – Koch Benzene is produced with carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride in the
reaction presence of anhydrous aluminum chloride to give benzaldehyde.
Clemmensen , Carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones on treatment with zinc-amalgam
Reduction and concentrated hydrochloric acid reduced to CH2 group.
Wolff Kishner Carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones on treatment with hydrazine
Reduction which on heating with sodium hydroxide in a high boiling solvent (ethylene
glycol) reduced to CH2 group.
Tollens’ test Heating an aldehyde with freshly produced ammoniacal silver nitrate
solution produces a bright silver mirror due to the formation of silver metal.
Fehling’s test Fehling’s solution A (aqueous copper sulfate) and Fehling solution B
(alkaline sodium potassium tartrate) are mixed in equal amounts before the
test. A reddish-brown precipitate is obtained when an aldehyde is heated
with Fehling’s reagent.
Aldol reaction Aldehydes and ketones having one α-hydrogen undergo a reaction in the
presence of dilute alkali as the catalyst to produce β-hydroxy aldehydes or
β-hydroxy ketones.
Aldol condensation Aldol and Ketol lose water to provide α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds
which are aldol condensation products.
Cross aldol Aldol condensation is undertaken between two different aldehydes and
condensation ketones. It gives a mixture of four products if both of them includes α-
hydrogen atoms.
Cannizzaro Aldehydes without α-hydrogen atom undergo self-oxidation and reduction
reaction reaction when prepared with concentrated alkali.
Kolbe electrolysis in Kolbe electrolysis, an aqueous solution of sodium or potassium salt of a
carboxylic acid gives alkane containing an even number of carbon atoms
on electrolysis.
Hell-Volhard- Carboxylic acids having a α-hydrogen are halogenated at the α-position
Zelinsky (HVZ) give α-halo carboxylic acids on treatment with chlorine or bromine in the
reaction presence of small amount of red phosphorus.
Gabriel Phthalimide produced with ethanolic potassium hydroxide produces
phthalimide potassium salt of phthalimide when heated with alkyl halide followed by
synthesis alkaline hydrolysis forms the corresponding primary amine.
Hoffmann An amide with bromine in an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide
bromamide produces primary amines. Migration of an alkyl or aryl group takes place
degradation from carbonyl carbon of the amide to the nitrogen atom. The amine so
reaction produced include one carbon less than that present in the amide.
 Carbylamine Aliphatic and aromatic primary amines when heated with chloroform and
reaction ethanolic potassium hydroxide produces isocyanides or carbyl amines
which are foul smelling substances.
Hinsberg’s Test Benzenesulfonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl) reacts with primary and secondary
amines to produce sulphonamides.
Coupling Reactions Benzene diazonium chloride reacts with phenol in which the phenol
molecule at its para position is mixed with the diazonium salt to give p-
hydroxyazobenzene.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
 Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and
preparation of carbon-containing compounds, which include not only hydrocarbons but
also compounds with any number of other elements, including hydrogen (most compounds
contain at least one carbon–hydrogen bond), nitrogen, oxygen, halogens, phosphorus,
silicon, and sulfur.
 Organic chemistry was originally limited to compounds produced by living organisms but
has been expanded to include human-made substances such as plastics. The range of
application of organic compounds is enormous and also includes, but is not limited to,
pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals, food, explosives, paints, and cosmetics.
Industrial Chemistry
 Industrial chemistry is the manufacturing process concerned with the transformation of
matter into useful materials in useful amounts.
 It is the branch of chemistry which applies physical and chemical processes towards the
transformation of raw materials into products that are of benefit to humanity.
 Generally, this transformation of available materials into more desirable ones involves
some kind of process following a process.
 The process may involve:
 grinding,
 mixing together various ingredients,
 dissolving,
 heating,
 allowing ingredients to interact (chemically or biochemically react forming new
compositions of matter),
 cooling,
 evaporating or distilling,
 growing crystals,
 filtering,
 and other physical-chemical-biological operations.

Important chemistry based industries

 Production, biotechnology, quality control, pharmaceutical industry, process industry,
fertilizer production industry, plastics industry, pulp and paper industry, tanning industry,
consumer industry, oil and petroleum industry, textile industry, dyes and paints industry,
cosmetics industry, cement industry, glass industry, water purification and wastewater
purification etc.
IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES IN CHEMISTRY
INVENTION INVENTOR YEAR SHORT DESCRIPTION
Aluminum Charles Hall 1888 Electrolytic method for extracting pure aluminum
from its ore
Anti-Leukemia Gertrude Elion 1955 2-Amino-6-Mercaptopurine, or Purinethol, the
Drugs first major medicine to fight leukemia.
Bakelite Leo Baekeland 1907 Nonflammable material that was cheaper and
more versatile than other known plastics. Used in
everything from engine parts to jewelry to
electronics.
Bromine Herbert Dow 1891 Entirely new method of extracting bromine from
Extraction prehistoric brine.
Carborundum Edward 1897 Highly effective abrasive used in manufacturing.
Acheson
Catalytic William 1912 First commercially successful process for
Cracking Burton cracking crude oil into gasoline and other
products.
Cortisone Lewis Sarett 1945 Synthetic version of the hormone cortisone: an
(Syntheti) effective treatment against rheumatoid arthritis.
Dynamite Alfred Nobel 1866 Combination of nitroglycerin absorbed by a
porous substance that enabled an easily handled,
solid yet malleable explosive.
Isothiocyanate Joseph 1958 Identification of antigens through the synthesis of
Compounds Burckhalter fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)
Robert
Seiwald
Kevlar Stephanie 1971 Polymer fiber five times stronger than the same
Kwolek weight of steel for bullet-resistant vests and many
other applications.
Oral Frank Colton 1951 Enovid, the first oral contraceptive
Contraceptives
Pasteurization Louis Pasteur 1862 Process of heating food for the purpose of killing
harmful organisms such as bacteria, viruses,
protozoa, molds, and yeasts.
pH Meter Arnold 1935 Apparatus for testing acidity
Beckman
Photography George 1885 The first commercial film was cut in narrow strips
Eastman and wound on a roller device patented by Eastman
and Walker
Polymerase Kary Mullis 1983 The reaction amplifies specific DNA sequences
Chain Reaction from very small amounts of complex genetic
(PCR) material. The amplification produces an almost
unlimited number of highly purified DNA
molecules suitable for analysis or manipulation.
Essential for screening genetic and infectious
diseases, genetics, medicine, forensics and
paternity testing.
Polyurethane William 1939 It is a process that reacts polyols and related
Hanford hydroxy compounds with di-isocyanates for
 Donald making the multipurpose material polyurethane.
Holmes Uses: upholstery, heat-insulation, artificial hearts,
safety padding in modern automobiles and
carpeting.
Polyvinyl Waldo Semon 1926 It is a method to plasticize PVC by blending it
Chloride (PVC) with different additives making it a more flexible
and more easily processed material that soon has
become the world's second-best-selling plastic.
Prozac Bryan Molloy 1974 It is a class of aryloxyphenylpropylamines, which
Klaus includes the active ingredient in Prozac®, the
Schmiegel most widely used antidepressant.
Synthetic Julius 1928 It is a process by which monovinylacetylene were
Rubber Nieuwland treated with hydrogen chloride and the resulting
chloroprene polymerized, neoprene would result.
Synthetic Wallace 1930 It is a process that enabled the large-scale
Rubber Carothers production of Neoprene, the first commercially
successful synthetic rubber.
Teflon Roy Plunkett 1938 It is a synthetic fluoropolymer which has a very
low coefficient of friction against polished steel
and is used as a non-stick coating for pans and
other cookware. It is very non-reactive, and so is
often used in containers and pipework for reactive
and corrosive chemicals.
Titanium William Kroll 1932 "Kroll Process" helps the production of metallic
ductile titanium by combining titanium
tetrachloride with calcium.
Transparent James Hyde 1934 It is a process for making fused silica, an
Silica impurity-free glass, using a method called “frame
hydrolysis.”
Vaccine for Baruch 1963 Blumberg discovered an antigen in 1963 that
Hepatitis B Blumberg noticed the presence of hepatitis B in blood
Irving samples. Blumberg and Millman later developed
Millman a test that recognised hepatitis B in blood samples
and developed a vaccine against the virus.
Vulcanization of Charles 1839 It is a process by which rubber is mixed with
Rubber Goodyear sulphur and heated - what came to be known as
vulcanization strengthened rubber. Uses: a vast
variety of industrial uses, including, eventually,
automobile tires.

FAMOUS CHEMISTS
Chemists specialize in the area of chemistry. There have been many famous chemists all
through the history. They made discoveries and breakthroughs that have changed the world.
Some of the famous chemists were:
Amedeo Avogadro (1776 - 1856) He was an Italian scientist who propounded Avogadro's
law. According to the law, equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules
under the same conditions of pressure and temperature. The Avogadro constant was named
after him.
Jons Jacob Berzelius (1779 - 1848) He was a Swedish chemist, famous for the notation for
writing chemical formulas. He also contributed in discovering and isolating many elements
such as silicon, thorium, cerium, and selenium. Many chemical terms such as allotrope and
catalysis have been coined by Berzelius. He is called the father of Swedish chemistry.
Robert Boyle (1627 - 1691) He is often regarded as the first modern chemist and one of the
originators of chemical science. He also initiated the scientific method. He developed Boyle's
Law. As per the law, under a closed system with constant pressure, the pressure and volume of
a gas are inversely proportional.
Marie Curie (1867-1934) She was a Polish chemist. she coined the term radioactivity. She
is the discoverer of elements polonium and radium. She was the first woman to win the Nobel
Prize and won the award twice, once for physics in 1903 and again for chemistry in 1911. The
unit for measuring radioactivity, the Curie, is named after the curie couple.
John Dalton (1766 - 1844) He was an English chemist. He helped to develop the atomic
theory about atoms and elements. In 1803 he presented the first list of atomic weights for a
number of substances. He is also famous for his work researching colour blindness.
Sir Humphry Davy (1778 - 1829) He is famous for using electrolysis to isolate and discover
many elements. He isolated or discovered sodium, calcium, boron, barium, magnesium, iodine,
chlorine, and potassium. He also invented a safety lamp for miners called the Davy lamp.
Rosalind Franklin (1920 - 1958) She was an English chemist and physicist who made the
discovery of the DNA double helix. Her X-ray diffraction image of DNA played an important
role in its discovery. She also performed important research into the polio and TMV viruses.
Alfred Nobel (1833 - 1896) He was a Swedish chemist and inventor who invented dynamite.
He was a prolific inventor and held 350 patents. The Nobel Prizes are named after him.
Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) Apart from developing the process of Pasteurization, Louis
Pasteur discovered the assymetrical molecular structure on certain crytals. He made some of
the earliest vaccines for rabies and anthrax, and the reduction of a bacterial infection in what is
known as puerperal fever.
George Washington Carver (1864–1943) He found different crops to use instead of cotton.
He used peanuts, soybeans, sweet potatoes to keep the land productive. His intention was to
keep the poor farmers healthy and productive.
Michael Faraday (1791–1867) His works include the study chloring and carbon, both of
which he discovered. Moreover, he made the earliest type of what we know today as the Bunsen
burner.
Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794) He demonstrated the relationship between oxygen and
metal, resulting in rust. He also demonstrated the role of oxygen in plant respiration and in
animals. He also demonstrated that water was made of hydrogen and oxygen, and that air was
composed mainly of oxygen and nitrogen in its gaseous state.
Robert Boyle (1627–1691) He was one of the earliest persons to apply the scientific method
in chemistry and physics. His book, The Sceptical Chymyst, is regarded as a foundational
source of literature on the field of chemistry.
Linus Pauling (1901–1994) He received the Nobel Prize in the field of chemistry in 1954.
His work in the field of chemistry is given in his book The Nature of the Chemical Bond. It is
regarded as one of the most foundational books on chemistry.
Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907) Apart from the development of the periodic table,
Mendeleev work on the spectroscope and the capillarity of liquids, both of which continue to
be used to this day. He did not receive the Nobel Prize in 1906 because of the political reasons.
Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) He has been credited with the discovery of oxygen. He
shares that distinction with Lavoisier and Scheele. Priestly is also known for “soda water”.
Mario Molina (1943) He co-discovered the harm that chlorofluorocarbons had on the ozone
layer. He was a co-receiver of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995.
Fritz Haber (1868-1934) He received the Nobel Prize in 1918 for the development of the
synthesizing process of ammonia. World often calls him “Father or Chemical Warfare” in
which he developed chlorine and poisonous gases during the Great War, WW I.
Otto Hahn (1879–1968) He was one of the earliest persons to work in the field of
radiochemistry and radioactivity. During one of his experiments, he founded “Applied
Radiochemistry” which later led to nuclear chemistry.
Svante Arrhenius (1859-1927) He advanced the theory to help explain the “ice age”
which resulted in the study of the “greenhouse effect.” He also provided the Arrhenius equation
which is a formula to calculate reaction rates when the temperature is raised on certain
chemicals.
Ahmed Zewail (1946) He was the first to work in the field of “femtochemistry”. It is
study of chemical reactions measured in femtoseconds (10 to -15 of a second). He received a
Nobel Prize in 1995 for his advancement of the field of femto chemistry.
Frederick Sanger (1918) His research work involved his successful sequencing of DNA,
insulin, and RNA. He won the Nobel Prize two times, both for his work in chemistry, in 1958
and in 1980. He was able to establish a baseline in “the determination of base sequences in
nuclein acids.”
Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826-1910) He worked tirelessly on organic chemistry in addition to
his explanation which on how certain chemical reactions take place certain elements lack the
hydrogen atom. This is named aptly as the Cannizaro reaction.

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