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Pediatric
Endocrinology
A Practical Clinical Guide
Third Edition
Sally Radovick
Madhusmita Misra
Editors
123
Pediatric Endocrinology
Sally Radovick
Madhusmita Misra
Editors
Pediatric
Endocrinology
A Practical Clinical Guide
Third Edition
Editors
Sally Radovick, MD Madhusmita Misra, MD, MPH
Department of Pediatrics Pediatric Endocrinology
Robert Wood Johnson Medical School Massachusetts General Hospital for
New Brunswick, NJ Children
USA Boston, MA
USA
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2003, 2013, 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the
whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting,
reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other
physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adapta-
tion, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter
developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in
this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and insti-
tutional affiliations.
I met Dr. MacGillivray in 1995 when she was president of the Pediatric Endocrine Soci-
ety. I believe she never sought to be a leader, but became one naturally through her
brilliance, compassion, patience, and selflessness. Her presidential address to the soci-
ety was inspirational as I was beginning my career. I got to know Margaret well as a
member of a prestigious grant review panel and little did I know that she had recom-
mended my membership. Her guidance was critical as I was beginning to develop my
academic reputation. In her gentle well-meaning, but somewhat blunt, way, she
asked me if I had considered the insecurity associated with my academic position and
whether the benefits were sufficient (which I had only cursorily considered). My salary
was being funded entirely by NIH grants, which were subject to the vagaries of federal
funding; I had 2 children and was married to a physician scientist. It was this discus-
sion that changed my career course. She asked me to consider “replacing her” (imag-
ine that) in Buffalo as she was thinking about stepping down as division director.
Unfortunately, this did not work out, but her “reality check” stayed with me as I made
my future career decisions. Twenty years later, I followed in her footsteps and was
elected president of the Pediatric Endocrine Society.
and relevant. Agreeing in principal, she gained the support of Humana Press and asked me to
co-edit the book with her. This was again an example of her mentorship, allowing me to share her
academic stature. Her main goal, reflected in the preface, was to encourage the senior author of
each chapter to include “a junior coauthor” as an opportunity to learn, to be mentored, and to give
the next generation recognition in the field. With this third edition, we continue her tradition of a
junior colleague as coauthor.
My relationship with Margaret has taught me most about the importance of mentorship. She
taught mentorship by example and never demanded of her mentees what she would not expect
of herself. She brilliantly mentored a generation of doctors with her characteristic compassion,
grace, wisdom, and clever sense of humor. She was and still is an inspiration to women who pur-
sue a career in medicine – very seldom looking backward to difficulties she had to endure as a
woman, rather looking always forward. Some women would be very angry and bitter, but she
always looked back on that as a challenge, and she overcame it. There were no role models or
mentors at the time. She broke the glass ceiling and became the role model. Although she was
dedicated to her roles as professor, clinician, and researcher, she was passionate about her role as
wife, mother, and grandmother.
She taught me that hard work, determination, refusal to give up when the going gets rough, and,
above all, sticking to one’s ideals make for a successful career and a contented life. Margaret was
a star. She didn’t just shine; she blazed.
In this spirit, I welcome Madhu Misra as a co-editor of the third edition. Dr. Misra is the Fritz Brad-
ley Talbot and Nathan Bill Talbot professor of pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, and division
chief of pediatric endocrinology at the Massachusetts General Hospital. Her clinical interests
include disorders of the pituitary gland and bone. Her research interests include the neuroendo-
crine and bone consequence of conditions that span the nutritional spectrum from anorexia ner-
vosa to exercise-induced amenorrhea to obesity and conditions such as autism spectrum disorder
and major depressive disorders.
Additionally, Dr. Misra is known for her successful mentorship of the next generation of pediatric
endocrinologists and her service to the field as exemplified by her distinguished service to the
Pediatric Endocrine Society.
Sally Radovick, MD
VII
Preface
We welcome you to the third edition of view of recent progress on the mechanism
Pediatric Endocrinology: A Practical Clini- involved; (4) a discussion of the etiology
cal Guide. The aim of this edition remains and clinical features that characterize each
similar to the previous: to provide practi- condition; (5) a delineation of the criteria
cal detailed and concise guidelines for the used to establish a diagnosis; (6) a therapy
clinical management of pediatric endo- section which comprehensively reviews
crine diseases and disorders. Thus, the the options available and the risks and
audience includes pediatric endocrinolo- benefits of each approach corroborated by
gists, pediatricians, and primary care phy- clinical trial and outcome data, includes
sicians who provide medical care for information on the long-term safety and
children and adolescents. efficacy of the treatment modality, and
cites guidelines when available; (7) where
The scope of the text continues to include relevant, a discussion of psychosocial and
the most common and the most challeng- quality-of-life issues; and (8) finally a new
ing diseases and disorders seen by both section in this edition which includes
primary care physicians and pediatric related case studies and relevant questions.
endocrinologists. We have encouraged the
involvement of a junior coauthor to give Due to the dynamic clinical practice of
recognition to our young investigators in pediatric endocrinology, extensive revisions
the field. We believe we have assembled a and significant changes have been made to
state-of-the-art, comprehensive text on the reflect current knowledge and practice. We
practice of pediatric endocrinology. have added chapters and expanded chapter
content on care of gender nonconforming/
Although the main focus of this text is on transgender youth, diagnosis and manage-
diagnosis and treatment, each author has ment of osteoporosis, mineralocorticoid
included a brief discussion on pathophysi- disorders and hypertension, and delayed
ology and molecular mechanisms. The puberty and hypogonadism.
chapters have been organized in such a
way as to present the following elements in We are most thankful for the generous
synchrony: (1) a table of contents and key contributions of our author colleagues. We
points; (2) an introductory discussion with hope you find the textbook helpful, and we
background information; (3) a brief over- are, of course, open to your comments.
Sally Radovick, MD
New Brunswick, NJ, USA
Contents
I Growth Disorders
1 Childhood Growth Hormone Deficiency and Hypopituitarism....................... 3
Carmen L. Soto-Rivera, Christopher J. Romero, and Laurie E. Cohen
IV Thyroid Disorders
17 Congenital Hypothyroidism................................................................................................... 371
Nana-Hawa Yayah Jones and Susan R. Rose
29 Contraception................................................................................................................................... 669
Helen H. Kim and Sabrina Holmquist
Supplementary Information
Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 865
Contributors
Ronald N. Cohen, MD
Alexandra M. Dumitrescu, MD, PhD
Department of Medicine, Section of Adult
Department of Medicine
and Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetes,
Section of Adult and Pediatric Endocrinology,
and Metabolism
Diabetes, and Metabolism
University of Chicago
University of Chicago
Chicago, IL, USA
Chicago, IL, USA
roncohen@medicine.bsd.uchicago.edu
alexd@uchicago.edu
Growth Disorders
Chapter 1 Childhood Growth Hormone Deficiency
and Hypopituitarism – 3
Carmen L. Soto-Rivera, Christopher J. Romero,
and Laurie E. Cohen
Childhood Growth
Hormone Deficiency
and Hypopituitarism
Carmen L. Soto-Rivera, Christopher J. Romero,
and Laurie E. Cohen
1.7 Summary – 21
References – 21
SRIF
GHRH
sstr-2 GH
-R
GHRH
Gi
GS
(-)
(+)
Adenyl
cyclase GH
ATP cAMP
PKA CBP
Pit-1 Pit-1
CREB
GH2 GH1
Somatotroph GH promoter
Nucleus
.. Fig. 1.1 GH secretion. Simplified model of growth and activates cAMP response element-binding protein
hormone (GH) gene activation. GH synthesis and release (CREB), which binds to cAMP response elements in the GH
from somatotrophs are regulated by growth hormone- promoter to enhance GH1 gene transcription. There is also
releasing hormone (GHRH) stimulation and somatostatin a PKA-dependent, CREB-independent mechanism of
(SRIF) inhibition. GHRH activation of its Gs-protein-coupled human GH gene activation by POU1F1 and CREB-binding
receptor leads to an increase in cyclic adenosine mono- protein (CBP). SRIF activation of its Gi-coupled protein
phosphate (cAMP) and intracellular calcium, resulting in leads to a decrease in cAMP and a reduction in calcium
activation of protein kinase A (PKA). PKA phosphorylates influx
known as GH variant (GH-V), differs from GH-N binds to cAMP response elements in the GH pro-
by 13 amino acids. It is expressed as at least four moter to enhance GH-1 gene transcription [18,
alternatively spliced mRNAs in the placenta and is 19]. There is also a PKA-dependent, CREB-
continuously secreted during the second half of independent mechanism of hGH gene activation
pregnancy, suppressing maternal pituitary GH-1 by POU1F1 (also known as Pit-1) and CREB-
gene function [13, 14]. binding protein (CBP) [20] (. Fig. 1.1).
GH is secreted in a pulsatile manner due to SRIF, a 14-amino-acid neuropeptide, nega-
the opposing actions of growth hormone- tively regulates GH release primarily via the SRIF
releasing hormone (GHRH) and somatotropin receptor subtype 2 (SSTR2) [20]. SRIF activates a
release-inhibiting factor (SRIF), also known as Gi-coupled protein [21, 22], which decreases
somatostatin (SST). GHRH, a 44-amino-acid pro- cAMP and reduces calcium influx, resulting in
tein, binds to the GHRH receptor (GHRHR), inhibition of GH secretion [23]. SRIF controls the
which is a G-protein-coupled receptor with pulse frequency of GH [24] (. Fig. 1.1).
seven-transmembrane-spanning domains with Infants have nonpulsatile GH secretion. There
three extracellular and three cytoplasmic loops is a gradual increase in 24-h integrated GH secre-
[15]. Activation of the GHRHR results in an tion during childhood. The amplitudes of GH
increase in cyclic adenosine monophosphate pulses are increased during puberty, which may
(cAMP) and intracellular calcium, leading to the be secondary to the effect of gonadal steroids on
activation of protein kinase A (PKA) [16, 17]. GHRH [25–27]. Although GH production con-
PKA phosphorylates and activates cAMP tinues throughout life, the levels decline in the
response element-binding protein (CREB), which elderly [28, 29].
6 C. L. Soto-Rivera et al.
There are multiple other factors that affect GH The GHR is a 620-amino-acid protein that
1 secretion. Thyroid hormone regulates GH secre- belongs to the cytokine family of receptors [42].
tion at the level of the hypothalamus and pituitary, It consists of a large extracellular domain, a sin-
and hypothyroidism is associated with a decrease gle transmembrane helix, and an intracellular
in GH secretion [30]. Adiposity (in particular vis- domain [43]. The highest level of GHR expres-
ceral fat) is associated with decreased GH secre- sion is in the liver, followed by the muscle, fat,
tion [31], while undernutrition leads to kidney, and heart. GH binds to a homodimer
oversecretion of GH but low IGF-I levels indicat- complex of the GHR in order to activate its
ing GH resistance [32]. intracellular signaling pathways. The subunits of
Synthetic hexapeptides capable of stimulating the GHR are constitutively dimerized in an
GH secretion are termed GH secretagogues unbound or inactive state [44, 45]. The
(GHS) or GH-releasing peptides (GHRP). These GH-binding sites on the extracellular domains
compounds can stimulate GH release but do not of the two subunits are placed asymmetrically;
act through the GHRH or SRIF receptors [33, 34]. GH binding to the constitutive dimer induces
These peptides can initiate and amplify pulsatile rotation of the two subunits, which allows down-
GH release; however, this is accomplished via the stream kinase activation by phosphorylation of
GHS receptor (GHS-R), which is distinct from Janus kinase 2 (Jak2) [45]. Subsequently, the Jak2
the GHRHR [34]. The GHS-R is a seven- molecule induces tyrosine phosphorylation on
transmembrane G-protein-coupled receptor that the intracellular portion of the GHR, which then
acts via protein kinase C activation and is provides docking sites for intermediary signal
expressed in the hypothalamus and in pituitary transducers and activators of transcription
somatotrophs [35]. (STAT) proteins [46–48]. After phosphorylation,
An endogenous ligand for the GHS-R, ghre- STATs dimerize and move to the nucleus, where
lin, stimulates GH release in a dose-related man- they activate gene transcription [49, 50]
ner, as well as potentiates GHRH-dependent (. Fig. 1.2).
secretion of GH [36, 37]. It is produced mainly Many of the actions of GH, both metabolic
by the oxyntic cells of the stomach but is also and mitogenic, are mediated by insulin-like
found throughout the gastrointestinal tract, as growth factors (IGFs) or somatomedins, initially
well as in the hypothalamus, heart, lung, and adi- identified by their ability to incorporate sulfate
pose tissue [38]. Several studies have demon- into rat cartilage [51]. IGF-I, which is a basic
strated that ghrelin has a wide range of effects, 70-amino-acid peptide, is produced under the
including acting as a physiological mediator of direction of GH predominantly in the liver [52]. It
feeding [39, 40]. Thus, it is difficult to separate plays an important role in both embryonic and
the direct effects of ghrelin from those related to postnatal growth. Both systemic and local IGF-I
GH secretion. have been shown to stimulate longitudinal bone
Approximately 50% of circulating GH is growth [53–57].
bound to GH-binding protein (GHBP). GHBP is Human fetal serum IGF-I levels, which are
produced in multiple tissues, with the liver being approximately 30–50% of adult levels, have been
the predominant source. GHBP acts as a circulat- positively correlated with gestational age [58,
ing buffer or reservoir for GH, prolonging the 59]. The levels of IGF-I gradually increase dur-
half-life of plasma GH and competing with the ing childhood and peak during pubertal devel-
GHR for GH, probably forming an unproductive opment, achieving two to three times the
heterodimer. In general, GHBP levels reflect GHR normal adult values [60, 61]. IGF-I production
levels and activity. In rodents, GHBP appears to is also augmented by the rise in gonadal ste-
be synthesized de novo from alternative splicing roids, which contribute to the pubertal growth
of GHR mRNA. In humans, rabbits, and others, it spurt. After adolescence, serum IGF-I concen-
is shed from membrane-bound GHR by proteo- trations decline gradually with age [59, 62].
lytic cleavage [10, 41]. IGFs circulate within the plasma complexed to
Childhood Growth Hormone Deficiency and Hypopituitarism
7 1
.. Fig. 1.2 GH action.
Schematic model of growth
hormone receptor (GHR)
binding and signaling. A
GH
single GH molecule binds
asymmetrically to the
extracellular domain of two
receptor molecules,
causing a conformational
change. This leads to
GH-R GH-R
interaction of the GHR with
Janus kinase (Jak2) and
tyrosine phosphorylation Jak2 Jak2
of both Jak2 and GHR, p p
followed by phosphoryla- p p
p p
tion of cytoplasmic
transcription factors known
as signal transducers and STAT
activators of transcription
(STATs). After phosphoryla- STAT
tion, STATs dimerize and
p
move to the nucleus, where
they activate gene
transcription Nuclear translocation
Gene
transcription
Signals Signals
Bmp-4 FGF8/10
Nkx2.1 Wnt5a
Tbx19 Corticotroph
.. Fig. 1.3 Anterior pituitary development. The develop- a role in the development of progenitor pituitary cell types.
ment of the mature pituitary gland initiates with the contact Subsequently, the expression of Hesx1, Isl1, paired box gene 6
of the oral ectoderm with the neural ectoderm followed by a (Pax6), and Six3 assists in appropriate cellular development,
cascade of events consisting of both signaling molecules and proliferation, and migration. The hashed arrows denote the
transcription factors expressed in a specific temporal and attenuation of an expressed factor, such as seen with Hesx1,
spatial fashion. This figure presents a modified overview of and are often required for the expression of another factor.
pituitary development adapted from previous embryological The attenuation of Hesx1, for example, is required for the
studies performed in murine species by illustrating the expression of Prop1. Similarly, Pou1F1 (Pit-1), which is required
temporal expression of various developmental factors. Early for somatotroph, lactotroph, and thyrotroph development, is
on, bone morphogenetic protein 4 (Bmp-4) and NK2 expressed upon the attenuation of Prop1 expression.
Homeobox 1 (Nkx2.1) are expressed along with Sonic Ultimately, the mature pituitary gland is marked by the
hedgehog (Shh) in order to form the primordial Rathke’s differentiated cell types: somatotrophs, lactotrophs,
pouch, which will become the mature pituitary. Also thyrotrophs, gonadotrophs, and corticotrophs [77–79]
expressed are Gli1 and 2, Lhx3, and Pitx1 and 2, which all play
Hesx1 (Rpx) Hesx1, a member of the paired-like or with combined pituitary hormone deficiency
class of homeobox genes originally described in (CPHD) [85].
Drosophila melanogaster, is one of the earliest Several investigators have screened patients
known specific markers for the pituitary primor- with a wide spectrum of congenital hypopituita-
dium, although no target genes for Hesx1 have rism for mutations in HESX1. Thomas et al., for
been identified [83, 84]. Hesx1 null mutant mice example, evaluated 228 patients: 85 with isolated
demonstrate abnormalities in the corpus callo- pituitary hypoplasia (including isolated GH defi-
sum, anterior and hippocampal commissures, ciency and combined pituitary hormone defi-
and septum pellucidum, a phenotype similar to ciency [CPHD]), 105 with SOD, and 38 with
the defects seen in humans with SOD [83]. The holoprosencephaly or related phenotypes. In this
initial report of a human HESX1 mutation was in cohort, three missense mutations were identified
two siblings with agenesis of the corpus callosum, [86]. In another study, approximately 850 patients
optic nerve hypoplasia, and panhypopituitarism were studied for mutations in HESX1 (300 with
who were found to have a homozygous mutation SOD; 410 with isolated pituitary dysfunction,
at codon 53 (arginine to cysteine) in the home- optic nerve hypoplasia, or midline brain anoma-
odomain (DNA-binding domain) of HESX1, lies; and 126 patients with familial inheritance).
resulting in a drastic reduction in DNA binding Only 1% of the group was found to have coding
[83]. Subsequently, autosomal recessive and dom- region mutations, suggesting that mutations in
inant HESX1 mutations have been found in asso- HESX1 are a rare cause of hypopituitarism and
ciation with SOD (although a rare cause of SOD) SOD [87]. As the described mutations in HESX1
10 C. L. Soto-Rivera et al.
SOX2 Micro- or anophthalmia Lhx3 (Lim-3, P-Lim) and Lhx4 Lhx3 is a LIM-type
Esophageal atresia homeodomain protein expressed in the anterior
Sensorineural hearing loss
and intermediate lobes of the pituitary gland, the
SOX3 Absent corpus callosum ventral hindbrain, and the spinal cord. Lhx3 expres-
Craniofacial abnormalities sion persists in the adult pituitary, suggesting a
maintenance function in one or more of the ante-
rior pituitary cell types [105]. In addition, its expres-
present with variable phenotypes, it has been sug- sion is associated with cells that secrete GH and
gested the hormone abnormalities may be affected PRL, as well as the expression of the α-glycoprotein
by modifier genes or environmental factors [88]. subunit (α-GSU), suggesting a common cell precur-
sor for gonadotrophs, thyrotrophs, somatotrophs,
Otx2 Otx genes are expressed in the rostral brain and lactotrophs [105, 106].
during development and are homologous to the In humans, homozygous loss-of-function
Drosophila orthodenticle (otd) gene, which is essen- mutations in LHX3 have been identified in
tial for the development of the head in Drosophila patients with hypopituitarism including GH, TSH,
melanogaster [89]. Otx2 is expressed in the ventral PRL, LH, and FSH deficiencies, anterior pituitary
diencephalon, where it interacts with Hesx1, and in defects, and cervical abnormalities with or with-
Rathke’s pouch. Homozygous inactivation of out restricted neck rotation [107–109]. Among
Otx2 in mice leads to extreme brain defects, while 366 studied patients with idiopathic GHD or
heterozygous inactivation results in eye abnormali- CPHD, only 7 patients from 4 families were found
ties, commonly pituitary hypoplasia, and some- to have LHX3 mutations, suggesting LHX3 muta-
times holoprosencephaly. Heterozygous mutations tions are a rare cause of CPHD [109]. A compound
of the OTX2 gene, which have been implicated in heterozygous mutation of LHX3 was described
severe ocular malformations such as anophthalmia, that leads to a short protein inducing a dominant
have also been reported in patients with hypopitu- negative effect (from a paternally derived change)
itarism ranging from GH deficiency to multiple and a protein with impaired transactivational abil-
pituitary hormone deficiencies [90–93]. There are ity (from a maternally derived change) [110]. As
variable findings of hypoplastic pituitary, EPP, and with other described LHX3 mutations, the patient
Chiari syndrome [94–98]. presented with pituitary hormone deficiencies, in
addition to deafness and limited neck rotation.
Pitx2 (Ptx2) Pitx2 is a paired-like homeodomain Lhx4 is a closely related transcription factor to
transcription factor closely related to the mamma- Lhx3. Heterozygous sporadic and familial LHX4
lian Otx genes [89]. Pitx2 null mice showed embry- mutations have been reported. Pituitary hormone
Childhood Growth Hormone Deficiency and Hypopituitarism
11 1
deficiencies range from IGHD to panhypopituita- delA301, and G302 (also known as 296delGA) in
rism, and the pituitary may be hypoplastic with or exon 2, which changes a serine to a stop codon at
without an EPP. Some patients also have corpus codon 109 in the homeodomain, resulting in a
callosum hypoplasia or Chiari syndrome with truncated gene product. It has been found in non-
pointed cerebellar tonsils [111]. consanguineous patients from at least eight differ-
ent countries [124–126].
Other transcription factors In addition to the
more commonly cited factors, several other Pou1f1 Pou1f1 (Pit-1, GHF-1) is a member of a
mutated developmental factors have been reported family of transcription factors, POU, which are
to cause CPHD [111]. Sox2, for example, has roles responsible for mammalian development, and its
both in pituitary development and in the stem cell expression is restricted to the anterior pituitary lobe
compartment [112]. Patients with reported Sox2 [127, 128]. Pit-1 has been shown to be essential for
mutations presented with phenotypes including the development of somatotrophs, lactotrophs, and
hormone deficiencies (primarily isolated gonado- thyrotrophs, as well as for their cell-specific gene
troph deficiency), pituitary hypoplasia, and eye expression and regulation [128].
abnormalities [113, 114]. Another interesting Mutations in POU1F1 in humans were
development has been the association of pituitary described in 1992 by four different groups in
hormone deficiencies with mutations in the gonad- patients with CPHD consisting of GHD, TSH,
otroph genes prokineticin receptor 2 (PROKR2), and PRL deficiencies and variable hypoplastic
fibroblast growth factor 8 (FGF8), and FGF recep- anterior pituitaries on MRI [129–132]. At least
tor 1 (FGFR1), which have been traditionally 28 different mutations have been described, with
reported in patients with isolated hypogonado- 23 demonstrating autosomal recessive inheri-
tropic hypogonadism [115]. tance and 5 demonstrating dominant inheri-
tance [78]. The most common mutation is an
Pituitary-Specific Transcription Factors R271W substitution affecting the POU home-
Prop1 Prop1 is a paired-like homeodomain odomain; this leads to a mutant protein that
transcription factor with expression restricted to binds normally to DNA but acts as a dominant
the anterior pituitary during development [2, inhibitor of transcription and may act by impair-
116]. During pituitary development, Prop1 acts as ing dimerization [130, 132–140]. In another
a repressor in downregulating Hesx1 and as an single allele mutation, K216E, the mutant Pit-1 is
activator of Pou1f1 [77]. Recent evidence suggests able to bind DNA but unable to support retinoic
that Prop1 may play a more central role in pitu- acid induction of the Pit-1 gene distal enhancer
itary stem cell differentiation than previously either alone or in combination with wild-type
recognized [117]. Pit-1. This ability to selectively impair the inter-
A considerable variation in clinical pheno- action with the superfamily of nuclear hormone
types of patients with PROP1 mutations has receptors is thus another mechanism responsible
been demonstrated, even in patients bearing for CPHD [141]. Several other point mutations
identical genotypes [116, 118, 119]. Several in the Pit-1 gene resulting in CPHD have been
reports have shown that the hormone deficien- described. Some alter residues important for
cies may be variable and dynamic; some patients DNA binding and/or alter the predicted α-helical
may develop hypogonadotropic hypogonadism nature of the Pit-1, while others have been shown
despite the progression into spontaneous to or postulated to impair transactivation of tar-
puberty or cortisol deficiency over time [116, get genes [78, 142].
120–122]. Interestingly, some patients present
with pituitary hyperplasia prior to developing 1.2.1.3 Isolated GHD
hypoplasia, which is speculated to be due to Four forms of IGHD have been described, and its
pituitary progenitors accumulating in the inter- classification is based upon the clinical presenta-
mediate lobe rather than differentiating into tion, inheritance pattern, and GH secretion.
more mature cell types [123]. IGHD Type IA results primarily from large
At least 25 heterozygous or compound hetero- deletions, along with microdeletions and single
zygous human mutations have been described base-pair substitutions of the GH1 gene, which
[111]. The most common is a recurring homozy- ultimately prevents synthesis or secretion of the
gous autosomal recessive mutation of PROP1, hormone. This condition is associated with growth
12 C. L. Soto-Rivera et al.
retardation in infancy and subsequent severe codon 112 was identified and suggested to prevent
1 dwarfism. Heterogeneous deletions of both alleles appropriate GHR dimerization [164].
ranging from 6.7 to 45 kb have been described There are also patients with the phenotype of
[143–146]. In addition to GH1 gene abnormalities, growth hormone insensitivity who do not demon-
a recent report, in siblings with IGHD, described strate mutations of the GHR gene, but have identi-
two homozygous variants in the proximal GH1 fied mutations in downstream GHR signaling
promoter within a highly conserved region and molecules. Homozygous mutations in STAT5B, a
predicted binding sites [147]. Patients with IGHD major GH-dependent mediator of IGF-I gene
type 1A frequently develop antibodies to exoge- transcription, have been identified as a cause of
nous GH therapy, which is attributed to the lack of GH insensitivity [165, 166]. The first mutation
immune tolerance because of prenatal GHD [148, characterized was a point mutation resulting in a
149]. Some patients may eventually become insen- marked decrease in phosphorylation of tyrosine
sitive to GH replacement therapy demonstrating a [166], a critical step in the pathway to STAT acti-
decreased clinical response; subsequently, recom- vation of IGF-I gene transcription; while the sec-
binant IGF-I therapy may be an alternative option. ond characterized mutation was an insertion in
IGHD Type IB is a less severe autosomal reces- exon 10, leading to early protein termination [165,
sive form of GHD resulting from mutations or 167, 168]. In addition to growth retardation, both
rearrangements of the GH1 gene, such as splice patients had evidence of immune dysfunction
site mutations that lead to partial GH deficiency presumably because STAT5B is involved in down-
[144, 150, 151]. In one study, a homozygous splice stream signaling for multiple cytokines.
site G to C transversion in intron 4 of the GH-1
gene was identified, causing a splice deletion of 1.2.1.4 GHR Mutations
half of exon 4 as well as a frameshift within exon Laron dwarfism is an autosomal recessive disorder
5. These changes ultimately affected the stability characterized by clinical features of severe GH
and biological activity of the mutant GH protein deficiency along with low IGF-I levels but with
[152]. Several other deletions or frameshift muta- normal to high levels of GH after provocative test-
tions have been described by others [153–155]. ing [169]. Several deletions and point mutations of
IGHD Type II is an autosomal dominant con- several GHR exons have been described [170–179].
dition considered the most common genetic form Many of these mutations affect the extracellular
of IGHD. Several patients have been found to domain and, therefore, lead to absent or decreased
have intronic transitions in intron 3, inactivating levels of GHBP [180]. Recombinant IGF-I therapy
the donor splice site of intron 3 and deleting exon has been demonstrated to effectively treat these
3 [151, 152, 156–160]. patients [181, 182]. It has also been hypothesized
IGHD Type III is a partial GH deficiency that some patients with idiopathic short stature,
with X-linked inheritance due to interstitial normal GH secretion, and low serum concentra-
Xq13.3-Xq21.1 deletions or microduplications of tions of GHBP may have partial insensitivity to
certain X regions. Patients may also have hypo- GH due to mutations in the GHR gene [178].
gammaglobulinemia, suggesting a contiguous
Xq21.2-Xq22 deletion [161, 162]. 1.2.1.5 IGF-I and IGF-IR Mutations
Bioinactive GH has been reported in patients A patient noted to have a homozygous partial
with short stature demonstrating normal GH IGF-I gene deletion with undetectable levels of
immunoreactivity but reduced biopotency. A child, IGF-I presented with severe prenatal and post-
with an autosomal arginine to cysteine mutation at natal growth failure, bilateral sensorineural deaf-
codon 77, was described with severe growth retar- ness, mental retardation, moderately delayed
dation, high serum GH levels, elevated GHBP, low motor development, and behavioral difficulties.
IGF-I levels, and increased GH levels after pro- His evaluation did not demonstrate a significant
vocative testing. The child expressed both mutant delay in his bone age, and an IGFBP-3 level was
and wild-type GH; however, the mutant GH had a normal [183]. Subsequently, a few other cases of
higher affinity for GHBP, a lower phosphorylating IGF-I mutations have been described.
activity, and an inhibitory or dominant negative Studies with African Pygmies demonstrate nor-
effect on wild-type GH activity [163]. In another mal levels of GH but decreased IGF-I levels and
patient, an aspartic acid to lysine mutation at unresponsiveness to exogenous GH. Although
Childhood Growth Hormone Deficiency and Hypopituitarism
13 1
IGF-I deficiency has been hypothesized, Bowcock
et al. found no differences in restriction fragment Box 1.2 Acquired Forms of Hypopituitarism.
length polymorphisms in the IGF-I gene in Pygmy Etiologies of Acquired Growth Hormone
versus non-Pygmy black Africans [184]. Deficiency
Furthermore, Pygmy T cell lines show IGF-I resis- 55 Trauma
55 Head injury
tance at the receptor level with secondary GH resis-
55 Perinatal events
tance [185, 186]. In subsequent studies, it was 55 Infiltrative and autoimmune diseases
demonstrated that adult Pygmies demonstrate a 55 Langerhans histiocytosis
reduction in both GH gene expression (1.8-fold) 55 Sarcoidosis
and GHR gene expression (8-fold). This decrease of 55 Lymphocytic hypophysitis
55 Infections
the GHR expression in Pygmies was associated with
55 Meningitis
reduced serum levels of IGF-I and GHBP [187]. 55 Granulomatous diseases
Abnormalities in the IGF-IR gene have also 55 Metabolic
been reported and are often associated with intra- 55 Hemochromatosis
uterine growth retardation (IUGR). Several het- 55 Cerebral edema
55 Neoplasms
erozygous mutations of the IGF-IR gene, as well
55 Craniopharyngioma
as an association with deletions in chromosome 55 Germinoma
15q, have been reported in patients with growth 55 Hypothalamic astrocytoma/optic glioma
retardation [188–193]. The majority of these 55 Cranial irradiation
reported patients carried the diagnosis of IUGR
along with progressive postnatal growth retarda-
tion; however, other phenotypic characteristics association between hypopituitarism and a compli-
not universal in these patients included findings cated perinatal course, especially breech delivery
of developmental delay, microcephaly, or skeletal [199, 200]. It is not clear if a complicated perinatal
abnormalities. In addition, IGF-I levels were course causes hypopituitarism or if a brain anom-
found to be either normal or high, whether at aly leads to both a complicated delivery and hypo-
baseline or after provocative testing. pituitarism. The finding that some of these patients
Other patients are suspected to have IGF-I have a microphallus at birth suggests that pituitary
resistance, as they have elevated GH levels and ele- dysfunction may precede the birth trauma [6].
vated IGF-I levels [194–196]. In one patient, cul- Infiltrative conditions can also disrupt the
tured fibroblasts had a 50% reduction in IGF-I pituitary stalk. Diabetes insipidus can be the first
binding capacity [194]. Another patient had a manifestation of germ cell tumors, Langerhans
markedly diminished ability of IGF-I to stimulate cell histiocytosis [201–203] or sarcoidosis [204].
fibroblast α-aminoisobutyric acid uptake com- Lymphocytic hypophysitis, usually in adult
pared to control subjects [195]. Their birth lengths, women in late pregnancy or in the postpartum
which were less than the fifth percentile, suggest period, can result in hypopituitarism [205].
the importance of IGF-I in fetal growth. Metabolic disorders can cause hypopituita-
Other post-signal transduction defects and rism through destruction of the hypothalamus,
mutations in IGF-binding proteins may occur but pituitary stalk, or pituitary. Hemochromatosis is
have not been demonstrated as of yet. characterized by iron deposition in various tis-
sues, including the pituitary. It may be idiopathic
or secondary to multiple transfusions (e.g., for
1.2.2 Acquired Forms of GH thalassemia major); gonadotropin deficiency is
Deficiency (7 Box 1.2) the most common hormonal deficiency, but GHD
has also been described [206, 207].
Hypopituitarism can be caused by anything that Hypothalamic or pituitary tissue can also be
damages the hypothalamus, pituitary stalk, or pitu- destroyed by the mass effect of suprasellar tumors
itary gland. Head trauma can injure the pituitary or by their surgical resection. These tumors include
stalk and infundibulum and lead to the develop- craniopharyngiomas, low-grade gliomas/hypotha-
ment of transient and permanent diabetes insipi- lamic astrocytomas, germ cell tumors, and pituitary
dus, as well as other hormonal deficiencies [197, adenomas [208]. Treatment of brain tumors or
198]. There are a number of reports suggesting an acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) with cranial
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— Au début, dit-il, j’eus la tristesse d’un vigneron qu’on charge de
façonner une vigne morte ; j’ai prié seul dans le sanctuaire et j’ai
attendu. Le premier dimanche, il est venu deux femmes et une
petite ; j’ai chanté la grand’messe, tour à tour à l’autel et à
l’harmonium, bien que ce ne soit pas très liturgique ; je leur ai parlé,
elles ont été contentes. Le dimanche suivant, elles étaient cinq ;
nous arrivons à neuf aujourd’hui. J’ai pu mettre la main sur un vieux
chantre et deux enfants de chœur, je les forme au chant grégorien.
J’atteindrai certainement quelques jeunes filles ; il y a toujours, dans
une paroisse, des malades, des pauvres, des abandonnés ; je vais
les voir, ils me reçoivent bien. Ne fût-ce pas des lépreux, des
paralytiques et des aveugles qui écoutèrent les premiers l’Évangile ?
— Ça ne te mènera jamais loin, contesta M. Ardel. C’est honteux
qu’on relègue en un trou un garçon de ton mérite ! Tu devrais
comprendre que les religions ont fait leur temps et chercher ailleurs.
Hier, à l’heure des vêpres, nous avons visité la cathédrale : elle était
vide. D’après ce que j’entends dire, tes confrères ici ne pensent qu’à
se chamailler ; vous n’avez même plus l’énergie du ralliement contre
l’adversaire. Vos cloches ont bien raison de sonner leur glas
monotone, le glas de Rome et du Christ, le glas des songes qui ne
recommenceront plus !
L’abbé serra fortement son chapeau entre ses doigts ; mais, sans
trop d’impatience, l’œil tendu sur Victorien, il rédargua :
— Attends à demain, mon pauvre ami, et tu seras confus d’avoir
si mal prophétisé. L’Église n’est pas une chose qui, étant née tel
jour, finira tel autre ; l’Église est, elle est dans le Christ éternel. Elle a
terrestrement ses traverses d’angoisse, mais ce sont des veilles de
triomphe. Le précédent siècle fut plus religieux que son aîné, le
vingtième présage une ère de foi splendide ; ce sera un grand siècle
eucharistique. Toi qui es historien, dis-moi donc si jamais, depuis le
moyen âge, la Papauté fut plus haute qu’aujourd’hui. Il fallait que le
monde épuisât l’expérience de l’erreur. Maintenant, c’est fait ; la
libre-pensée a vidé le fond de son sac ; sur tout ce qu’il importe aux
hommes de savoir, vous n’offrez que des ignorances et des
abstractions. Vous avez l’air de soldats sans pain mordant leurs
cartouches pour tromper leur faim. Cela, tu ne te l’avouerais pas, ou
tu le sens moins que d’autres, parce que tu as de la moelle
chrétienne plein les os ; mais si tu voyais, comme moi, chez mes
paysans, la bestialité plate et sordide, des foyers sans enfants, et en
tout l’abjecte médiocrité, ta conclusion loyale serait un cri d’effroi…
L’abbé s’échauffait dans son éloquence, lorsqu’il discerna sur la
mine de Victorien une maussaderie croissante ; il se leva,
s’approcha de lui :
— Je compte, fit-il, changeant de propos, qu’un de ces jeudis
vous arriverez me surprendre ; vous partagerez mon repas d’ermite.
C’est moi qui suis mon cuisinier ; Pauline me donnera des conseils…
Voyons, quel jour viendrez-vous ?
— Écoute, objecta M. Ardel en se croisant les bras, j’aime mieux
te parler tout rond. Des rapports durables sont-ils possibles entre
nous, alors que nous n’avons plus une idée commune ?
— Et le sang, qu’en fais-tu ? s’écria l’abbé. Mon père est pourtant
le tien !
Il montrait contre la tapisserie le portrait au crayon d’un vieillard à
la barbe foisonnante, dont le front se gonflait de rides sinueuses,
avec d’épais sourcils, des joues creusées, une gravité morose,
comme le Léonard de Vinci dessiné par lui-même en ses derniers
ans.
— Je le revois, dans cette alcôve du quai des Célestins, mort, et
si beau que les femmes du voisinage amenaient leurs enfants pour
le contempler. Avant de mourir, tu te souviens, il nous avait dit : Mes
fils, aimez-vous ; soyez fidèles à Dieu et à votre nom…
— Je le sais, répliqua M. Ardel, sourdement irrité. Mais ne t’en
prends qu’à toi si entre nous deux se dressent d’enfantins concepts
théologiques que tu mets au-dessus de la famille, au-dessus de tout.
Périsse la nature humaine plutôt qu’un dogme, voilà votre principe à
vous autres prêtres. Vous faites, en sens adverse, comme nos
primaires férus de leur morale laïque. Vous n’êtes que des cuistres
enjuponnés.
L’abbé, d’une moue railleuse, rétorqua sur l’agrégé cette épithète
de cuistre ; il n’en sentit pas moins l’intention méprisante, et, plus vif,
répliqua :
— Si j’étais un cuistre, tu ne me verrais pas chez toi. Je suis ton
frère qui t’aime, qui ai voulu te le dire, malgré ta dureté et tes
injustices. Quand vous serez dans la peine, vous saurez où me
trouver. Ma cuistrerie à moi, c’est de bénir !
Ici, par une faute trop explicable, il abandonna la partie au
moment où il allait peut-être la gagner. S’il avait insisté dix minutes
de plus, Victorien, affamé de tendresse en dépit de ses allures
grincheuses, sentimental sous ses raideurs de positiviste bourru,
serait aisément parti d’un sanglot et lui eût ouvert ses bras. Mais
l’abbé jugea contraire à sa dignité d’essuyer de nouveaux affronts ;
en prolongeant sa visite, il courait le risque d’une brouille sans
retour ; ses nerfs que, jusque-là, il avait pu maîtriser, frémissaient
d’être surtendus. Il mit sa main dans celle de son frère qui la prit
assez froidement ; il la tendit aussi à Pauline ; elle donna la sienne
avec une bonne grâce attendrie.
— Au revoir, Victorien, dit-il de son air affable, comme sûr, malgré
tout, de l’avenir.
— Adieu, Jacques ; rappelle-toi que de ta moelle chrétienne,
dans mes os, il n’y a plus rien, rien !
Pauline ouvrit la porte de la rue ; déjà dehors, l’abbé retourna la
tête vers sa nièce, lui envoya, de ses longs doigts, un salut
affectueux ; une larme avivait ses yeux brûlants ; il s’éloigna d’un pas
pressé. Deux heures, au même instant, sonnèrent à la cathédrale ;
M. Ardel sursauta :
— Deux heures ! Un peu plus, il me faisait manquer ma classe !
III