Textbook Oecd Factbook 2015 Economic Environmental and Social Statistics Oecd Ebook All Chapter PDF

OECD Factbook 2015 Economic
Environmental and Social Statistics

Oecd
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/oecd-factbook-2015-economic-environmental-and-so
cial-statistics-oecd/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Oecd Economic Surveys Norway 2016 Edition 2016 Oecd

Organisation For Economic Co-Operation And Development
https://textbookfull.com/product/oecd-economic-surveys-
norway-2016-edition-2016-oecd-organisation-for-economic-co-
operation-and-development/
Society at a Glance OECD Social Indicators 2016

Organization For Economic Cooperation And Development
https://textbookfull.com/product/society-at-a-glance-oecd-social-
indicators-2016-organization-for-economic-cooperation-and-
development/
OECD FAO Agricultural Outlook 2016 2025 Edition 2016

Volume 2016 Oecd Organisation For Economic Co-
Operation And Development
https://textbookfull.com/product/oecd-fao-agricultural-
outlook-2016-2025-edition-2016-volume-2016-oecd-organisation-for-
economic-co-operation-and-development/
National Accounts of OECD Countries, Volume 2019 Issue

1 Oecd
https://textbookfull.com/product/national-accounts-of-oecd-
countries-volume-2019-issue-1-oecd/
National Accounts of Oecd Countries, Volume 2016 Issue
2: Detailed Tables: Edition 2016 Oecd Organisation For
Economic Co-Operation And Development
https://textbookfull.com/product/national-accounts-of-oecd-
countries-volume-2016-issue-2-detailed-tables-edition-2016-oecd-
organisation-for-economic-co-operation-and-development/
OECD Skills Studies The Survey of Adult Skills Reader s

Companion Second Edition Oecd Organisation For Economic
Co-Operation And Development
https://textbookfull.com/product/oecd-skills-studies-the-survey-
of-adult-skills-reader-s-companion-second-edition-oecd-
organisation-for-economic-co-operation-and-development/
OECD Reviews Of Labour Market And Social Policies

Colombia 2016 Volume 2016 Organization For Economic
Cooperation And Development
https://textbookfull.com/product/oecd-reviews-of-labour-market-
and-social-policies-colombia-2016-volume-2016-organization-for-
economic-cooperation-and-development/
Back to the Future of Education Four OECD Scenarios for

Schooling 1st Edition Oecd
https://textbookfull.com/product/back-to-the-future-of-education-
four-oecd-scenarios-for-schooling-1st-edition-oecd/
SME Policy Index Western Balkans and Turkey 2019 Oecd
https://textbookfull.com/product/sme-policy-index-western-
balkans-and-turkey-2019-oecd/
OECD Factbook
ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL STATISTICS
2015-2016
trade health resources
education energy labour public transport
production science conversion

tax
regions
migration
revenue expenditure
technology
globalisation
productivity
finance income
population
government
labour
prices
investment
environment
income
society
OECD Factbook 2015-2016
ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL
AND SOCIAL STATISTICS
This work is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The
opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official
views of the Organisation or of the governments of its member countries.
This document and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of or
sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries
and to the name of any territory, city or area.
Please cite this publication as:

OECD (2016), OECD Factbook 2015-2016: Economic, Environmental and Social Statistics, OECD Publishing,
Paris.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/factbook-2015-en
ISBN 978-92-64-23256-3 (print)

ISBN 978-92-64-25111-3 (PDF)
ISBN 978-92-64-25524-1 (HTML)
Annual:
ISSN 1995-3879 (print)
ISSN 1814-7364 (online)
The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use
of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli
settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.
Photo credits:
Chapter 2: © Image Source/Getty Images | Chapter 3: © Istockphoto/Dan Barnes | Chapter 4: © Stockbyte/Getty Images |
Chapter 5: © Lawrence Lawry/Photodisc/Getty Images | Chapter 6: © Larry Lee Photography/Corbis | Chapter 7:
© Cocoon/Digital Vision/Getty Images | Chapter 8: © Comstock Images/Comstock Images/Getty Images | Chapter 9:
© Digital Vision/Getty Images | Chapter 10: © Jacobs Stock Photography/Getty Images | Chapter 11: © OCDE.
Corrigenda to OECD publications may be found on line at: www.oecd.org/publishing/corrigenda.

© OECD 2016
You can copy, download or print OECD content for your own use, and you can include excerpts from OECD publications, databases and
multimedia products in your own documents, presentations, blogs, websites and teaching materials, provided that suitable
acknowledgement of OECD as source and copyright owner is given. All requests for public or commercial use and translation rights should
be submitted to rights@oecd.org. Requests for permission to photocopy portions of this material for public or commercial use shall be
addressed directly to the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC) at info@copyright.com or the Centre français d’exploitation du droit de copie (CFC)
at contact@cfcopies.com.
OECD Factbook 2015-2016
FOREWORD
For over 10 years now, the OECD Factbook has been one of the most comprehensive OECD publications on
statistics. The 2015-2016 edition continues this tradition. The OECD Factbook now contains close to 100
internationally comparable indicators, allowing users to assess and compare the performance of countries
over time in a wide range of topics that match the interests of policy-makers and citizens alike.
To give just a few examples, the 2015-2016 OECD Factbook shows that: CO2 emissions from fuel
combustion in the OECD as whole during 2014 were below the levels seen between 2003 and 2008; that the
contribution of renewables to the energy supply remains just under 10% on average in the OECD; that
expenditure on health has risen steadily, accounting for more than 9% of GDP on average; and, that the
elderly population as a percentage of the total population continues to increase in most OECD countries,
with an average ratio of 16% across the OECD in 2014. This latest edition of the Factbook also includes new
indicators in the fields of education on the connection between students, computers and learning, as well
as early childhood education and care, and for regional statistics on GDP by metropolitan area.
Written in a non-technical language, the OECD Factbook provides data and indicators for all 34 OECD
member countries and, when available and considered internationally comparable, for Brazil, India,
Indonesia, the People's Republic of China, Russia and South Africa.
As part of an on-going effort to make OECD data more readily available, virtually all the indicators
presented in the OECD Factbook 2015-2016 are also available online through OECD.Stat, the OECD platform
for data dissemination, and through the new OECD Data portal.
I trust that the OECD Factbook, in its various formats, will continue to be a first-stop, easy tool for all
those who are looking for reliable, trustworthy and internationally comparable statistics, providing the
evidence which ultimately helps to deliver better policies for better lives.
Martine Durand
OECD Chief Statistician and Director of Statistics
4 OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The OECD Factbook, comprising the paper and e-publications, as well as the online rolling dataset is
the result of ongoing statistical co-operation among virtually all OECD directorates, more specifically: the
Centre for Tax Policy and Administration; the Directorate for Financial and Enterprise Affairs; the Development Co-
operation Directorate; the Directorate for Education and Skills; the Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social
Affairs; the Environment Directorate; Public Governance and Territorial Development; the Statistics Directorate; and
the Directorate for Science, Technology and Innovation. A number of OECD agencies are also included, namely:
the International Energy Agency (IEA), the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) and the International Transport Forum
(ITF). It also reflects the continuous and effective collaboration with OECD and partner countries’ statistical
authorities.
The OECD Statistics Directorate is responsible for the overall co-ordination of the OECD Factbook, led by
David Brackfield (Editor) and Ingrid Herrbach (technical production). The OECD Public Affairs and
Communications Directorate provides editorial guidance, led by Eileen Capponi with Damian Garnys and
Margaret Simmons. The Knowledge and Information Services section of the Digital, Knowledge and Information
Service in the OECD Executive Directorate provides the IT support.
OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD 4 Globalisation
Globalisation
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 5
READER’S GUIDE 8
TRADE 66
Share of international trade in GDP 66
International merchandise trade 68
Population and Migration
Population and migration International trade in services 70
Trade in value added 72
Trade in value added: role of intermediates
POPULATION 12
and services 74
Total population 12
Fertility 14 FDI AND BALANCE OF PAYMENTS 76
Population by region 16 Foreign direct investment flows 76
Elderly population by region 18 Foreign direct investment stocks 78
FDI regulatory restrictiveness index 80
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION 20
Balance of payments 82
Immigrant and foreign population 20
Trends in migration 22
Migration and employment 24
Migration and unemployment 26 Prices
Prices
PRICES AND INTEREST RATES 86

Production
Production Inflation (CPI) 86
Producer price indices 88
Long-term interest rates 90
PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY 30
Size of GDP 30 PURCHASING POWER PARITIES
Evolution of GDP 32 AND EXCHANGE RATES 92
GDP by metropolitan area 34 Rates of conversion 92
Investment rates 36 Real effective exchange rates 94
Labour productivity levels 38
ECONOMIC STRUCTURE 40
Value added by activity 40 Energyand
Energy and transportation
Transportation
Real value added by activity 42
Small and medium-sized enterprises 44
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS 98
Energy supply 98
Energy intensity 100
Household Income
Household income and
and Wealth
wealth Electricity generation 102
Nuclear energy 104
Renewable energy 106
INCOME AND SAVINGS 48 Oil production 108
National income per capita 48 Oil prices 110
Household disposable income 50
Household savings 52 TRANSPORT 112
Goods transport 112
INCOME INEQUALITY AND POVERTY 54 Passenger transport 114
Income inequality 54 Road fatalities 116
Poverty rates and gaps 56
HOUSEHOLD WEALTH 58
Household financial assets 58
Household debt 60 Labour
Labour
Non-financial assets of households 62
EMPLOYMENT AND HOURS WORKED 120
Employment rates 120
Employment rates by age group 122
Part-time employment 124

Self-employment 126 Government
Government
Employment by region 128
Hours worked 130
GOVERNMENT DEFICITS AND DEBT 180
UNEMPLOYMENT 132 Government expenditures, revenues
Unemployment rates 132 and deficits 180
Long-term unemployment 134 Government debt 182
Unemployment by region 136
GENERAL GOVERNMENT 184
Expenditures across levels of government 184
General government expenditures and
revenues per capita 186
Environmentand
Environment andScience
science General government production costs 188
PUBLIC EXPENDITURE 190
WATER AND WASTE 140
Social expenditure 190
Abstractions of freshwater 140
Pension expenditure 192
Municipal waste 142
Official development assistance 194
AIR AND CLIMATE 144
TAXES 196
Emissions of carbon dioxide 144
Taxes on the average worker 196
Sulphur and nitrogen emissions 146
Total tax revenue 198
Greenhouse gas emissions 148
Regional quality of air 150
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 152
Expenditure on R&D 152 Health
Health
Researchers 154
Patents 156
HEALTH STATUS 202
Life expectancy 202
Infant mortality 204
Suicides 206
Education
Education
RISK FACTORS 208
Smoking 208
OUTCOMES 160
Alcohol consumption 210
International student assessment 160
Overweight and obesity 212
Students, computers and learning 162
Early childhood education and care 164 RESOURCES 214
Youth inactivity 166 Doctors 214
How many students study abroad? 168 Nurses 216
Educational attainment 170 Health expenditure 218
RESOURCES 172
Teachers' salaries 172
Educational expenditure 174
Expenditure in tertiary education 176 Analytical index 220

READER’S GUIDE
Main features
● Tables and charts are preceded by short texts that explain how the statistics are defined (Definition) and
that identify any problems there may be in comparing the performance of one country with another
(Comparability). To avoid misunderstandings, the tables and charts must be viewed in conjunction with
the texts that accompany them.
● Tables and charts can be downloaded as Excel files.
● While media comment on statistics usually focuses on the short term – what has happened to
employment, prices, GDP and so on in the last few months – the OECD Factbook takes a longer view; the
text and charts mostly describe developments during at least the last ten years. This long-term
perspective provides a good basis for comparing the successes and failures of policies in raising living
standards and improving social conditions in countries.
● To facilitate cross-country comparisons, many indicators in the OECD Factbook have been standardised
by relating them to each country’s gross domestic product (GDP). In cases where GDP needs to be
converted to a common currency, purchasing power parities (PPPs) have been used rather than exchange
rates. When PPPs are used, differences in GDP levels across countries reflect only differences in the
volume of goods and services, that is, differences in price levels are eliminated.
Conventions
Unless otherwise specified:
● OECD refers to all 34 OECD countries; the indicator is presented either as the weighted average of country
values or an unweighted arithmetic average.
● For each country, the average value in different periods takes into account only the years for which data
are available. The average annual growth rate of an indicator over a period of time is the geometric average
of the growth rates of that indicator across the period (that is, the annual compound growth rate).
● Each table and chart specifies the period covered. The mention, XXXX or latest available year (where XXXX
is a year or a period) means that data for later years are not taken into account..
Signs, abbreviations and acronyms
.. Missing value, not applicable or not available

0 Less than half of the unit precision level of the observation
- Absolute zero
USD US dollars
DAC OECD Development Assistance Committee
ILO International Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
ITF International Transport Forum
UN United Nations
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
WTO World Trade Organization

The OECD Factbook uses ISO codes for countries
AUS Australia JPN Japan DAC DAC total

AUT Austria KOR Korea EA19 Euro area
BEL Belgium LUX Luxembourg EU28 European Union
CAN Canada MEX Mexico OECD OECD area
CHL Chile NLD Netherlands WLD World
CZE Czech Republic NZL New Zealand
DNK Denmark NOR Norway BRA Brazil
EST Estonia POL Poland CHN China
FIN Finland PRT Portugal IND India
FRA France SVK Slovak Republic IDN Indonesia
GRC Greece SVN Slovenia RUS Russian Federation
DEU Germany ESP Spain ZAF South Africa
HUN Hungary SWE Sweden
ISL Iceland CHE Switzerland
IRL Ireland TUR Turkey
ISR Israel GBR United Kingdom
ITA Italy USA United States
StatLinks
This publication includes the OECD StatLink service, which enables users to download Excel versions
of tables and figures. StatLinks are provided at the bottom of each table and figure. StatLinks behave like
Internet addresses: simply type the StatLink into your Internet browser to obtain the corresponding data
in Excel format.
For more information about OECD StatLinks, please visit: www.oecd.org/statistics/statlink.
Accessing OECD publications

● OECD publications cited in the OECD Factbook are available through OECD iLibrary (www.oecd-ilibrary.org).
● All the OECD working papers can be downloaded from OECD iLibrary.
● All OECD databases mentioned can be accessed through OECD iLibrary.
● Print editions of all OECD books can be purchased via the OECD online bookshop (www.oecd.org/bookshop).

POPULATION AND MIGRATION
POPULATION
TOTAL POPULATION
FERTILITY
POPULATION BY REGION
ELDERLY POPULATION BY REGION
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
IMMIGRANT AND FOREIGN POPULATION
TRENDS IN MIGRATION
MIGRATION AND EMPLOYMENT
MIGRATION AND UNEMPLOYMENT
POPULATION AND MIGRATION • POPULATION
TOTAL POPULATION
Population
The size and growth of a country’s population provides Comparability

important contextual information to help understand
For most OECD countries, population data are based on
other social and economic outcomes.
regular, ten-yearly censuses, with estimates for intercensal
years derived from administrative data. In several
Definition European countries, population estimates are based
Data refer to the resident population, which for most entirely on administrative records. Population data are
countries is defined as all nationals present in, or fairly comparable. Some nations are capable of generating
temporarily a bsent from the country, and aliens population statistics from administrative records or
permanently settled in the country. It includes the through a combination of data sources. The vast majority
following categories: national armed forces stationed of countries, however, produce these data on population
abroad; merchant seamen at sea; diplomatic personnel and housing by conducting a traditional census, which in
located abroad; civilian aliens resident in the country; and principle entails canvassing the entire country, reaching
displaced persons resident in the country. Excluded are the every single household and collecting information on all
following categories: foreign armed forces stationed in the individuals within a brief stipulated period.
country; foreign diplomatic personnel located in the For some countries, the population figures shown here
country; and civilian aliens temporarily in the country. differ from those used for calculating GDP and other
For countries with overseas colonies, protectorates or other economic statistics on a per capita basis, although
territorial possessions, their populations are generally differences are normally small.
excluded. Growth rates are the annual changes resulting
from births, deaths and net migration during the year.
Data for total population may be compiled following two
basic concepts: "Present-in-area population” or de facto, i.e.
persons actually present in the country on the date of the
census; or, “Resident population” or de jure, i.e. persons
regularly domiciled in the country on the date of the
census.
Overview Sources
Within the OECD, in 2013, the United States accounted • For OECD member countries: national sources,
for 25% of the OECD total, followed by Japan (10%), United Nations and Eurostat.
Mexico (9%), Germany and Turkey (6%), France, Italy • For Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, the Russian Federation
and the United Kingdom (5%), Korea and Spain (4%), and South Africa: United Nations, World Population
Canada and Poland (3%). In the same year, the Prospects: The 2012 Revision.
population of China was 10% higher than that of the
whole OECD while the population of India was equal to Further information
that of the whole OECD. Analytical publications
In the three years to 2014 (or latest available period), • OECD (2011), Doing Better for Families, OECD Publishing.
population annual growth rates above 1% were • OECD (2011), The Future of Families to 2030, OECD
recorded in Chile, Israel, Mexico and Turkey (high birth Publishing.
rate countries) and in Luxembourg, Australia, Canada, Statistical publications
Norway, and Switzerland (high net immigration). • OECD (2014), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators,
Over the same period, the highest population annual OECD Publishing.
declines were observed in Portugal (due to a low birth Methodological publications
rate and a negative net migration rate) and Hungary
• OECD (2014), OECD Labour Force Statistics, OECD
(for which birth and net migration rates are low).
Publishing.
Growth rates were also negative in Estonia, Greece,
Japan and Spain, while the population was stable in Online databases
Poland. • OECD Employment and Labour Market Statistics.
• OECD Social and Welfare Statistics, Family indicators.
Among emerging economies, in the three years to 2013,
population annual growth rates were above 1% in • United Nations World Population Prospects.
South Africa, Brazil, India and Indonesia. By contrast, Websites
Russian population rose more slowly. • OECD Family Database, www.oecd.org/social/family/
database.

TOTAL POPULATION
Population levels
Thousands
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Australia 19 495 19 721 19 933 20 177 20 451 20 828 21 249 21 692 22 032 22 340 22 728 23 126 23 491
Austria 8 082 8 118 8 169 8 225 8 268 8 295 8 322 8 341 8 361 8 389 8 426 8 469 ..
Belgium 10 333 10 376 10 421 10 479 10 548 10 626 10 710 10 796 10 920 11 048 11 128 11 178 11 227
Canada 31 354 31 640 31 941 32 245 32 576 32 928 33 318 33 727 34 127 34 484 34 880 35 154 35 540
Chile 15 668 15 838 16 002 16 165 16 332 16 505 16 687 16 877 17 066 17 256 17 445 17 632 17 819
Czech Republic 10 201 10 202 10 207 10 234 10 267 10 323 10 430 10 491 10 517 10 497 10 509 10 511 10 525
Denmark 5 376 5 391 5 405 5 419 5 437 5 461 5 494 5 523 5 548 5 571 5 592 5 615 ..
Estonia 1 379 1 371 1 363 1 355 1 347 1 341 1 337 1 335 1 331 1 327 1 323 1 318 1 316
Finland 5 201 5 213 5 228 5 246 5 267 5 289 5 313 5 339 5 363 5 388 5 414 5 439 5 472
France 59 894 60 304 60 734 61 182 61 597 61 965 62 300 62 615 62 918 63 223 63 514 63 786 64 062
Germany 82 456 82 502 82 491 82 465 82 369 82 257 82 135 81 904 81 715 80 249 80 413 80 611 80 896
Greece 10 983 11 016 11 057 11 093 11 131 11 163 11 186 11 185 11 153 11 124 11 090 .. ..
Hungary 10 159 10 130 10 107 10 087 10 071 10 056 10 038 10 023 10 000 9 972 9 920 9 893 9 863
Iceland 288 289 293 296 304 311 319 319 318 319 321 324 327
Ireland 3 917 3 980 4 045 4 134 4 233 4 376 4 485 4 533 4 555 4 575 4 585 4 593 4 610
Israel 6 570 6 690 6 809 6 930 7 054 7 180 7 309 7 486 7 624 7 766 7 911 8 059 ..
Italy 57 474 57 478 57 297 57 716 57 984 58 272 58 740 59 140 59 420 59 660 59 898 60 225 60 448
Japan 127 435 127 619 127 687 127 768 127 770 127 771 127 692 127 510 128 057 127 799 127 515 127 298 ..
Korea 47 622 47 859 48 039 48 138 48 372 48 598 48 949 49 182 49 410 49 779 50 004 50 220 50 424
Luxembourg 446 450 455 461 469 476 484 494 502 512 525 537 550
Mexico 100 909 102 000 103 002 107 151 108 409 109 787 111 299 112 853 114 256 115 683 117 054 118 395 119 713
Netherlands 16 149 16 225 16 282 16 320 16 346 16 382 16 446 16 530 16 615 16 693 16 755 16 804 ..
New Zealand 3 949 4 027 4 088 4 134 4 185 4 224 4 260 4 303 4 351 4 384 4 408 4 442 4 510
Norway 4 538 4 564 4 592 4 623 4 661 4 709 4 768 4 829 4 889 4 953 5 019 5 080 5 137
Poland 38 232 38 195 38 180 38 161 38 132 38 116 38 116 38 153 38 517 38 526 38 534 38 502 38 484
Portugal 10 420 10 459 10 484 10 503 10 522 10 543 10 558 10 568 10 573 10 558 10 515 10 457 ..
Slovak Republic 5 377 5 373 5 372 5 373 5 373 5 375 5 379 5 386 5 391 5 398 5 408 5 416 ..
Slovenia 1 996 1 997 1 997 2 001 2 009 2 019 2 023 2 042 2 049 2 052 2 056 2 059 2 062
Spain 41 424 42 196 42 859 43 663 44 361 45 236 45 983 46 368 46 562 46 736 46 766 46 593 46 464
Sweden 8 925 8 958 8 994 9 030 9 081 9 148 9 220 9 299 9 378 9 449 9 519 9 609 ..
Switzerland 7 285 7 339 7 390 7 437 7 484 7 551 7 648 7 744 7 828 7 912 7 997 8 140 ..
Turkey 66 003 66 795 67 599 68 435 69 295 70 158 71 052 72 039 73 142 74 224 75 176 76 055 76 903
United Kingdom 58 570 58 839 59 149 59 591 60 003 60 482 60 982 61 424 61 915 62 435 62 859 63 238 63 650
United States 287 625 290 108 292 805 295 517 298 380 301 231 304 094 306 772 309 347 311 722 314 112 316 498 318 857
EU 28 489 827 491 624 493 577 495 518 497 369 499 299 501 194 502 630 503 833 505 035 506 100 506 736 ..
OECD 1 168 022 1 176 212 1 184 415 1 192 754 1 201 155 1 210 194 1 219 475 1 227 932 1 236 914 1 243 751 1 250 277 1 257 114 ..
Brazil 175 077 177 360 183 439 185 651 187 852 189 954 192 000 193 995 193 253 197 825 199 689 201 467 ..
China 1 295 322 1 302 810 1 310 414 1 318 177 1 326 146 1 334 344 1 342 733 1 351 248 1 359 822 1 368 440 1 377 065 1 385 567 ..
India 1 076 706 1 093 787 1 110 626 1 127 144 1 143 289 1 159 095 1 174 662 1 190 138 1 205 625 1 221 156 1 236 687 1 252 140 ..
Indonesia 215 038 218 146 221 294 224 481 227 710 230 973 234 244 237 487 240 677 243 802 246 864 249 866 ..
Russian Federation 145 306 144 649 144 067 143 519 143 050 142 805 142 742 142 785 142 849 142 961 143 207 143 507 ..
South Africa 45 545 46 127 46 727 47 350 47 991 48 658 49 345 50 055 50 792 51 554 52 341 53 158 54 002
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933336107
Population growth rates

Annual growth in percentage
3 year average at end of period 2012-14 or latest available period 3 year average at beginning of period 2002-04
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933334925

FERTILITY
Together with mortality and migration, fertility is a core themselves driven by rising female education and
driver of population growth, which reflects both the causes employment, insufficient support for families juggling
and effects of economic and social developments. work and children, the need to generate a secure job and
Total fertility rates in OECD countries have declined income, and growing housing problems – have played a
dramatically over the past few decades, falling from an central role.
average of 2.8 children per woman of childbearing age in
1970 to 1.7 in the early 2000s. The decline has been Definition
especially pronounced – by around or greater than three
The total fertility rate in a specific year is the total number
children per woman on average – in Korea, Mexico and
of children that would be born to each woman if she were
Turkey, but a number of other OECD countries have also
to live to the end of her child-bearing years and give birth
seen the total fertility rate fall by at least one child per
to children in agreement with the prevailing age-specific
woman on average since 1970. There are many reasons
fertility rates.
behind the decline in fertility, but the postponement of
family formation and a decrease in desired family size –
Comparability
The total fertility rate is generally computed by summing
Overview up the age-specific fertility rates defined over a five-year
Prior to the start of the economic crisis in 2008, fertility interval. Assuming there are no migration flows and that
rates in many – although not all – OECD countries were mortality rates remain unchanged, a total fertility rate of
recovering slightly from the record lows observed in the 2.1 children per woman generates broad stability of
early 2000s. Fertility rates continued to decline or population: it is also referred to as the “replacement
remained stable in Austria, Japan, Korea and fertility rate”, as it ensures replacement of the woman and
Switzerland – all low fertility countries. Fertility her partner with another 0.1 children per woman to
rebounded in countries with higher initial fertility counteract infant mortality.
rates, and even exceeded the replacement level in New
Data are collected every year from national statistical
Zealand and Iceland.
institutes.
This fertility rebound stalled in many OECD countries
in 2008, possibly as a consequence of the economic
crisis. Since 2008, fertility rates have fallen in more
than two-thirds of OECD countries, with the decline Sources
greater than two decimal points in three European • For OECD member countries and Brazil, Russia and
OECD countries (Denmark, Estonia and Iceland) and South Africa: National statistical offices.
the United States (a relatively high fertility country). • For China, India and Indonesia: World Bank World
Israel and Japan have seen the largest increases since Development indicators.
the start of the economic crisis, but no OECD country • Fertility rates: OECD (2015), “Family Indicators”, OECD
has seen the total fertility rate increase by more than 1 Social and Welfare Statistics (database).
decimal point since 2008.
In 2013, the highest fertility rate was recorded in Israel,
Further information
where women had almost one child more than in the Analytical publications
second country, Mexico. Israel and Mexico were in fact • OECD (2011), Doing Better for Families, OECD Publishing.
the only two OECD countries with a total fertility rate Statistical publications
above the replacement fertility rate (2.1 children per • OECD (2014), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators,
woman). Anglophone and Nordic countries were OECD Publishing.
typically at the higher end, while continental Europe
Methodological publications
(France being the one major exception) generally
• Adema, W., N. Ali and O. Thévenon (2014), “Changes in
reported low fertility, along with even lower fertility
Family Policies and Outcomes: Is there Convergence?”,
rates in the East Asian and Southern Europe OECD
OECD Social Employment and Migration Working Papers,
countries. Fertility rates were particularly low in
No. 157, OECD Publishing.
Portugal and Korea, with two parents replacing
themselves in the next generation by little more than Online databases
one child, on average. • United Nations World Population Prospects.
Fertility rates were generally higher but have declined Websites
sharply in the emerging economies; with current rates • OECD Family Database, www.oecd.org/social/family/
only above replacement levels in India, Indonesia and database.
South Africa. • World Bank – World Development Indicators, http://
data.worldbank.org/indicator.

FERTILITY
Total fertility rates

Number of children born to women aged 15 to 49
1970 1980 1990 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Australia 2.86 1.89 1.90 1.76 1.85 1.88 1.99 2.02 1.97 1.95 1.92 1.93 1.88
Austria 2.29 1.65 1.46 1.36 1.41 1.41 1.39 1.42 1.40 1.44 1.43 1.44 1.44
Belgium 2.25 1.68 1.62 1.64 1.74 1.78 1.80 1.86 1.83 1.84 1.81 1.79 1.76
Canada 2.33 1.68 1.71 1.49 1.54 1.59 1.66 1.68 1.67 1.63 1.61 .. ..
Chile 3.95 2.72 2.59 2.05 1.84 1.83 1.88 1.92 1.92 1.89 1.85 1.80 ..
Czech Republic 1.91 2.10 1.89 1.14 1.28 1.33 1.44 1.50 1.49 1.49 1.43 1.45 1.46
Denmark 1.95 1.55 1.67 1.77 1.80 1.85 1.84 1.89 1.84 1.87 1.75 1.73 1.67
Estonia .. 2.02 2.05 1.36 1.52 1.58 1.69 1.72 1.70 1.72 1.61 1.56 1.52
Finland 1.83 1.63 1.79 1.73 1.80 1.84 1.83 1.85 1.86 1.87 1.83 1.80 1.75
France 2.48 1.95 1.78 1.87 1.92 1.98 1.95 1.99 1.99 2.02 2.00 1.99 1.98
Germany 2.03 1.56 1.45 1.38 1.34 1.33 1.37 1.38 1.36 1.39 1.39 1.40 1.41
Greece 2.40 2.23 1.40 1.27 1.32 1.38 1.38 1.47 1.49 1.47 1.40 1.35 1.30
Hungary 1.97 1.92 1.84 1.33 1.32 1.35 1.32 1.35 1.33 1.26 1.24 1.34 1.34
Iceland 2.81 2.48 2.31 2.08 2.05 2.07 2.09 2.14 2.22 2.20 2.02 2.04 1.93
Ireland 3.87 3.23 2.12 1.90 1.88 1.94 2.03 2.07 2.07 2.06 2.04 2.01 1.96
Israel .. 3.14 3.02 2.95 2.84 2.88 2.90 2.96 2.96 3.03 3.00 3.05 3.03
Italy 2.42 1.68 1.36 1.26 1.32 1.35 1.37 1.42 1.41 1.41 1.39 1.42 1.39
Japan 2.13 1.75 1.54 1.36 1.26 1.32 1.34 1.37 1.37 1.39 1.39 1.41 1.43
Korea 4.53 2.82 1.57 1.47 1.08 1.12 1.25 1.19 1.15 1.23 1.24 1.30 1.19
Luxembourg 1.98 1.50 1.62 1.78 1.62 1.64 1.61 1.60 1.59 1.63 1.51 1.57 1.55
Mexico 6.72 4.71 3.36 2.65 2.45 2.42 2.38 2.35 2.32 2.28 2.26 2.24 2.22
Netherlands 2.57 1.60 1.62 1.72 1.71 1.72 1.72 1.77 1.79 1.80 1.76 1.72 1.68
New Zealand 3.17 2.03 2.18 1.98 1.97 2.01 2.18 2.19 2.13 2.17 2.09 2.10 2.01
Norway 2.50 1.72 1.93 1.85 1.84 1.90 1.90 1.96 1.98 1.95 1.88 1.85 1.78
Poland 2.20 2.28 1.99 1.37 1.24 1.27 1.31 1.39 1.40 1.38 1.30 1.30 1.26
Portugal 2.83 2.18 1.56 1.56 1.42 1.38 1.35 1.40 1.35 1.39 1.35 1.28 1.21
Slovak Republic 2.40 2.31 2.09 1.29 1.25 1.24 1.25 1.32 1.41 1.40 1.45 1.34 1.34
Slovenia 2.21 2.11 1.46 1.26 1.26 1.31 1.38 1.53 1.53 1.57 1.56 1.58 1.55
Spain 2.90 2.22 1.36 1.23 1.33 1.36 1.38 1.45 1.38 1.37 1.34 1.32 1.27
Sweden 1.94 1.68 2.14 1.55 1.77 1.85 1.88 1.91 1.94 1.98 1.90 1.91 1.89
Switzerland 2.10 1.55 1.59 1.50 1.42 1.44 1.46 1.48 1.50 1.54 1.52 1.53 1.52
Turkey 5.00 4.63 3.07 2.27 2.12 2.12 2.16 2.15 2.08 2.06 2.03 2.09 2.07
United Kingdom 2.43 1.90 1.83 1.64 1.76 1.82 1.86 1.91 1.89 1.92 1.91 1.92 1.83
United States 2.48 1.84 2.08 2.06 2.06 2.11 2.12 2.07 2.00 1.93 1.89 1.88 1.86
EU 28 2.43 2.01 1.78 1.48 1.49 1.52 1.54 1.60 1.60 1.59 1.55 1.56 1.52
OECD 2.76 2.17 1.91 1.67 1.66 1.69 1.72 1.76 1.74 1.75 1.71 1.71 1.67
Brazil 5.02 4.07 2.81 2.36 2.07 2.00 1.94 1.90 1.86 1.84 1.82 1.81 1.80
China 5.47 2.71 2.51 1.51 1.59 1.60 1.62 1.63 1.64 1.65 1.66 1.66 1.67
India 5.49 4.68 3.88 3.15 2.82 2.75 2.69 2.64 2.60 2.56 2.53 2.51 2.48
Indonesia 5.47 4.43 3.12 2.48 2.49 2.50 2.49 2.48 2.46 2.43 2.40 2.37 2.34
Russian Federation 2.01 1.90 1.89 1.20 1.29 1.31 1.42 1.50 1.54 1.57 1.58 1.69 1.71
South Africa 5.59 4.79 3.66 2.87 2.56 2.53 2.53 2.52 2.51 2.50 2.44 2.39 2.34
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933336165
Total fertility rates

Number of children born to women aged 15 to 49
2013 or latest available year 1970 or first available year
3
Replacement level 2.1
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933334982

Population is unevenly distributed among regions within territorial levels: the higher level (TL2) consists of 362 large
countries. Differences in climatic and environmental regions and the lower level (TL3) consists of 1 802 small
conditions discourage human settlement in some areas regions. These two levels are used as a framework for
and favour concentration of the population around a few implementing regional policies in most countries. In Brazil,
urban centres. This pattern is reinforced by higher China, India, Russia and South Africa only TL2 large
economic opportunities and wider availability of services regions have been identified. This classification (which, for
stemming from urbanisation itself. European Union countries, is largely consistent with the
Eurostat NUTS classification) facilitates comparability of
regions at the same territorial level.
Definition
All the regional data refer to small regions with the
The number of inhabitants of a given region, i.e. its total
exception of Brazil, China, India, Russia and South Africa.
population, can be measured as either its average annual
population or as the population at a specific date during In addition, the OECD has established a regional typology
the year considered. The average population during a to take into account geographical differences and enable
calendar year is generally calculated as the arithmetic meaningful comparisons between regions belonging to the
mean of the population on 1 January of two consecutive same type. Regions have been classified as predominantly
years, although some countries estimate it on a date close rural, intermediate and predominantly urban on the basis
to 1 July. of the percentage of population living in local rural units.
The metropolitan database identifies about 1 200 urban
areas (with a population of 50 000 or more) in 30 OECD
Comparability
countries. Urban areas are defined on the basis of
The main problem with economic analysis at the sub- population density and commuting patterns to better
national level is the unit of analysis, i.e. the region. The reflect the economic function of cities in addition to their
word “region” can mean very different things both within administrative boundaries. Functional urban areas can
and among countries, with significant differences in area extend across administrative boundaries, reflecting the
and population. economic geography of where people actually live and
The population across OECD regions ranges from about work.
600 inhabitants in Stikine, British Columbia (Canada) to Urban areas in Turkey refer to the 144 cities classified
39 million in California (the United States). according the national definition and refer to the year 2012.
To address this issue, the OECD has classified regions Comparability with other countries is, therefore, limited.
within each member country to facilitate comparability at
the same territorial level. The classification is based on two
Overview
In 2014, 10% of regions accounted for approximately
40% of the total population in OECD countries. The
concentration of population was highest in Canada and
Au s t ra l i a w h e r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n c l i m a t i c a n d
environmental conditions discourag e human
settlement in some areas. Sources
• OECD (2013), OECD Regions at a Glance, OECD Publishing.
In 2014, two-thirds of the OECD urban population live
in cities (above 50 000 inhabitants). However the urban Further information
experience is very different from country to country. In Analytical publications
Korea, 90% of the national population is concentrated • OECD (2014), OECD Regional Outlook, OECD Publishing.
in cities (more than 45 million people), while only 40% • OECD (2014), OECD Territorial Reviews, OECD Publishing.
in the Slovak Republic live in cities (more than 2 million
Statistical publications
people).
• OECD (2014), OECD Labour Force Statistics, OECD
In 2014, almost half of the total OECD population (48%)
Publishing.
lived in predominantly urban regions, which accounted
for around 6% of the total area. Online databases
• OECD Regional Statistics.
Predominantly, rural regions accounted for one-fourth
of the total population and 83% of land area. In Ireland, Websites
Finland and Slovenia the share of national population • Regions at a Glance interactive, rag.oecd.org.
in rural regions was twice as high as the OECD average. • Regional statistics and indicators, www.oecd.org/gov/
regional/statisticsindicators.

Share of national population in the ten per Distribution of the national population into
cent of regions with the largest population urban, intermediate and rural regions
Percentage, 2000 and 2014 Percentage, 2014
2000 2014 Urban Intermediate Rural
CAN NLD
AUS BEL
CHL GBR
USA AUS
IDN KOR
MEX
ESP DEU
GRC JPN
SWE CAN
OECD PRT
IND ITA
PRT TUR
NZL ESP
BRA OECD
FIN CHL
KOR
CHE MEX
JPN NZL
ITA USA
AUT CHE
RUS GRC
GBR FRA
HUN DNK
SVN FIN
DEU
FRA IRL
NLD AUT
ISR SWE
CHN POL
NOR HUN
IRL NOR
ZAF CZE
EST EST
BEL SVK
CZE
DNK LUX
POL ISL
SVK SVN
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 20 40 60 80 100
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933335362 1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933335957
Urban population by city size Distribution of the national area into urban,
2014 intermediate and rural regions
Percentage, 2014
Percentage share of national population (left scale)
Urban population, millions (right scale) Urban Intermediate Rural
100 250
BEL
DEU
90 ITA
GBR
TUR
80 200 KOR
JPN
ESP
70 USA
CHE
FRA
PRT
60 150 EST
OECD
MEX
50 NZL
DNK
SVK
40 100 FIN
GRC
POL
30 CHL
SWE
AUT
20 50 IRL
AUS
CZE
HUN
10 CAN
NOR
LUX
0 0 SVN
ISL
0 20 40 60 80 100
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933335821
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933336019


In all OECD countries, populations aged 65 years and over Comparability
have dramatically increased over the last decades, both in
As for the other regional statistics, the comparability of
size and as a percentage of total population. Elderly people,
elderly population data is affected by differences in the
it turns out, tend to be concentrated in few areas within
definition of the regions and the different geography of
each country, which means that a small number of regions
rural and urban communities, both within and among
will have to face a number of specific social and economic
countries. In order to better show the rural/urban divide,
challenges raised by ageing population.
elderly dependency rates are presented for rural and urban
regions, but not for intermediary regions, which explains
Definition that for some countries, the country average can be outside
The elderly population is the number of inhabitants of a the rural/urban range.
given region aged 65 or older. The population can be either All the regional data shown here refer to small regions
the average annual population or the population at a with the exception of Brazil, China, India, Russia and
specific date during the year considered. South Africa.
The elderly dependency rate is defined as the ratio
between the elderly population and the working age (15-64
years) population.
Overview
In most OECD countries the population is ageing. Due
to higher life expectancy and low fertility rates, the
elderly population (those aged 65 years and over)
accounts for almost 16% of the OECD population in
2014, up from just over 13% 14 years earlier. The
proportion of elderly population is remarkably lower in
the emerging economies (South Africa, Brazil and
China) and Mexico, Turkey, Chile and Israel.
The elderly population in OECD countries has
increased more than three times faster than the total Sources
population between 2000 and 2014. The rate of ageing • OECD (2013), OECD Regions at a Glance, OECD Publishing.
between different parts of a country can be quite
d i f f e r e n t , a s a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e g e o g ra p h i c
Further information
concentration of the elderly may arise from inward Analytical publications
migration of the elderly or by ageing “in place” because • OECD (2015), Ageing and Employment Policies, OECD
the younger generations have moved out of the regions. Publishing.
The ratio of the elderly to the working age population, • OECD (2014), OECD Regional Outlook, OECD Publishing.
the elderly dependency rate, is steadily growing in • OECD (2011), The Future of Families to 2030, OECD
OECD countries. The elderly dependency rate gives an Publishing.
indication of the balance between the retired and the • Oliveira Martins J., et al. (2005), “The Impact of Ageing on
economically active population. In 2014 this ratio was Demand, Factor Markets and Growth”, OECD Economics
24% in OECD countries, with substantial differences Department Working Papers, No. 420.
between countries (42% in Japan versus 11% in Turkey). Statistical publication
Differences among regions within the same countries • OECD (2014), Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators,
are also large. The higher the regional elderly OECD Publishing.
dependency rate, the higher the challenges faced by
Online databases
regions in generating wealth and sufficient resources to
• OECD Regional Database.
provide for the needs of the population. Concerns may
arise about the financial self-sufficiency of these Websites
regions to generate taxes to pay for the services for the • Regions at a Glance Interactive, rag.oecd.org.
elderly. • Regional statistics and indicators, www.oecd.org/gov/
regional/statisticsindicators.

Elderly population
As a percentage of total population, 2000 and 2014
2014 2000
30
25
20
15
10
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933334816
Regional elderly population

Average annual growth in percentage, 2000-14
Maximum Country average Minimum
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933335744
Elderly dependency rate in urban and rural regions

Percentage, 2014
In urban regions Elderly dependency rate In rural regions
60
50
40
30
20
10
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933335890

POPULATION AND MIGRATION • INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

International migration
As a result of successive waves of migration flows from Most data are taken from the contributions of national
varying destinations, countries differ in the share and correspondents who are part of the OECD Expert Group on
composition of immigrants and foreign population. The International Migration.
definition of these populations is key for international The foreign-born population data shown here include
comparisons. persons born abroad as nationals of their current country
of residence. The prevalence of such persons among the
Definition foreign-born can be significant in some countries, in
particular France and Portugal who received large inflows
Nationality and place of birth are the two criteria most
of repatriates from former colonies.
commonly used to define the “immigrant” population. The
foreign-born population covers all persons who have ever The EU28 aggregate is a weighted average and does not
migrated from their country of birth to their current include Croatia or Malta.
country of residence. The foreign population consists of
persons who still have the nationality of their home
country. It may include persons born in the host country.
Comparability
The difference across countries between the size of the
foreign-born population and that of the foreign population
depends on the rules governing the acquisition of
citizenship in each country. In some countries, children
born in the country automatically acquire the citizenship
of their country of birth while in other countries, they
retain the nationality of their parents. In some others, they
retain the nationality of their parents at birth but receive
that of the host country at their majority. Differences in the
ease with which immigrants may acquire the citizenship of
the host country explain part of the gap between the two.
For example, residency requirements vary from as little as
four years in Canada to as much as ten years in some other Sources
countries. • OECD (2015), International Migration Outlook, OECD
In general, the foreign-born criterion gives substantially Publishing.
higher percentages for the immigrant population than the Further information
definition based on nationality because of naturalisations.
Analytical publications
The place of birth changes only if country borders change.
• Arslan C. et al. (2014), “A New Profile of Migrants in the
Aftermath of the Recent Economic Crisis”, OECD Social,
Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 160, OECD
Overview Publishing.
The share of the foreign-born population in the total • OECD (2011), “Tackling the Policy Challenges of Migration,
population is especially high in Luxembourg, Regulation, Integration, Development”, Development
Switzerland, New Zealand, Australia, Israel and Canada Centre Studies, OECD Publishing.
where it ranges from 20% to 44%. In a number of other Statistical publications
countries e.g. Austria, Ireland, Slovenia, Sweden, • OECD (2015), Connecting with Emigrants, A Global Profile of
Belgium, Norway, Spain and the United States the Diasporas 2015, OECD Publishing.
share is above 13%. It has increased in the past decade • OECD (2015), OECD Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2015,
in all countries for which data are available with the OECD Publishing.
exception of Israel and Estonia.
The proportion of foreign-born in the population as a
• Lemaître, G. and C. Thoreau, (2006), Estimating the foreign-
whole roughly doubled over the past 13 years in
born population on a current basis, OECD, Paris.
Ireland, Norway and Spain. By contrast, the foreign
population tends to increase more slowly, because Online databases
inflows of foreign nationals tend to be counterbalanced • OECD International Migration Statistics.
by persons acquiring the nationality of the host Websites
country. • International migration policies and data, www.oecd.org/
migration/mig.

Foreign-born and foreign populations
As a percentage of all
As a percentage of total population
foreign-born
Foreign-born population Foreign population Foreign-born nationals
2011 or latest
2000 2005 2010 2013 2000 2005 2010 2013
available year
Australia 23.0 24.1 26.6 27.6 .. .. .. .. ..
Austria 10.4 14.5 15.7 16.7 8.8 9.7 10.9 12.6 36.5
Belgium 10.3 12.1 14.9 15.5 8.4 8.6 10.2 10.9 44.2
Canada 17.4 18.7 19.9 20.0 .. .. .. .. ..
Chile .. 1.5 2.2 .. .. .. .. .. ..
Czech Republic 4.2 5.1 6.3 7.1 1.9 2.7 4.0 4.2 59.1
Denmark 5.8 6.5 7.7 8.5 4.8 5.0 6.2 7.1 40.8
Estonia 18.4 16.9 16.0 10.1 .. 19.0 16.3 16.1 37.4
Finland 2.6 3.4 4.6 5.6 1.8 2.2 3.1 3.8 46.3
France 10.1 11.3 11.7 .. .. 5.8 6.1 .. 53.2
Germany 12.5 12.6 13.0 12.8 8.9 8.2 8.3 9.3 52.6
Greece .. .. 7.4 .. 2.9 5.0 7.3 6.2 20.0
Hungary 2.9 3.3 4.5 4.5 1.1 1.5 2.1 1.4 71.9
Iceland 6.0 8.3 10.9 11.5 .. 4.7 6.6 7.0 47.5
Ireland 8.7 12.6 17.0 16.4 .. .. 12.3 .. 29.0
Israel 32.2 28.1 24.5 22.6 .. .. .. .. ..
Italy .. .. 8.9 .. 2.4 4.6 7.6 8.1 25.0
Japan 1.0 .. .. .. 1.3 1.6 1.7 1.6 ..
Korea 0.3 .. .. .. 0.4 1.1 2.0 2.0 ..
Luxembourg 33.2 36.2 40.5 43.7 37.3 41.1 43.5 45.8 13.9
Mexico 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.8 .. .. 0.2 .. ..
Netherlands 10.1 10.6 11.2 11.6 4.2 4.2 4.6 4.9 67.3
New Zealand 17.2 20.3 27.3 28.2 .. .. .. .. ..
Norway 6.8 8.2 11.6 13.9 4.0 4.8 7.6 9.5 46.2
Poland .. .. - .. .. .. .. .. 84.8
Portugal 5.1 7.1 8.1 .. 2.1 4.0 4.2 3.7 67.3
Slovak Republic .. 4.6 .. 3.2 0.5 0.5 1.3 1.1 79.9
Slovenia .. .. 11.2 16.1 .. .. 4.7 5.4 74.5
Spain 4.9 11.1 14.3 13.4 .. 9.5 12.4 10.7 22.1
Sweden 11.3 12.5 14.8 16.0 5.4 5.3 6.8 7.2 66.6
Switzerland 21.9 23.8 26.5 28.3 19.3 20.3 22.0 23.3 31.9
Turkey 1.9 .. - .. .. .. .. .. ..
United Kingdom 7.9 9.2 11.2 12.3 4.0 5.0 7.2 7.7 41.6
United States 11.0 12.1 12.9 13.1 .. 7.2 7.3 7.0 49.1
EU 28 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
OECD .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Brazil .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
China .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
India .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Indonesia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Russian Federation .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
South Africa .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933336396
Foreign-born population
As a percentage of total population
2013 or latest available year 2000 or first available year
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933335230

TRENDS IN MIGRATION
Permanent immigrant inflows are presented by category of statistics, whose coverage can vary by a factor of one to
entry which is a key determinant of immigrant results on three. However, the extent to which changes in status are
the labour market. They cover regulated movements of identified and the coverage of “permanent” free movement
foreigners as well as free movement migration. may vary somewhat across countries. Overall, the
standardisation is applied to 23 OECD countries.
Definition The year of reference for these statistics is often the year
when the permit was granted rather than the year of entry.
Permanent immigrant inflows cover regulated movements
Some persons admitted on a temporary basis are
of foreigners considered to be settling in the country from
sometimes allowed to change to a permanent status. They
the perspective of the destination country. In countries
are counted in the year the change of status occurred. For
such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the
example, asylum seekers are not considered migrants but
United States, this consists of immigrants who receive the
are candidates for humanitarian migrant status. Only
right of “permanent” residence. In other countries, it
those who are recognised as refugees – or who obtain
generally refers to immigrants who are granted a residence
another permanent-type residence title – will be included
permit which is indefinitely renewable, although the
in the permanent immigrant inflows statistics, in the year
renewability is sometimes subject to conditions, such as
they are granted refugee or another permanent-type
the holding of a job. Excluded are international students,
status. As a consequence, the unprecedented inflows of
trainees, persons on exchange programmes, seasonal or
asylum seekers observed in the EU in 2015 (1.3 million
contract workers, service providers, installers, artists
requests filed) will appear in the permanent immigrant
entering the country to perform or persons engaging in
inflows in the subsequent years only, and only a part of
sporting events, etc. Permits for persons in this latter group
these will figure there.
may be renewable as well, but not indefinitely.
Migrants are defined as “free movement” when they have
some kind of basic rights, usually accorded through
international agreements, to enter and leave a country that
result in few restrictions being placed on their movements
or durations of stay, such as citizens of EU countries within
Sources
the EU. Their movements are not always formally recorded • OECD (2015), International Migration Outlook, OECD
and sometimes have to be estimated. Publishing.
Further information
Comparability Analytical publications
• Arslan C. et al. (2014), “A New Profile of Migrants in the
This standardisation according to the concept of
Aftermath of the Recent Economic Crisis”, OECD Social,
“permanent immigrant inflows” represents a considerable
Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 160, OECD
improvement compared with compilations of national
Publishing.
• OECD (2015), “Is this humanitarian migration crisis
different?”, Migration Policy Debates, No. 7, Paris.
Overview Statistical publications
Total permanent immigration increased by about 1.6% • OECD (2015), Connecting with Emigrants, A Global Profile of
overall in OECD countries in 2013 relative to 2012, with Diasporas, OECD Publishing.
the migration picture being a mixed one at the country • OECD (2015), OECD Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2015,
level. More than half of OECD countries showed OECD Publishing.
increases, with Germany, Korea and Denmark being
among the countries which progressed the most.
Permanent migration flows diminished markedly in • Dumont, J.C. and Lemaître G. (2005), “Counting
2013 in Spain, Italy and the United States. Immigrants and Expatriates in OECD Countries: A New
Perspective”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration
Migration to European countries continues to be
Working Papers, No. 25.
characterised by free circulation within the European
• Lemaître G. (2005), “The Comparability of International
Economic Area (EEA). In Austria, Switzerland, Germany
Migration Statistics: Problems and Prospects”, OECD
and Norway, it represents 78%, 78%, 76% and 63%,
Statistic Brief, No. 9.
respectively, of permanent international migration.
Family reunification accounted for over one third of all Online databases
permanent migration to OECD countries in 2013 (minus • OECD International Migration Statistics.
1% compared to 2012) and free movement for 30% (up Websites
4% compared to 2012). • International migration policies and data, www.oecd.org/
migration/mig.

TRENDS IN MIGRATION
Permanent inflows by category of entry

Thousands, 2013
Accompanying
Work Free movements Family Humanitarian Other Total
family of workers
Australia 61.3 40.3 67.7 60.2 20.0 4.0 253.5
Austria 1.3 50.5 0.3 10.2 2.5 0.3 65.0
Belgium 7.8 27.3 - 22.3 3.0 .. 60.3
Canada 64.7 .. 83.3 79.6 31.0 0.0 258.6
Chile .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Czech Republic .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Denmark 7.9 27.7 3.5 5.2 3.9 4.2 52.4
Estonia .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Finland 1.2 10.2 - 8.9 3.1 0.5 23.9
France 26.8 95.9 - 104.6 11.7 20.9 259.8
Germany 24.3 354.8 - 56.0 30.7 2.4 468.8
Greece .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Hungary .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Iceland .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Ireland 2.7 23.1 0.3 13.9 0.2 .. 40.2
Israel .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Italy 73.1 77.9 2.5 78.6 8.8 4.9 245.8
Japan 25.1 .. - 20.6 0.2 11.5 57.3
Korea 1.6 .. 5.1 31.4 0.0 28.6 66.7
Luxembourg .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Mexico 16.6 .. - 19.2 0.2 18.4 54.4
Netherlands 9.2 65.2 - 21.1 10.0 .. 105.5
New Zealand 10.1 3.7 10.3 16.9 3.4 .. 44.4
Norway 3.8 37.8 - 11.9 6.7 .. 60.3
Poland .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Portugal 6.4 10.6 3.2 9.6 0.1 3.2 27.0
Slovak Republic .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Slovenia .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Spain 39.8 105.1 - 41.2 0.5 8.8 195.3
Sweden 3.9 22.0 2.4 29.5 28.9 .. 86.7
Switzerland 2.2 105.8 - 21.3 5.1 2.0 136.2
Turkey .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
United Kingdom 86.4 98.3 37.6 27.1 20.7 20.7 291.0
United States 75.9 .. 85.2 649.8 119.6 59.4 989.9
EU 28 .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
OECD .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Brazil .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
China .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
India .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Indonesia .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Russian Federation .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
South Africa .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933336420
Permanent inflows by category of entry

Percentage of total permanent inflows, 2013
Work Free movements Accompanying family of workers Family Humanitarian Other
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933335265


Changes in the size of the working-age population affect Comparability
more strongly the foreign-born than the native-born for
Data for the European countries are from the European
whom such changes are hardly noticeable from one year to
Union Labour Force Survey. Data for other countries are
another. This is notably due to the impact of net migration.
mostly taken from national labour force surveys. Even if
In most OECD countries, employment rates for immigrants
employment levels can at times be affected by changes in
are lower than those for native-born persons. However, the
survey design and by survey implementation problems
situation is more diverse if one disaggregates employment
(e.g. non-response), data on employment rates are
rates by educational attainment.
generally consistent over time.
However, comparability of education levels between
Definition immigrants and the native-born population and across
The employment rate is calculated as the share of countries is only approximate. The educational
employed persons in the 25-64 population (active and qualifications of some origin countries may not fit exactly
inactive persons). In accordance with ILO definitions, into national educational categories because the duration
employed persons are those who worked at least one hour of study or the programme content for what appear to be
or who had a job but were absent from work during the equivalent qualifications may not be the same. Likewise,
reference week. The classification of educational the reduction of the ISCED classification into three
attainment shown is based on the International Standard categories may result in some loss of information
Classification of Education (ISCED) categories. Generally regarding the duration of study, the programme
speaking, “low” corresponds to less than upper secondary orientation, etc. For example, high educational
education; “intermediate” to upper secondary education; qualifications can include programmes of durations
and “high” to tertiary education. Tertiary education varying from two years (in the case of short, university-
includes programmes of high-level vocational education level technical programmes) to seven years or more (in the
whose graduates feed into technical or semi-professional case of PhDs).
occupations. The EU28 aggregate is a weighted average.
Overview
Labour market outcomes of immigrants and native-
born vary significantly across OECD countries, and Sources
differences by educational attainment are even larger. • OECD (2015), International Migration Outlook, OECD
In all OECD countries, the employment rate increases Publishing.
with education level. While people with tertiary
Further information
education find work more easily and are less exposed
to unemployment, access to tertiary education does Analytical publications
not necessarily guarantee equal employment rates for • OECD (2014), Jobs for Immigrants (Vol. 4), Labour Market
immigrants and native-born persons. In all OECD Integration in Italy, OECD Publishing.
countries but Chile, employment rates are higher for • OECD (2014), Matching Economic Migration with Labour
native-born persons with high educational Market Needs, OECD Publishing.
qualifications than for their foreign-born counterparts. Statistical publications
The situation is more diverse for persons with low • OECD (2015), Connecting with Emigrants, A Global Profile of
educational attainment. In the United States, Diasporas 2015, OECD Publishing.
Luxembourg and to a lesser extent in some southern • OECD (2015), OECD Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2015,
European countries such as Italy and Greece, foreign- OECD Publishing.
born immigrants with low educational qualifications Methodological publications
have higher employment rates than their native-born
• Dumont, J.C. and Lemaître G. (2005), “Counting
counterparts. The opposite is true in most other
Immigrants and Expatriates in OECD Countries: A New
countries, in particular in Sweden, the Netherlands,
Perspective”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration
Denmark and the United Kingdom. The higher
Working Papers, No. 25.
employment rate of foreign-born persons with low
educational attainment in some countries may reflect Online databases
the persistent demand for workers in low-skilled jobs • OECD International Migration Statistics.
which are hardly taken up by the in-coming cohorts of Websites
native-born workers. • International migration policies and data, www.oecd.org/
migration/mig.

Employment rates of native- and foreign-born population by educational attainment

As a percentage of population aged 25-64
2007 2014
Native-born Foreign-born Native-born Foreign-born
Low High Total Low High Total Low High Total Low High Total
Australia .. .. 77.2 .. .. 71.1 .. .. 76.5 .. .. 72.7
Austria 57.1 89.5 76.5 57.5 75.5 67.3 54.2 87.5 77.1 50.9 76.6 67.4
Belgium 51.8 86.3 71.9 39.5 73.8 55.3 49.4 87.0 73.4 42.1 72.8 57.7
Canada .. .. .. .. .. .. 56.6 83.2 77.2 52.7 77.5 73.3
Chile .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Czech Republic 45.7 85.3 74.6 45.7 81.9 69.6 42.7 84.6 76.8 46.9 81.9 74.9
Denmark 67.4 88.8 81.3 54.1 76.4 63.9 63.1 87.6 79.3 51.9 76.0 66.6
Estonia 56.5 88.3 80.1 45.7 83.1 75.2 60.3 85.6 78.1 69.3 73.4 68.8
Finland 58.0 85.6 76.2 54.1 76.5 70.7 53.4 84.3 75.6 54.4 68.4 63.9
France 59.0 85.0 73.7 54.3 70.8 62.1 55.3 85.6 74.2 50.5 71.6 60.6
Germany 56.1 87.7 76.2 52.3 70.5 62.8 57.9 89.8 81.0 58.1 78.0 70.8
Greece 56.7 83.8 68.3 74.8 70.9 72.7 45.5 69.4 56.2 55.9 54.4 54.3
Hungary 38.4 80.5 65.4 50.1 77.5 70.7 45.1 81.8 69.5 59.5 81.6 75.0
Iceland 82.3 92.5 87.8 86.9 88.4 86.8 76.0 90.5 84.8 83.3 83.7 83.9
Ireland 58.6 88.3 74.0 60.3 80.9 75.9 47.0 83.6 69.3 43.7 73.7 66.9
Israel 42.8 85.4 71.2 43.0 80.4 69.0 .. .. .. .. .. ..
Italy 51.5 80.6 64.4 66.9 75.2 71.0 48.0 78.8 62.8 58.9 69.0 63.5
Japan .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Korea .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Luxembourg 52.3 83.8 69.8 70.5 85.1 76.3 55.6 86.6 74.8 64.9 83.5 76.4
Mexico 63.0 82.8 67.8 66.6 69.3 65.5 63.4 79.2 67.7 64.5 76.8 67.2
Netherlands 63.7 88.4 79.2 50.9 77.7 64.3 61.5 89.1 79.0 48.6 79.6 64.2
New Zealand 69.7 85.3 81.5 60.7 80.0 75.3 68.7 89.8 81.7 61.9 83.1 77.6
Norway 66.5 90.3 82.3 58.1 86.6 75.3 62.5 91.2 82.7 58.1 81.7 73.8
Poland 41.2 84.6 65.7 15.3 65.7 36.3 39.3 86.3 69.0 .. 80.7 71.8
Portugal 71.3 85.8 74.3 75.4 87.0 79.2 62.8 83.2 70.2 66.0 79.1 72.7
Slovak Republic 29.0 84.2 70.0 40.4 87.2 70.1 32.6 80.0 69.4 42.2 75.5 67.0
Slovenia 56.1 88.0 75.0 56.7 81.8 69.2 49.4 84.0 71.6 45.5 68.2 60.8
Spain 57.8 85.5 69.7 71.4 78.8 74.9 49.3 78.7 63.5 49.8 66.8 57.9
Sweden 71.1 90.5 84.8 51.5 78.3 67.7 71.3 91.9 86.5 51.8 78.3 68.9
Switzerland 65.0 93.0 84.5 67.3 82.7 75.5 68.5 92.1 86.3 70.1 83.0 78.3
Turkey .. .. .. .. .. .. 47.6 76.5 54.5 38.8 68.3 55.8
United Kingdom 54.7 88.9 76.8 47.1 83.2 70.6 60.8 86.4 78.2 53.1 81.1 74.0
United States 51.5 84.0 76.5 68.8 80.3 75.2 45.0 81.8 73.2 65.8 77.1 72.4
EU 28 57.0 86.2 72.1 59.5 77.8 68.6 52.3 84.8 72.1 53.8 75.7 66.1
OECD .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Brazil .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
China .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
India .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Indonesia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Russian Federation .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
South Africa 27.8 79.9 36.3 60.8 75.3 63.7 .. .. .. .. .. ..
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933336388
Gap in employment rates between foreign- and native-born population by educational

attainment
Percentage points, 2014
Low education level High education level
30
Foreign-born have higher employment rates than native-born
20
10
-10
-20
Foreign-born have lower employment rates than native-born

-30
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933335228


Immigrant workers are more affected by unemployment in the survey design and by survey implementation
than native-born workers in traditional European problems (e.g. non-response), data on unemployment rates
immigration countries. Conversely, in some settlement are generally consistent over time.
countries (Australia, New Zealand and the United States) The EU28 aggregate is a weighted average.
as well as in Hungary, the unemployment rate depends
less on the place of birth. Some groups, such as young
immigrants, women or older immigrants have greater
difficulties in finding jobs.
Definition
The unemployment rate is the share of the unemployed
aged 15-64 in the total labour force (the sum of employed
and unemployed persons aged 15-64). In accordance with
the ILO standards, unemployed persons consist of those
persons who report that they are without work during the
reference week, that they are available for work and that
they have taken active steps to find work during the four
weeks preceding the interview.
Comparability
Data for the European countries are from the European
Union Labour Force Survey. Data for the United States come
from the Current Population Survey; those for other countries
are taken from their national labour force surveys. Even if
unemployment levels can at times be affected by changes
Sources
• OECD (2015), International Migration Outlook, OECD
Publishing.
Further information
Overview
Analytical publications
Immigrants were hard hit, and almost immediately, by
• OECD (2014), Jobs for Immigrants (Vol. 4), Labour Market
the economic downturn in most OECD countries. This
Integration in Italy, OECD Publishing.
is mainly explained by their greater presence in sectors
that have been strongly affected by the crisis (e.g. • OECD (2014), Matching Economic Migration with Labour
construction, manufacturing, hotels and restaurants) Market Needs, OECD Publishing.
as well as by their greater likelihood of being in Statistical publications
precarious or informal jobs. However, differences exist • OECD (2015), Connecting with Emigrants, A Global Profile of
across OECD countries and between migrant groups. Diasporas 2015, OECD Publishing.
T h e o n g o i n g e c o n o m i c d ow n t u r n h a s s e e n • OECD (2015), OECD Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2015,
unemployment rates increase, both for foreign- and OECD Publishing.
native-born persons, in most OECD countries. However, Methodological publications
immigrants in most European OECD countries were • Dumont, J.C. and Lemaître G. (2005), “Counting
more affected by unemployment than the native-born Immigrants and Expatriates in OECD Countries: A New
population. In Spain, Greece and Ireland, immigrant Perspective”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration
unemployment increased by 25, 25 and 11 percentage Working Papers, No. 25.
points respectively between 2007 and 2014 whereas • Lemaître G. (2005), “The Comparability of International
that of the native-born increased by 15, 15 and Migration Statistics: Problems and Prospects”, OECD
10 percentage points respectively. In 2014, the Statistic Brief, No. 9.
unemployment rate of immigrants living in Greece or
Online databases
Spain was still above 30%. The unemployment rate was
• OECD International Migration Statistics.
more than twice the level observed for the native-born
population in Sweden, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria Websites
and Finland. • International migration policies and data, www.oecd.org/
migration/mig.

Unemployment rates of native- and foreign-born population

As a percentage of total labour force
Women Men Total
Native-born Foreign-born Native-born Foreign-born Native-born Foreign-born
2007 2014 2007 2014 2007 2014 2007 2014 2007 2014 2007 2014
Australia 4.6 6.1 5.5 6.6 4.1 6.3 4.3 5.6 4.3 6.2 4.9 6.1
Austria 4.1 4.5 9.7 9.5 3.1 4.8 8.4 10.8 3.5 4.7 9.0 10.1
Belgium 7.5 6.5 17.2 16.3 5.6 7.2 15.8 18.7 6.4 6.9 16.4 17.6
Canada .. 5.9 .. 8.4 .. 7.5 .. 7.4 .. 6.7 .. 7.9
Chile .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Czech Republic 6.7 7.4 10.8 8.8 4.2 5.2 7.7 5.7 5.3 6.2 9.1 7.0
Denmark 3.8 6.0 7.8 13.9 3.0 6.0 8.6 10.8 3.4 6.0 8.2 12.3
Estonia 3.9 6.7 4.6 9.7 5.3 7.9 7.1 8.8 4.6 7.3 5.7 9.3
Finland 6.9 7.5 17.4 17.1 6.5 9.1 12.0 16.5 6.7 8.3 14.5 16.8
France 8.1 8.8 14.5 15.7 6.9 9.3 11.9 16.4 7.4 9.1 13.1 16.0
Germany 8.0 4.2 13.8 7.4 7.6 4.8 15.2 8.3 7.8 4.5 14.6 7.9
Greece 12.8 29.8 14.3 35.4 5.3 22.6 4.9 33.8 8.4 25.8 8.7 34.5
Hungary 7.7 7.9 6.1 8.3 7.2 7.7 2.6 4.0 7.5 7.8 4.3 6.0
Iceland 2.2 4.5 3.9 7.9 2.3 5.0 2.1 7.3 2.2 4.7 3.0 7.6
Ireland 4.0 8.6 5.8 12.7 4.6 13.0 6.0 14.2 4.3 11.0 5.9 13.5
Israel 8.6 .. 6.8 .. 7.1 .. 6.3 .. 7.8 .. 6.5 ..
Italy 7.6 13.3 11.4 17.4 4.9 11.6 5.3 15.6 6.0 12.3 7.9 16.4
Japan .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Korea .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Luxembourg 4.4 4.0 5.1 7.3 3.0 4.7 4.3 7.1 3.6 4.4 4.6 7.2
Mexico 4.2 5.0 10.7 6.1 3.6 5.0 4.1 7.2 3.8 5.0 6.2 6.8
Netherlands 3.6 5.9 7.7 11.8 2.7 6.3 7.5 12.2 3.1 6.1 7.6 12.0
New Zealand 3.8 6.5 5.0 7.5 3.5 5.3 3.5 5.2 3.6 5.9 4.2 6.3
Norway 2.3 2.5 4.0 8.3 2.3 3.2 6.1 7.6 2.3 2.9 5.1 7.9
Poland 10.4 9.7 9.2 14.8 9.1 8.6 9.5 9.8 9.7 9.1 9.4 12.1
Portugal 9.9 14.6 12.1 16.7 7.0 13.9 7.3 17.2 8.4 14.2 9.6 16.9
Slovak Republic 12.7 13.7 5.9 9.1 9.9 12.9 7.7 6.0 11.2 13.3 6.8 7.4
Slovenia 5.8 10.3 7.8 15.7 4.1 8.9 4.0 11.1 4.9 9.6 5.7 13.0
Spain 10.5 24.1 12.6 32.6 6.0 21.8 8.3 34.0 7.9 22.8 10.3 33.3
Sweden 5.5 5.9 12.6 16.2 5.1 6.6 11.7 16.6 5.3 6.2 12.1 16.4
Switzerland 3.2 3.3 8.8 8.3 2.0 3.4 5.8 7.1 2.6 3.3 7.1 7.7
Turkey .. 12.0 .. 14.7 .. 9.2 .. 10.5 .. 10.0 .. 12.0
United Kingdom 4.5 5.5 8.6 8.2 5.4 6.6 6.9 6.1 5.0 6.1 7.6 7.1
United States 4.6 6.1 4.7 6.6 5.1 6.8 4.1 5.1 4.9 6.5 4.4 5.8
EU 28 7.4 9.8 11.4 15.2 6.2 9.7 8.6 14.6 6.8 9.8 9.9 14.9
OECD .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Brazil .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
China .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
India .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Indonesia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Russian Federation .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
South Africa .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933336406
Gap in unemployment rates between foreign- and native-born populations

Percentage points, 2014
12
10
Foreign-born have higher unemployment rates than native-born.
8
-2
-4 Foreign-born have lower unemployment rates than native-born.

-6
-8
1 2 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933335247

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
method is therefore not applicable in such cases, but is useful in
water examination.
Electrolytic Reactions.—Solutions of lead are easily
electrolyzed, and give a precipitate of lead at the cathode;
simultaneously the peroxide is produced at the anode, and the
reaction is acid. In nitric acid solutions Riche pointed out that the
whole of the lead is carried to the anode, and this is the reaction
made use of in the determination of lead present in the urine (see p.
172).
The presence of copper in an electrolyte regulates the
precipitation of lead oxide, copper alone being deposited at the
cathode, and at the same time the presence of a small quantity of
copper promotes the destruction of organic materials.
REFERENCES.
[1] Pliny: lxxxiii., 11, N.c.v.
[2] Stockhusen: De Litharg. Fumo, etc. Goslar, 1656.
[3] Tronchin: De Colica Pictonum. 1758.
[4] John Hunter: Observations of Diseases of the Army in Jamaica.
London, 1788.
[5] Meillère, G.: Le Saturnisme. Paris, 1903.
[6] Bisserie: Bull. Soc. Pharmacol. May, 1900.
[7] Houston: Local Government Board Annual Report, 1901-02,
supplement, vol. ii.
CHAPTER II
ÆTIOLOGY
Lead poisoning of industrial origin rarely occurs in the acute form.
Practically all cases coming under the notice of either appointed surgeons,
certifying surgeons, or even in the wards of general hospitals, are of the
subacute or chronic type. There is no reason to suppose that lead
compounds are used more frequently by the workers in lead industries as
abortifacients than by other persons.
The compounds of lead which are responsible for poisoning in industrial
processes are for the most part the hydrated carbonate, or white lead, and
the oxides of lead, whilst a comparatively small number of cases owe their
origin to compounds, such as chromates and chlorides.
The poisonous nature of any lead compound from an industrial point of
view is proportional to (1) the size of the ultimate particles of the substance
manufactured, and therefore the ease with which such particles are capable
of dissemination in the air; and (2) the solubility of the particles in the normal
fluids of the body, such as the saliva, pharyngeal and tracheal and bronchial
mucus, etc., and the fluids of the stomach and intestine. An instance of the
variation in size of the particles of lead compounds used industrially is the
difference between ground lead silicate (fritted lead) used in the potteries,
and the size of the particles of ordinary white or “raw” lead. By micrometric
measurements one of us [K. W. G.[1]] found the average size of the particles
of fritt to be ten times that of the white lead particles. Further, direct
experiment made with equal masses of the two compounds in such a manner
that the rate of settling of the dust arising could be directly compared in a
beam of parallel light showed presence of dust in the white lead chamber
fifteen minutes after the fritt chamber was entirely clear. It is found as a matter
of practice that where dust is especially created, and where it is difficult to
remove such dust by exhaust fans, the greatest incidence of lead poisoning
occurs. The association of dusty processes and incidence of lead poisoning is
discussed in relation to the various trades in Chapters XV. to XVII. Fume and
vapour given off from the molten metal or compounds, such as chlorides
(tinning), are only a special case of dust.
The channels through which lead or its compounds may gain entrance to
the animal body are theoretically three in number:
1. Respiratory tract.
2. Gastro-intestinal.
3. Cutaneous.
For many years most authorities have held that industrial poisoning by
means of compounds of lead takes place directly through the alimentary
canal, and that the poison is conveyed to the mouth mainly by unwashed
hands, by food contaminated with lead dust, and by lead dust suspended in
the air becoming deposited upon the mucous membrane of the mouth and
pharynx, and then swallowed. As evidence that lead dust is swallowed, the
classical symptom of colic in lead poisoning has been adduced, on the
supposition, in the absence of any experimental proof, that the lead
swallowed acted as an irritant on the gastro-intestinal canal, thus causing
colic, and, on absorption from the canal, setting up other general symptoms.
Much of the early treatment of lead poisoning is based upon this assumption,
and the administration of sulphuric acid lemonade and the exhibition of
sulphate of magnesia and other similar compounds as treatment is further
evidence of the view that the poisoning was considered primarily intestinal.
One of the chief objections to this view, apart from the experimental
evidence, is that in those trades where metallic lead is handled, particularly
lead rolling, very few hygienic precautions have ever been taken in regard to
washing before meals, smoking, etc. Although in these trades the hands
become coated with a lead compound (oleate), and the workers frequently
eat their food with unwashed hands, thus affording every opportunity for the
ingestion of lead, the incidence of poisoning is by no means as high or so
pronounced in these occupations as in those giving rise to lead dust, such as
the white lead industry, where special precautions are taken, and where the
incidence of poisoning is always related to the dust breathed.
Respiratory Tract.—In a report on the incidence of lead poisoning in the
manufacture of paints and colours, one of us [T. M. L.[2]] in 1902 laid stress on
the marked incidence of poisoning in the specially dusty lead processes.
Following on that report special attention was given to the removal of dust by
means of exhaust ventilation. With the introduction of precautionary
measures, the incidence of poisoning underwent a marked decrease, this
decrease being most definite in those industries where efficient exhaust
ventilation could be maintained (see p. 47). Experience shows that cases of
poisoning in any given trade or manufacturing process are always referable to
the operations which cause the greatest amount of dust, and where,
therefore, the opportunity of inhaling lead dust is greatest.
The investigations of Duckering[3], referred to on p. 203, show the amount
of dust present in the air in certain dangerous processes. His results clinch
the deductions made from general observation, that dusty processes are
those especially related to incidence of industrial poisoning. Ætiologically,
therefore, the relationship of dust-contaminated air and poisoning is
undeniable, and in not a few instances on record persons residing at a
distance from a lead factory have developed poisoning, although not
employed in any occupation involving contact with lead, aerial infection
through dust remaining the only explanation. The actual channel through
which the lead dust suspended in the air gains entrance to the body is,
therefore, of especial importance; one of two channels is open—gastro-
intestinal and respiratory.
The investigations of one of us (K. W. G.) on the experimental production of
lead poisoning in animals has shown conclusively that the dust inhaled was
far more dangerous, and produced symptoms far earlier than did the direct
ingestion of a very much larger quantity of the same compound by way of the
mouth and gastro-intestinal canal. There is no doubt whatever that the chief
agent in causing lead poisoning is dust or fume suspended in the air. That a
certain amount finds its way into the stomach direct is not denied, but from
experimental evidence we consider the lung rather than the stomach to be
the chief channel through which absorption takes place (see p. 81).
The following table gives a specific instance of the incidence of lead
poisoning in a white lead factory, and demonstrates clearly the ætiological
importance of dust. The increase in reported cases, as well as in symptoms
of lead absorption not sufficiently severe to prevent the individual from
following his usual occupation, was associated with the rebuilding of a portion
of the factory in which the packing of dry white lead had been carried on for a
large number of years. The alterations necessitated the removal of several
floors, all of which were thoroughly impregnated with lead dust. Before the
alterations were undertaken it was recognized that considerable danger
would arise; stringent precautions were therefore taken, and the hands
engaged in the alterations kept under special observation. Notwithstanding
this there was an increase in the number of reported cases, which were all
mild cases of colic; all recovered, and were able to return to their work in a
short time.
Table I.—Lead Poisoning in a White Lead Factory.
The figures refer to the weekly examination of the whole of the men. For example, if a man
was returned as suffering from anæmia on three occasions, he appears as three cases in
Column 7.
Year Total Total Cases Cases Cases of Cases of Cases of Blue Line
Number Cases of in Dusty in Other Suspen- Anæmia Tremor
of Poisoning Processes Processes sion
Exami-
nations
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
1905 5,464 9 8 1 20 78[B] 249[B] 311[B]
1906 [A] 5,096 18 16 2 9 256 215 532
1907 4,303 4 3 1 6 62 81 38
1908 3,965 4 3 1 5 40 25 11
[A] Structural alterations in progress, including cutting up “lead floor,” saturated with
white lead dust.
[B] These numbers for the half-year only, the inspection being taken over in June,
1905.
Meillère[4] goes to considerable trouble to show that absorption of lead dust

by the lung is hypothetical; that it may take place, but that it is not a channel
of absorption of practical importance. He cites a number of opinions and
experiments by various observers on the absorption of lead through the
mucous membrane of the mouth, alimentary canal, conjunctiva, etc., and he
regards the absorption of lead as one peculiarly confined, in the majority of
instances, to the intestinal canal.
The usual view is that, in the passage of the respired dust-laden air through
the nose, the larger particles of dust are deposited first of all upon the
mucous membrane in the interior chambers of the nose; further, a second
deposit takes place on the posterior wall of the pharynx and in the throat,
where the eddies produced by the current of air inhaled through the nostrils
allow the finer particles to become more easily deposited. Finally, should a
small trace gain access to the larynx, it is said to be deposited there upon the
mucous membrane, to be subsequently ejected, and only a very small
proportion of the total may ever find its way into the lung.
In all arduous labour, directly the respiration rate rises through extra calls
made upon the muscles of the body, an increase in the depth of respiration
takes place; yet even under these circumstances Meillère and others incline
to the view that the dust is deposited on the mucous surfaces of the mouth
and swallowed. Experimental evidence is entirely opposed to these
suppositions. In the first place, unless particles of dust readily find their way
into the lung, it is difficult to understand how the lung itself becomes the site
of so much deposit of carbon, and of flinty material in stonegrinder’s
pneumokoniosis. The staining of the lung by means of carbon particles,
particularly in dwellers in cities, is too well known to warrant more than a
passing reference. Moreover, experimental work has shown that fine powders
suspended in the air easily reach the lung. Armit[5] has shown that the nickel
in nickel carbonyl poisoning gains direct access to the lung, and becomes
deposited there, the metallic particles being readily demonstrated in the lung
tissue itself. Further, the experiments (see p. 84) demonstrate that white lead
dust and other forms of lead dust definitely gain access to the lung, and thus
inhaled produce all the symptoms of lead poisoning in animals subjected to
the inhalation. White lead, litharge, or red lead, are not easily suspended in
water, and long-continued mixing is necessary to make a suspension. Great
difficulty is found in “laying” lead dust by water, as the following experiment
demonstrates: Five wash-bottles are arranged in series; in the first ground dry
white lead is placed, and the other three bottles are filled with water, and a
tube laid under the surface of the water in such a way that the air from the
first bottle must pass the whole of the water seals in each subsequent bottle.
In the last bottle is dilute nitric acid saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen. If
the series is now attached to an aspirating jar, and air drawn slowly over at
the rate of ordinary respiration, the white lead powder in the first bottle being
at the same time shaken so that the air is fully charged with finely powdered
dust, lead is quickly detected in the air passing through the last bottle of the
series, by the darkening of the solution. In this way the presence of lead dust
has been demonstrated after passing through four 2-inch water seals and 8
feet of ¹⁄₄-inch wet rubber tubing. Such an experiment negatives the theory
that all, or even a large quantity, of a finely divided powder becomes
deposited on the upper portion of the respiratory tract.
Particles of lead present in the air in industrial processes are exceedingly
minute, and even in ground white lead the average size of the particle is
under 1 μ. Finally, Tanquerel[6] and Stanski[7] succeeded in producing lead
poisoning experimentally by blowing lead dust through a tube inserted in a
tracheotomy opening. There remains, therefore, no room for doubt that the
lung is the pre-eminent portal for lead absorption, particularly in industrial
processes; from which it follows, as has been extensively shown in actual
practice, that the diminution of dust in workshops and factories by means of
exhaust ventilation is invariably followed by a diminution in the number of
cases of plumbism.
Gastro-Intestinal.—We have dealt with absorption by way of the lung,
and have insisted that such inhalation of dust is of greater importance in
giving rise to industrial lead poisoning than gastro-intestinal absorption.
Gastro-intestinal absorption can take place, and is by no means negligible, in
ordinary industrial conditions. One of the most interesting and important
confirmatory evidences of the absorption of lead by the gastro-intestinal canal
is to be found in the large outbreaks of poisoning in which water-supplies
have been contaminated, either at their source or locally. We have already
seen that electrolysis may play an important part in the solution of lead in
water, and also learnt from Gautier[8] that the carbon dioxide content of water
is not necessarily the sole predisposing element in the solution of lead. In this
connection an important case is described by Thresh[9], where water by no
means soft, but holding some 30 degrees of hardness, produced lead
poisoning in an isolated family. The water in question was distinctly acid to
litmus-paper, and contained a very high percentage of nitrates; the compound
or salt of lead present was therefore one easily absorbed from the alimentary
canal (see p. 86).
In all instances of water-borne lead poisoning the amount of lead present in
the water was small; but as such lead would not be removed by boiling, the
amount of water consumed per person from the contaminated source was
probably large. As the signs of poisoning did not appear until a considerable
time had elapsed, a much larger quantity of lead was probably absorbed than
would appear from the simple statement that the water contained ¹⁄₁₀ grain
per gallon.
A number of cases have been reported from use of diachylon as an
abortifacient, and the symptoms in these cases are invariably those which
occur in other severe forms of poisoning such as are met with in industrial
processes. In nearly every case colic was the first symptom, followed later by
paresis of various types—amaurosis, albuminuria, albuminuric retinitis,
melancholia, encephalopathy—and not a few of the persons succumbed. In
most of the reported cases abortion was produced, but in some, particularly in
one[10], three dozen pills containing diachylon were taken in a month,
producing acute lead poisoning, colic, and paresis, but not abortion.
In fifteen recorded cases of the use of diachylon, fourteen showed a lead
line, in many cases distinct and broad. This point has considerable interest,
as such a line cannot have been produced by oral contact. The drug in the
form of pills would be rapidly swallowed, and little opportunity afforded for
particles to remain in the mouth. Its presence, therefore, suggests excretion
from circulating blood of lead which has been absorbed in the intestine. The
blue line will be referred to again later (see p. 122).
Practically all cases of water poisoning and of swallowing of lead
compounds have developed colic. Further, colic is cited in all the early
recorded cases, even in the very earliest cases referred to in the historical
note, of lead poisoning; and as poisoning in those cases had invariably taken
place by swallowing the drug, it may be presumed from this association has
arisen the belief that lead must be swallowed to produce gastro-intestinal
symptoms. No attention has been paid to the fact that a few cases of definite
cutaneous absorption of lead from the use of hair lotions have been followed
by colic. Gastro-intestinal symptoms, therefore, can be produced without the
direct ingestion of the drug, and colic is a symptom of generalized blood-
infection rather than a localized irritative action on the intestinal mucosa. This
question, again, is more related to pathology than ætiology, and is dealt with
in that section. But mention may be made here of the fact that a number of
observers, more lately Meillère, have laid it down as an axiom that
experimental production of lead poisoning in animals gives no criterion or
evidence of lead poisoning produced in man industrially. Very grave exception
must be taken at once to such a statement. In the majority of experiments
quoted by Meillère the quantity of lead given for experimental purposes has
been large—much larger, indeed, than is necessary to produce small and
characteristic effects—and instead of chronic poisoning an acute lead
poisoning has generally been set up; and even where chronic poisoning has
supervened, the condition has as a rule been masked by the severer initial
symptoms. On the other hand, the evidence to be derived from comparison of
the various observations from animal experiments brings out with remarkable
unanimity the similarity of the symptoms to those produced in man, and, as
will be seen later in the section devoted to Pathology, experiments by one of
us (K. W. G.) have so far confirmed this surmise; in fact, a description of a
case of encephalopathy coming on after lead poisoning of a chronic nature,
described by Mott, agrees in practically every particular with the train of
symptoms as observed in these experimental animals. Certain slight
differences as to the muscles first affected are observed, but it is practically
always the homologous muscle (the physiological action of which more nearly
resembles the human muscle) which is the one to be affected in the animal,
not the anatomical homologue. Thus, for instance, in the cat the spinal
muscles, and particularly the quadriceps extensor, is the muscle which is first
affected through the medium of the anterior crural nerve. This extensor
muscle is one which only performs a slight amount of work in extending the
knee-joint, the amount of work being, however, disproportionate to the size of
the muscle. The extensors of the fore-feet ultimately do become weakened,
but it is the hind-limb upon which the stress first falls.
Attention has been given to the solubility of lead salts in gastric juices, the
majority of such experiments having been performed with artificial gastric
juice. The method at present in use, prescribed by the amended rules of
August, 1900, for earthenware and china factories, is based on some, if
slight, consideration of the physiology of digestion. The method described by
Rule II. states that the estimation of the quantity of lead present in the lead
fritt shall be performed as follows:
A weighed quantity of dry material is to be continuously shaken for one
hour at room temperature with one thousand times its weight of an aqueous
solution of hydrochloric acid, containing 0·25 per cent. of HCl. This solution is
thereafter to be allowed to stand for one hour, and to be passed through a
filter. The lead salt contained in a portion of the clear filter is then to be
precipitated as lead sulphide, and weighed as lead sulphate.
This method has been adopted on the supposition that the solubility of a
lead salt in the gastric juices is the chief source of the lead poisoning in the
Potteries, and that the hydrochloric acid content of the solution determines,
for practical purposes, the quantity of lead dissolved out of a given sample.
The temperature, however, at which this estimation is made—namely, room
temperature—is one considerably lower than that of the body, and the
quantity of lead taken up into solution at this temperature is less than that
which occurs at the ordinary temperature of the body—37° C. Practically
twice as much lead is dissolved out of fritt at 37° C. for an hour as is rendered
soluble at the ordinary temperature of the room—about 15° C. Thomason[11],
who made some experiments in this direction, gives a figure of 2·35 lead
oxide dissolved at 15° C. and 4·54 at 37° C. In another estimation—a matter,
too, of some considerable importance—it was found that acetic acid dissolved
1·97 per cent, at 15° C., and 3·27 at 37° C. In lactic acid the figure was 2·28
at 15° C., and 3·53 at 37° C. It is therefore a low estimation of the solubility of
any substance by the gastric juices if the substance is operated on at a
temperature below that of the body.
The question of the solubility of a lead salt in the gastric contents is
important in view of the small quantities of dust swallowed; and in addition to
hydrochloric acid, other substances are also present in the gastric juice,
which is by no means a simple aqueous solution of the mineral acid. Further,
the gastric juice, except in cases of pathological type, is not acid in periods of
gastric rest, unless such acidity may be represented by the presence of
fermentative acids—acetic, lactic, and butyric.
The activity of the gastric juice on lead is directly caused by the quantity of
organic acids present in addition to the hydrochloric acid, and by the
presence of foodstuffs—(1) in the undigested and (2) in the semidigested
condition. In considering the absorption of lead products from the gastro-
intestinal canal, the normal digestive processes should not be lost sight of—
that is, the sequence of events which occur during digestion of food. On
swallowing food, no definite acidity is present in the stomach for fifteen to
twenty minutes, and even after that time the hydrochloric acid is only
commencing to be secreted. As digestion proceeds, and the whole mass
becomes partially dissolved, such portions as are in a soluble condition are
passed through the pyloric opening at intervals, and the whole contents of the
stomach do not pass straight through the pyloric opening as through an
ordinary straight drain-pipe. As each mass of food passes onwards through
the pylorus, it comes into contact in the duodenum with pancreatic juice, and
with the bile, these alkaline fluids rapidly change the reaction, and allow the
other ferments, trypsin, etc., to become active. As the mass proceeds
onwards through the intestine, the succus entericus also exerts its function.
Finally the fluid contents of the intestine are passed onwards through the ileo-
cæcal valve. During the passage from the pylorus to the ileo-cæcal valve, the
reaction of the intestinal contents undergoes variations, from an alkaline in
the duodenum or upper parts of the jejunum, to acid at the ileo-cæcal valve.
Practically no absorption takes place from the stomach itself; a small quantity
of water and such highly volatile fluids as alcohol may be absorbed, but the
main absorption is not commenced until the food has left the stomach; in fact,
the stomach contains no mechanism for food absorption. The work of
absorption of the products of digestion is carried on actively through the small
intestine until finally the materials have reached the large intestine through
the ileo-cæcal valve; water is then mainly absorbed, and albuminous fluids
and substances in solution to some extent, but the amount of absorption
which takes place is infinitesimal as compared with that of the small intestine.
These points in the physiology of digestion require to be taken into account
when discussing the absorption of lead salts in the gastro-intestinal canal.
When human gastric juice is obtained direct from the stomach in man, and
lead is submitted to its action, definite quantities of lead pass into solution;
and, curiously enough, in the normal gastric juice lead sulphate is as soluble
as both white lead and litharge. The following two tables give the results of
the estimation of the direct action of human gastric juice upon lead. The
particular point is that the juice was obtained by the stomach tube from
persons who had been given a simple test meal preceded by a twelve hours’
fast; the juice was therefore in a normal condition. The tests gave the
following results in the normal stomach:
Lead sulphate 0·080 per cent.
White lead 0·048 „
Litharge 0·040 „
In the second digestion, in which the analysis of the contents showed the
patient to be suffering from the condition known as “hyperhydrochloridia,” the
results were—
Lead sulphate 0·046 per cent.
White lead 0·042 „
Litharge 0·340 „
A very large number of experiments have also been performed for the
purpose of determining the solubility of raw lead glaze, and white lead, in
artificial digestions, the digestions having been made up in such a way that
they resembled as far as possible in every particular the ordinary stomach
contents. The type of digestion used was as follows:
Dry breadcrumbs 140 grammes.
Hydrochloric acid 5 c.c.
Lactic acid 0·1 c.c.
Acetic acid 0·1 c.c.
Pepsin 1·2 grammes.
Milk 1,200 c.c.
Digestions were performed with this mixture, and in every case the digest
was divided into two portions; each portion was retained at body temperature,
with agitation for a couple of hours, and at the end of that time one portion
was submitted to analysis. The second portion was neutralized, sodium
carbonate and pancreatic ferment added, and digestion carried on for another
two and a half hours at body temperature. At the end of this time the
pancreatic digest was examined.
Thirty-five digestions were performed. When 1 gramme of white lead was
used—that is, 0·01 per cent., containing 0·75 per cent. of lead oxide—the
quantity of lead found as lead oxide in the acid digest varied from 2 to 3 per
cent., whilst the amount found in the pancreatic digest varied from 4 to 6·5
per cent. of the added salt. On increasing the amount to 12 grammes—that
is, 1 per cent.—the quantity returned in the digest only increased from 1·5 to
2 per cent. In other words, in the addition of larger quantities of material the
ratio of solubility did not rise in proportion to the quantity added. Where a
direct pancreatic digestion was performed without the preliminary digest of
the gastric contents, the amount of lead present in the digest was only about
0·2 per cent. of the quantity added; indeed, it was very much smaller than the
amount dissolved out after preliminary acid digestion—that is, if the normal
sequence of digestion is followed, the solubility progresses after the gastric
digest has been neutralized and pancreatic ferment has been added,
whereas very slow action indeed occurs as the result of action of the
pancreatic digest alone. Some experiments described by Thomason[12],
although carried out without special regard to the physiological question of
the progressive nature of digestion, distinctly confirm the point raised. Thus,
in a digest of gastric juice, milk, and bread, 5·0 per cent. of lead was
dissolved, whereas when pancreatic juice alone was used only 0·4 per cent.
was found to be dissolved, a remarkable confirmation of the point under
discussion.
The difficulty of estimating lead present in these gastric digestions is a very
real one, as, owing to the precipitation of lead by various fluids of an
albuminoid nature, it is difficult to determine the amount of lead present in a
given quantity of digest; moreover, in making such a digest, much of the
material may become entangled among the clot of the milk in a purely
mechanical fashion, and, in attempting to separate the fluid from the other
portion of the digest, filtration no doubt removes any lead which has been
rendered soluble first of all, and reprecipitated as an albuminate. An
albuminate of lead may be formed with great ease in the following way: A 5
per cent. solution of albumin in normal saline is taken, 0·02 per cent. of
hydrochloric acid is added, and 10 per cent. solution of lead chloride added
as long as a precipitate is formed. The precipitate is then filtered off, and
washed in a dialyser with acidulated water until no further trace of lead is
found in the washings. A portion of this substance taken up in distilled water
forms a solution of an opalescent nature, which readily passes through the
filter and gives the reaction of protein with Millon’s reagent, and the lead
reaction by means of caustic potash and sulphuretted hydrogen, but very
large quantities of mineral acid are required to produce any colour with
hydrogen sulphide. Lead which gains access to the stomach, either dissolved
in water or swallowed as fine dust, becomes in all probability converted first
into a soluble substance, chloride, acetate, or lactate, which compound is
then precipitated either by the mucin present in the stomach, or by the protein
constituents of the food, or by the partially digested food (peptonate of lead
may be formed in the same way as the albuminate described above). In this
form, or as an albuminate or other organic compound, it passes the pylorus,
and becomes reprecipitated and redigested through the action of the
pancreatic juice. A consideration of the action of artificial gastric juices and
the properly combined experiments of gastric and pancreatic digestions
suggest that the form in which lead becomes absorbed is not a chloride, but
an organic compound first formed and gradually decomposed during the
normal process of digestion, and absorbed in this manner from the intestine
along with the ordinary constituents of food. Dixon Mann[13] has shown that
about two-thirds of the lead administered by the mouth is discharged in the
fæces, and that the remaining one-third is also slowly but only partially
eliminated. This point is of very considerable importance in relation to
industrial poisoning of presumably gastro-intestinal origin, and consideration
of the experiments quoted suggests that the digestion of albuminate or
peptonate may to some extent be the basis which determines the excretion of
so much of the lead via the fæces. This alteration of solubility has no doubt a
bearing on the immunity exhibited by many animals when fed with lead, and
probably explains the fact that many of the experimental animals fed with lead
over long periods exhibited no symptoms of poisoning (see p. 85), whereas
control animals, given a far smaller quantity of lead by other means and
through the lung, rapidly developed symptoms of poisoning. A diversity of
opinion exists as to the effect of pepsin upon the solubility of lead. Oliver[14]
considers that the pepsin has a retarding influence on the solubility of lead in
the gastric juice, and Thomason’s experiments also support this view,
although it is difficult to see why the action of pepsin alone should be of such
extreme importance. There is also the complicating fact that other added
substances in the food may mask any direct pepsin factor that may be
present. Albumose and peptone rather than pepsin are to be regarded as the
more important substance physiologically in their reaction with lead, and it is
interesting to note that Schicksal[15] found that by exposing lead in the form of
white lead in a 1 per mille solution of hydrochloric acid in the presence of
peptone produced a greater solvent effect on white lead than did the diluted
acid alone, and the same effect was also seen on metallic lead.
Table II.—Schicksal’s Table.
Amount
dissolved
returned
as
Metallic
Solution. Substance. Time. Lead.
(a) 1·0 per cent. peptone 100 White lead, 10 3 days at 37°
- 0·1471 grm.
0·1 per cent. HCl c.c. grms. C.
(b) 1·0 per cent. peptone 100 Metallic lead, 4

- „ 0·0330 „
0·1 per cent. HCl c.c. grms.
(c) 0·1 per cent. HCl, 100 White lead, 10
0·0983 „
c.c. grms.
(d) 0·1 per cent. HCl, 100 Metallic lead, 4
0·0194 „
c.c. grms.
(e) Metallic lead, 4
0·3 per cent. Na2CO3 None
grms.
(f) 0·3 per cent. Na2CO3 White lead „
(g) 0·3 per cent. Na2CO3
- White lead „
0·5 per cent. NaCl
(h) 0·3 per cent. Na2CO3

- Metallic lead „
0·5 per cent. NaCl
The experiments referred to on p. 18 undoubtedly agree with those of

Schicksal. In addition to the presence of peptones, the effect of carbonic acid
must be also considered, as increase in solubility in gastric and pancreatic
digestions was produced when carbonic acid gas was bubbled through the
digest during the period of action. The whole question of solubility of many
materials in the fluids of the stomach and intestinal canal requires entire
revision, not only as regards lead, but as regards a number of other metals,
including arsenic.
The Mechanism of Lead Absorption.
—The final method of absorption of lead particles or lead solution into the
animal body remains to be considered. Experimental phagocytosis of lead
particles—as, indeed, of any minute particles of substance—suspended in an
isotonic solution, may be observed directly under the microscope. Lead
particles show no exception to the rule, and white blood-corpuscles in a
hanging-drop preparation, made by suspending them in an isotonic salt
solution and serum, may be watched englobing particles of lead, and by
appropriate means the ingested lead may be afterwards demonstrated. In
such an experiment, much of the lead absorbed by the individual corpuscles
rapidly loses its property of giving a black precipitate with sulphuretted
hydrogen, and has apparently become converted into an organic compound,
peptonate or albuminate.
In the section devoted to the Chemistry of Lead, it has been noted that the
colloidal solutions of lead are not precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen, and
that albuminates and peptonates of lead are presumably of colloidal form.
There seems evidence, therefore, that the direct absorption of lead takes
place by means of the phagocytes of the body, and that in them it becomes
converted into a colloidal form, in which it is probably eliminated through the
kidney and intestine, mainly the latter.
Further evidence of the englobement of lead particles by amœbic cells may
be gained if sections of the intestines of experimental animals are examined;
in the lymphoid glands particles of lead may be seen situated in the interior of
the walls, and even in the cells. It does not by any means follow that these
particles of lead sulphide present in the cells have been formed in situ; more
probably the lead has been converted into a sulphide in the intestinal lumen
itself, and subsequently taken up by the amœbic cells situated in its
periphery.
Another solution is possible—namely, that the particles seen in the
intestinal wall are particles of lead in process of excretion into the intestine
itself, and that the pigmentation of the vessel walls and cells is caused by the
staining of the particles of lead passing from the blood into the lumen of the
tube, which have been converted into a sulphide during their passage.
The localization of the staining in the large intestine, especially in the region
of the appendix in animals (cats), tends to support this theory. The large
bowel near the ileo-cæcal valve, the appendix, and even the glands in the
immediate neighbourhood, are found to be discoloured, and to contain lead in
larger quantities than any other portion of the intestine. In extreme cases the
whole of the large intestine may be stained a greyish-blue. The bloodvessels
in the mesentery in this region are also engorged. When, however, a salt of
lead, such as lead carbonate or lead oxide, gains access to the stomach, it
may be easily converted into chloride by the free hydrochloric acid present in
the stomach; and, in addition, should there be any chronic acid-dyspepsia
(hyperchlorhydria), particularly of the fermentative type, in which free lactic
acid and other organic acids are to be found within the viscus, small
quantities of lead swallowed as dust undergo solution and conversion into
chloride or lactate. The pouring out of acid gastric juice from the stomach
glands does not take place immediately after the first bolus of food is
swallowed, and it may be twenty minutes or half an hour before the gastric
contents have an acid reaction. During this time any lead salts previously
swallowed may become incorporated with the bolus of food and escape
absorption.
Lead in solution or suspension in the stomach which becomes mixed up
with the food, and at the same time subjected to the action of various
albuminous constituents of the food in addition to acids, causes an
albuminate or peptonate of lead to be easily formed, and as such can never
be absorbed from the stomach direct; practically no absorption takes place in
the stomach, and the presence of food containing albuminate precipitates any
lead in solution as an organic insoluble salt. The bolus of food impregnated
with small quantities of lead passes onwards to the intestine, where further
digestion takes place. As the mass passes through the intestine the action
gradually results in the reappearance of acidity, but at the same time a certain
quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen is produced, some of it from the
degradation of the sulphur-containing moiety of the protein molecule by
ordinary hydrolytic process and intestinal ferments, quite apart from any
bacterial action. A portion of the lead present in the chyme may be set free
again for absorption. The bile is said to assist in the solution of lead in vitro.
In experiments made by one of us, which are quoted later, it has been
shown that an isolated loop of intestine allows the absorption of a soluble
lead salt (chloride) when there is no food present in the loop. As the food
mass proceeds through the length of the intestine more and more sulphur is
set free, and an opportunity arises for the fixation of the lead as a sulphide,
but even as a sulphide it is slightly soluble. Probably, however, most of the
lead becomes absorbed long before it reaches the stage at which free
sulphur or sulphuretted hydrogen exists for the formation of sulphide. It is
highly probable that lead, in common with a number of other heavy metals,
including arsenic, is absorbed gradually in the upper part of the intestine, and
re-excreted in the lower. Such an hypothesis is undoubtedly strongly
supported by the remarkable staining of the large intestine and the ileo-cæcal
valve.
The exact mechanism of the absorption of lead from its compound with
albumin or peptone as a lead peptonate or albuminate is very difficult to state
at present; lead albuminate is undoubtedly insoluble in water or normal saline
and in albumin. The process of absorption, then, of the metal lead from the
gastro-intestinal canal is very closely related to the absorption of other heavy
metals, and the fact that animals after very large doses of lead salts
administered via the mouth show hæmorrhages in the intestinal wall, in
addition to hæmorrhages in other parts of the body, with occasional distinct
ulceration, suggests a localized coagulative action on the vessels in the wall
of the intestine as the probable origin of the ulceration. A consideration of this
problem of lead absorption from the intestine—probably only the minutest
quantity of lead, if any, is absorbed from the stomach direct—is one of
considerable importance in the prevention of such lead poisoning as is
attributable to swallowing lead. No work in a lead factory should be
commenced in the morning without partaking of food, because if food be
present the opportunities for absorption of lead are greatly diminished, and of
all foods the one to be recommended as the most efficient is milk, or cocoa
made with milk.
The absorption of dust through the lung is probably an exceedingly
complicated reaction, and Armit’s experiments with nickel carbonyl probably
give the clue. He found that in nickel carbonyl poisoning the volatile product
was split up on the surface of the lung cells, the metallic portion passing
onwards into the lung itself, to be eventually absorbed by the serum.
From the pathological and histological investigations described on p. 81,
and from the fact that particles of lead are very readily taken up by white
blood-corpuscles, we can conclude that absorption of the finer lead particles
gaining access to the lung takes place through the medium of these
phagocyte cells, as such cells are well known to exist within the alveoli of the
lung. The stored-up carbon particles found in the lungs in dwellers in cities
show that such transference of particles from the alveoli to the inner portions
of the lung trabeculæ is a constant phenomenon, and it is therefore easily
understood how rapidly any fine particles not of themselves irritant may be
easily taken up by the tissues. Once having gained access to the interior of
the cells, the particles subjected to the action of the serum of the blood in the
ordinary process of bathing the tissues by the exuding lymph—nay, more,
actual particles of lead—may thus be actually transferred bodily into the finer
blood-spaces, and so be carried forward to the general circulation. Such
particles as remain fixed in the lung will undergo gradual absorption, and the
constant presence of carbonic acid in the circulating blood brought to the lung
undoubtedly largely contributes to their solution, and there is no need to
presuppose the necessity of some recondite interaction of organic acid for the
solution of the inhaled lead in the lungs.
In the absorption of the substance from the intestine, it may go direct into
the blood-stream in a similar fashion through the lacteals along the lymph
channels, and so into the thoracic duct, and finally into the general circulation.
On the other hand, a certain amount, probably not an inconsiderable portion,
is taken up by the portal circulation and transferred direct to the liver itself.
Chemical analysis of the liver supports this view, as does also the
considerable amount of stress thrown upon the liver when poisoning has
taken place from the intestinal canal on administration of massive doses of a
highly soluble lead compound. According to Steinberg[16], excretion of lead
takes place partly from the liver by the bile. This is probable, but there is no
experimental evidence at the present time to support the view. If such an
excretion does take place, the form in which the lead is excreted is probably
one in which it is no longer soluble by digestive action. On the other hand, it
may be in so soluble a form as to become reabsorbed from the intestine, thus
setting up a constant cycle. But such a theory is one that would require a
considerable amount of experimental evidence to support it before it could be
relied on.
There is no doubt that, however absorbed, lead remains stored up in the
body in minute quantities in many places, and the close analogy to arsenic is
met with in the curious elimination of the metal by the fæces. Cloetta[17],
quoted by Dixon Mann, discovered that, although dogs were unable to take a
larger dose of arsenic than 0·0035 gramme per day without exhibiting toxic
results, they could nevertheless take arsenic in much larger doses if it were
given in the solid form, and he was able to increase the dose to as much as 2
grammes per diem without showing any toxic symptoms. Examination of the
urine and fæces showed that as the amount of urinary excretion of arsenic
diminished, so that in the fæces increased, and in lead poisoning, even in
massive doses swallowed in error, the amount of lead excreted by the urine
rapidly diminishes in quantity, although the patient may be still suffering from
the effects of lead poisoning. The experiments, also, quoted on p. 100
constantly pointed to the elimination of lead by way of the intestine, and in
practically all the animals that had suffered from chronic poisoning well-
marked dark staining of the upper part of the cæcum due to lead was
invariably present. This staining and excretion of lead of the large intestine
undoubtedly takes place in man. In a case described by Little[18], where
diachylon had been administered, the administration of a large enema
containing sulphate of magnesium came away black. A more detailed result
of the experiments and a consideration of the elimination of lead are reserved
for another chapter, but it is impossible to consider the ætiology of the
disease without some reference to the general histological channels of
absorption and excretion.
Cutaneous Absorption of Lead.—A considerable amount of
controversy has centred on the question of the absorption of lead through the
unbroken skin. It has been shown that such drugs as belladonna applied to
the skin alone may produce dilatation of the pupil; an ointment containing
salicylic acid spread upon the skin and thoroughly rubbed in is followed by the
appearance of derivatives of salicylic acid in the urine; mercury may be
applied to the skin, and rubbed in, in sufficient quantities to produce
salivation; and a very large number of other drugs may be cited, all of which
when applied to the unbroken epidermis with friction produce the
physiological action of the drug.
There is no reason to exclude lead from the category of drugs which may
be absorbed through the medium of the skin, and, as several observers have
shown, animals may be poisoned by lead on applying a plaster of lead
acetate to the skin. Amongst these experiments may be quoted those of
Canuet[19] and Drouet[20] on rabbits. Some observers, among whom may be
mentioned Manouvrier[21], have attempted to prove that paralysis of the
hands occurs more often in the right hand in right-handed people, in the left
hand with left-handed people, and from the various experiments showing
absorption of lead through the unbroken skin they seek to connect the lesion
of the nerve with absorption direct through the skin of the hands.
Many objections can be urged against acceptance of this theory. Lead
workers who are constantly manipulating lead in a state of solution with bare
hands do not appear as a class to be more subject to wrist-drop than do
persons who are exposed to inhalation of fumes or dust of lead; in fact,
incidence of paralysis and of nerve lesions generally is more severe among
persons exposed to prolonged inhalation of minute quantities of lead through
the respiratory tract. The greater the exposure to dust, the greater the number
of cases of anæmia and colic, whilst in other industries, as has already been
stated, where lead exists as an oleate on the hands of the workers day in and
day out for many years, paralysis and even colic are of rare occurrence; in
other words, persons especially exposed to the absorption of lead through
their hands show a much smaller incidence of lead poisoning of all types than
do those exposed to lead dust. Further, the pathology of wrist-drop and
similar forms of paresis tends to show that the nerve supplying the affected
muscles is not affected primarily, but that the initial cause is hæmorrhage into
the sheath of the nerve, producing ultimate degenerative change. The
hæmorrhage, however, is the primary lesion.
REFERENCES.
[1] Goadby, K. W.: A Note on Experimental Lead Poisoning. Journal of Hygiene, vol.
ix., No. 1, April, 1909.
[2] Legge, T. M.: Report on the Manufacture of Paints and Colours containing Lead
(Cd. 2466). 1905.
[3] Duckering, G. E.: Journal of Hygiene, vol. viii., No. 4, September.
[4] Meillère, G.: Le Saturnisme, chap. iv. Paris, 1903.
[5] Armit, H. W.: Journal of Hygiene, vol. viii., No. 5, November, 1908.
[6] Tanquerel des Planches: Traité des Maladies de Plomb, ou Saturnines. Paris,
1839.
[7] Stanski: Loc. cit.
[8] Gautier: Intoxication Saturnine, etc. Académie de Médecine, viii., November,
1883.
[9] Thresh, J. C.: The Lancet, p. 1033, October 7, 1905.
[10] Ibid., January 5, 1909.
[11] Thomason: Report of the Departmental Committee on Lead Manufacture:
Earthenware, China, vol. ii., appendices, p. 61. 1910.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Dixon Mann: Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, p. 495. 1908.
[14] Oliver, Sir T.: Lead Poisoning (Goulstonian lectures). 1891.
[15] Schicksal: Die Bekämpfung der Bleigefahr in der Industrie, p. 38. 1908.
[16] Steinberg: International Congress of Industrial Hygiene. Brussels, 1910.
[17] Cloetta: Dixon Mann’s Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, p. 463.
[18] Little: The Lancet, March 3, 1906.
[19] Canuet, T.: Thèse, Paris, 1825, No. 202. Essai sur le Plomb.
[20] Drouet: Thèse, Paris, 1875. Recherches Experimentales sur le Rôle de
l’Absorption Cutanée dans la Paralysie Saturnine.
[21] Manouvrier, A.: Thèse, Paris, 1873, No. 471. Intoxication par Absorption
Cutanée.
CHAPTER III
SUSCEPTIBILITY AND IMMUNITY
A large number of poisonous substances, among which lead may
be included, are not equally poisonous in the same dose for all
persons. It is customary to speak of those persons who show a
diminished resistance, or whose tissues show little power of resisting
the poisonous effects of such substances, as susceptible. On the
other hand, it is possible, but not scientifically correct, to speak of
immunity to such poisonous substances. Persons, particularly, who
resist lead poisoning to a greater degree than their fellows are better
spoken of as tolerant of the poisonous effects than as being partially
immune.
The degree of resistance exhibited by any given population
towards the poisonous influence of lead shows considerable
variation. Thus, in a community using a water-supply contaminated
with lead, only a small proportion of the persons drinking the water
becomes poisoned. There are, of course, other factors than that of
individual idiosyncrasy which may determine the effect of the poison,
as, for example, the drawing of the water first thing in the morning
which has been standing in a particular pipe. But even if all
disturbing factors are eliminated in water-borne lead poisoning,
differing degrees of susceptibility are always to be observed among
the persons using the water.
Lead does not differ, therefore, from any other drugs to which
persons show marked idiosyncrasies. Thus, very small doses of
arsenic may produce symptoms of colic in susceptible persons; a
limited number of individuals are highly susceptible to some drugs,
such as cannabis indica, while others are able to ingest large doses
without exhibiting any sign of poisoning; and it is well known that
even in susceptible persons the quantity of a particular drug which
first produces symptoms of poisoning may be gradually increased, if
the dosage be continued over long periods in quantities insufficient

Textbook Oecd Factbook 2015 Economic Environmental and Social Statistics Oecd Ebook All Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Textbook Oecd Factbook 2015 Economic Environmental and Social Statistics Oecd Ebook All Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

OECD Factbook 2015 Economic

Environmental and Social Statistics

Oecd Economic Surveys Norway 2016 Edition 2016 Oecd

Society at a Glance OECD Social Indicators 2016

OECD FAO Agricultural Outlook 2016 2025 Edition 2016

National Accounts of OECD Countries, Volume 2019 Issue

OECD Skills Studies The Survey of Adult Skills Reader s

OECD Reviews Of Labour Market And Social Policies

Back to the Future of Education Four OECD Scenarios for

SME Policy Index Western Balkans and Turkey 2019 Oecd

trade health resources

education energy labour public transport

production science conversion

Please cite this publication as:

ISBN 978-92-64-23256-3 (print)

Corrigenda to OECD publications may be found on line at: www.oecd.org/publishing/corrigenda.

4 OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016

OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016 5

PRICES AND INTEREST RATES 86

6 OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016

OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016 7

Signs, abbreviations and acronyms

.. Missing value, not applicable or not available

8 OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016

AUS Australia JPN Japan DAC DAC total

Accessing OECD publications

OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016 9

The size and growth of a country’s population provides Comparability

12 OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016

Population growth rates

OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016 13

14 OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016

Total fertility rates

Total fertility rates

2013 or latest available year 1970 or first available year

OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016 15

16 OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016

2000 2014 Urban Intermediate Rural

OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016 17

ELDERLY POPULATION BY REGION

18 OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016

Regional elderly population

Maximum Country average Minimum

Elderly dependency rate in urban and rural regions

In urban regions Elderly dependency rate In rural regions

OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016 19

IMMIGRANT AND FOREIGN POPULATION

20 OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016

Foreign-born and foreign populations

Foreign-born population Foreign population Foreign-born nationals

2013 or latest available year 2000 or first available year

OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016 21

22 OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016

Permanent inflows by category of entry

Permanent inflows by category of entry

Work Free movements Accompanying family of workers Family Humanitarian Other

OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016 23

MIGRATION AND EMPLOYMENT

24 OECD FACTBOOK 2015-2016 © OECD 2016

Employment rates of native- and foreign-born population by educational attainment

Native-born Foreign-born Native-born Foreign-born

Gap in employment rates between foreign- and native-born population by educational

Low education level High education level