electronics
Article
Towards Self-Powered WSN: The Design of Ultra-Low-Power
Wireless Sensor Transmission Unit Based on Indoor Solar
Energy Harvester
Fathi Mahdi Elsiddig Haroun 1, *, Siti Noratiqah Mohamad Deros 1 , Ammar Ahmed Alkahtani 2
and Norashidah Md Din 1
Citation: Mahdi Elsiddig Haroun, F.;
Mohamad Deros, S.N.; Ahmed
Alkahtani, A.; Md Din, N. Towards
Self-Powered WSN: The Design of
Ultra-Low-Power Wireless Sensor
Transmission Unit Based on Indoor
Solar Energy Harvester. Electronics
2022, 11, 2077. https://doi.org/
10.3390/electronics11132077
Academic Editor: Federico Alimenti
Received: 24 January 2022
Accepted: 27 June 2022
Published: 2 July 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Electronics 2022, 11, 2077. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11132077
1 Institute of Energy Infrastructure, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Kajang 43000, Malaysia;
siti.noratiqah@uniten.edu.my (S.N.M.D.); norashidah@uniten.edu.my (N.M.D.)
2 Institute of Sustainable Energy, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Kajang 43000, Malaysia; ammar@uniten.edu.my
* Correspondence: fathi.mahdi@uniten.edu.my
Abstract: The current revolution in communication and information technology is facilitating the
Internet of Things (IoT) infrastructure. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) are a broad category of IoT
applications. However, power management in WSN poses a significant challenge when the WSN
is required to operate for a long duration without the presence of a consistent power source. In
this paper, we develop a batteryless, ultra-low-power Wireless Sensor Transmission Unit (WSTx)
depending on the solar-energy harvester and LoRa technology. We investigate the feasibility of
harvesting ambient indoor light using polycrystalline photovoltaic (PV) cells with a maximum power
of 1.4 mW. The study provides comprehensive power management design details and a description
of the anticipated challenges. The measured power consumption of the developed WSTx was 0.02109
mW during the sleep mode and 11.1 mW during the operation mode. The harvesting system can
harvest energy up to 1.2 mW per second, where the harvested energy can power the WSTx for six
hours with a maximum power efficiency of 85.714%.
Keywords: energy harvester; LoRa; solar power; ultra-low power; WSN
1. Introduction
The revolution in the microchips industry, especially in microcontrollers (MCUs),
helped integrate embedded systems with various types of daily used devices. The demand
to connect these devices to the internet became vital due to the emerging technologies in
information and communication infrastructure such as high-speed internet, cloud com-
puting, and big data. The Internet of Things (IoT) technology enables machines such as
home appliances, medical equipment, and industrial instruments to interact with users
and other machines through the internet [1,2]. Portable, Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)
represents a broad IoT application sector [3]. The role of WSN in IoT applications is to
convert and transfer environmental variables such as temperature, pressure, vibration,
and other variables through a wireless network of devices. This network can send and
receive data from the internet through a gateway node [3,4]. The WSN system usually
consists of four main units: sensing unit, processing unit, wireless communication unit, and
power management unit, as shown in Figure 1 [5]. Power management in WSN devices
is always a challenging issue. Such devices are required to operate in remote locations
for several years without charging or replacing the storage element, compared with other
battery-powered devices such as mobile phones [6,7]. Battery management techniques, low
power MCUs, and low power communication technologies are required to mitigate the
power consumption in WSN systems. The new emerging Long-Range (LoRa), low-energy
consumption radio modulation technology enables wireless sensor devices to communicate
through a low-power consumption profile, compared with other widely used wireless
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics
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Electronics 2022, 11, 2077 2 of 21

low-energy
low-energyconsumption
consumptionradio
radiomodulation
modulationtechnology
technologyenables
enableswireless
wirelesssensor
sensordevices
devicestoto
communicate
communicate through a low-power consumption profile, compared with otherwidely
through a low-power consumption profile, compared with other widely
communication
used technologies such as ZigBee, Bluetooth, Wi-fi, and cellular communication
usedwireless
wirelesscommunication
communicationtechnologies
technologiessuch
suchas
asZigBee,
ZigBee,Bluetooth,
Bluetooth,Wi-fi,
Wi-fi,and
andcellular
cellular
bands [7–9].
communication
communicationbands
bands[7–9].
[7–9].

Figure
Figure
Figure
1.The
The
1. 1. Themain
main
main
elements
elements
elements
ofthe
ofof
the
theWSN.
WSN.
WSN.

Due
DueDuetototomodulation
modulation
modulation bandwidth
bandwidth
bandwidth limitations,
limitations,
limitations, LoRa
LoRa
LoRa technology
technology
technology can
can
can only
only be
be
only used
used
be used for
for low
low
for low
data
data transfer
datatransfer rate
transferrate applications
rateapplications [10–12].
applications[10–12]. Figure
[10–12].Figure 2 shows
Figure2 2shows a comparison
showsa acomparison between
comparisonbetween different
betweendifferent
different
wireless
wireless
wireless communication
communication technologies
communicationtechnologies
technologiesinininterms
terms ofof
termsof data
data transfer
transfer
data rate,
rate,
transfer coverage
coverage
rate, coverage range,
range,
range, and
and
and
power
power consumption.
consumption.
power consumption.

Figure
Figure 2. Comparison between commonly used wireless communication technologies regarding
Figure 2. 2. Comparison
Comparison between
between commonly
commonly usedused wireless
wireless communication
communication technologies
technologies regarding
regarding data
data
datatransfer
transfer rate,
rate,coverage
coveragerange,
range,and
andpower
power consumption.
consumption.
transfer rate, coverage range, and power consumption.
Aside
Aside
Aside from
from
from the
the
the low-power
low-power
low-power communication
communication
communication technology,
technology,
technology, energy
energy
energy harvesters
harvesters
harvestersplay play aasig-
a signif-
play sig-
nificant
icant
nificant role
role in
role in
WSN WSN
power
in WSN power sustainability
sustainability
power sustainability [13–15].
[13–15]. Energy
[13–15]. Energy harvesters
harvesters
Energy can be
harvesters can be
used
can used to
tohar-
to harvest
be used har-
vest
thevest the
theabundant
abundant energies
abundant energies
from the
energies from
from the
theenvironment
environment
environmentto power totopower
IoT
power IoT
IoTdevices.
devices. Thermal,
devices. Thermal, wind,
wind, radio
Thermal, wind,
radio
radio wave, solar, and piezoelectrics energy are examples of such sources [15]. Figure33
wave, wave,
solar, solar,
and and piezoelectrics
piezoelectrics energy energy
are examples are examples
of such of
sourcessuch sources
[15]. Figure [15].
3 Figure
illustrates
illustrates
the conceptthe
illustrates of concept
theenergy
concept ofofenergy
harvesters
energyin harvesters ininthe
the IoT field.
harvesters IoT
IoTfield.
Solar
the field.Solar
energy energy
is the
Solar most is
energy isthe
themost
widely usedwidely
most type
widely
used
ofused type
renewable of
type of renewable
energy energy
due to energy
renewable due
its efficiency to
due to its
in its efficiency
converting
efficiency in
solar converting
irradiance into
in converting solar irradiance
electricity
solar irradiance when into
into
electricity
compared when
electricitytowhen compared
other compared to
types of renewable other types
to other technologies of renewable
types of renewable [16]. The technologies [16].
PV cells heavily
technologies The PV
depend
[16]. The PV oncells
cells
heavily
the light depend
heavily dependon
intensity to the
on thelight
producelightintensity
intensityto
electrical toproduce
energy.
produce electrical
However, some
electrical energy. However,
However,some
IoT applications
energy. require
some IoT
IoT
anapplications
indoor require
hosting an indoor
environment. hosting
Indoor environment.
environments Indoor
use
applications require an indoor hosting environment. Indoor environments use artificial environments
artificial light use
sources artificial
such as
light
lightsources
compact sources such
suchas
fluorescent compact
lamps
as compactandfluorescent
LEDs. These
fluorescent lamps and
devices
lamps LEDs.
andhaveLEDs. a These
low
These devices
light have
intensity
devices aalow
lowlight
havecompared light
tointensity
sunlight; compared
therefore, to sunlight;
the indoor therefore,
environment the indoor
poses environment
intensity compared to sunlight; therefore, the indoor environment poses a challengeman-
a challenge to poses
PV a challenge
cells. Power totoPVPV
cells.
cells.Power
agement management
strategies
Power are important
management strategies are
areimportant
in reducing
strategies power in
important inreducing
reducingpower
consumption in such
power consumption
a low-energy
consumption inin
situation. This paper provides a comprehensive study on designing an Ultra-Low-Power
(ULP) LoRa-based Wireless Sensor Transmission unit (WSTx) based on indoor solar cells.
 Electronics
Electronics 2022,
2022, 11,
11, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 33 of
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Electronics 2022, 11, 2077

such
such aa low-energy
low-energy situation.
situation. This
This paper
paper provides
provides aa comprehensive
comprehensive study
study on
on designing
designing an
an
3 of 21
Ultra-Low-Power (ULP) LoRa-based Wireless Sensor Transmission unit (WSTx)
Ultra-Low-Power (ULP) LoRa-based Wireless Sensor Transmission unit (WSTx) based on based on
indoor
indoor solar
solar cells.
cells.

Figure
Figure3.3.
Figure The
3.The utilization
utilizationofof
Theutilization the
ofthe ambient
theambient energy
energyinin
ambientenergy IoT
inIoT applications.
IoTapplications.
applications.

2.2.
2.Materials
Materialsand
Materials andMethods
and Methods
Methods
The
The study is
The study is on
study isononthe
thedesign
the designof
design ofaaaself-powered
of self-poweredWSTx
self-powered WSTxthat
WSTx thatcan
that canharvest
can harvestthe
harvest theambient
the ambientlight
ambient light
light
from
from indoor PV cells. The proposed scheme of the ULP WSN system
from indoor PV cells. The proposed scheme of the ULP WSN system is composed of two
indoor PV cells. The proposed scheme of the ULP WSN system is
is composed
composed ofoftwo
two
main
mainunits,
main units,the
units, thePower
the PowerManagement
Power ManagementUnit
Management Unit(PMU)
Unit (PMU)and
(PMU) andthe
and theWSTx.
the WSTx.The
WSTx. ThePMU
The PMUhas
PMU hasthree
has threemain
three main
main
elements:
elements:aaaMaximum
elements: MaximumPower
Maximum PowerPoint
Power PointTracking
Point Tracking(MPPT)
Tracking (MPPT)circuit,
(MPPT) circuit,aaabuck-boost
circuit, buck-boostconverter,
buck-boost converter,and
converter, and
and
aaabattery
battery charger.
battery charger.
charger. The The purpose
The purpose
purpose of of the
of the PMU
the PMU
PMU is is
is to to provide
to provide stable
provide stable
stable and and efficient
and efficient charging
efficient charging
charging and
and
and discharging
discharging rates
rates to to
the the storage
storage element
element considering
considering the the
load load
from from
the the
WSTx.
discharging rates to the storage element considering the load from the WSTx. On the other WSTx.
On On
the the
other
other
hand,hand,
hand, the the WSTx
the WSTx
WSTx consistsconsists
consists of of three
of three
three mainmain
main elements:
elements:
elements: an an MCU,
an MCU,
MCU, a sensor
aa sensor
sensor module,module,
module, and aaand
and com-
com-a
communication
munication module,
module, as as shown
shown in in Figure4.4.The
Figure Thepurpose
purposeof ofthethe WSTx
WSTx is is to
to encode
encode and
and
munication module, as shown in Figure 4. The purpose of the WSTx is to encode and
transfer
transfer the sensor data through the communication module.
transfer the
the sensor
sensor data
data through
through thethe communication
communication module.
module.

Figure
Figure4.4. The
4.The proposed
Theproposed ultra-low-power
proposedultra-low-power WSTx
ultra-low-powerWSTx system
WSTxsystem diagram.
systemdiagram.
diagram.
Figure

2.1.
2.1. Study
2.1.Study Area
StudyArea
Area
The
The study
Thestudy
studywaswas conducted
wasconducted
conductedinin the
inthe Universiti
theUniversiti Tenaga
UniversitiTenaga Nasional,
TenagaNasional, Energy
Nasional,Energy Sphere
EnergySphere IoT
SphereIoT lab.
IoTlab.
lab.
The
The
Thelablab had
labhad 6.5
hadaaa6.5 × 9.59.5
6.5 9.5 square
square meter
meter
square area
area
meter consisting
consisting
area of
of 24
consisting 24
24 LED
of LED ceiling
ceiling
LED lamps,
lamps,
ceiling as
as shown
as shown
lamps, shownin
in
in Figure
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Each
5. Each LEDLED
Each waswas
LED measured
measured
was withwith
measured aa luxometer
a luxometer
with withwith
luxometer aa maximum
a maximum
with maximum luminous
luminous of
of 6600
of 6600
luminous lux.
6600
The LED ceiling lamps are gradually becoming the dominant light source in streets, offices,
and workspaces due to their power efficiency compared with fluorescent lamps [17,18].
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

lux. The LED ceiling lamps are gradually becoming the dominant light source in streets,
Electronics 2022, 11, 2077 4 of 21
offices, and workspaces due to their power efficiency compared with fluorescent lamps
[17,18].

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Illustration
Illustrationofofthe
thestudy
studyarea, where
area, there
where areare
there 24 24
LED ceiling
LED lamps;
ceiling eacheach
lamps; LEDLED
has ahas
max-
a
imum luminance of 6600 lux.
maximum luminance of 6600 lux.

The main
The main concern
concernabout aboutartificial
artificial light is the
light amount
is the amountof light intensity
of light with respect
intensity with re- to
the surface of the observer. The intensity of the LED follows
spect to the surface of the observer. The intensity of the LED follows the Lampartian the Lampartian principle
[19,20], where
principle [19,20],the degree
where the of illuminance
degree varies varies
of illuminance according to 𝑑𝜔,
according to which
dω, which represents
represents the
change
the changein the cosine
in the angle
cosine angle withwithrespect
respectto the
to the observer
observersurface
surfacedA.dA.
TheThe light intensity
light intensity of
a white LED can be represented using the Gaussian distribution
of a white LED can be represented using the Gaussian distribution function f θ (θ ), as in function 𝑓 𝜃 , as in (1)
[20–22].
(1) [20–22].The light
The intensity
light intensityvariedvariedaccording
accordingto to the displacement θ𝜃asas
the angular displacement inin Figure
Figure 6,
6, where 𝜃 is bounded by a minimum of −90 degrees
where θ is bounded by a minimum of −90 degrees and a maximum of 90 degrees. The and a maximum of 90 degrees. The
maximumintensity
maximum intensitycan canbebeobtained
obtained at at
thethemean mean σ of𝜎the
value
value of Gaussian
the Gaussian distribution.
distribution. The
The illuminance
illuminance intensity
intensity Ir of any 𝐼 of anysource
light light source
describes describes the amount
the amount of luminousof luminous flux
flux varphi
𝜑 angle
at at angle 𝜔,shown
ω, as as shown in Figure
in Figure 5, where
5, where the the illuminance
illuminance intensity
intensity cancan be calculated
be calculated as inas
in (2)
(2) [19].[19]. Therefore,
Therefore, the the illuminance
illuminance intensity
intensity of the of the
LEDLED decreases
decreases as height
as the the height
h fromh from
the
the light
light source
source increases,
increases, as measured
as measured in Figure
in Figure 7. 7.
 
k k θ −µ 2
f θ (𝑓θ ) =
θ  = ⎛ q ⎞e−e2( σ ) , (− , −90
90 ≤ θ θ≤ 90 90) (1)
(1)
σ 𝜎π2 𝜋
⎝ 2⎠
 
dvarphi d𝜑= = ( Ir𝐼/h/ℎ2 ) cos
cos(θθ) dA,𝑑𝐴, 𝑑𝜔 dω = = 𝑑𝐴/ℎ
dA/h2cos cosθ(θ,),
d𝜑 𝐼I /h /ℎ2
cos θ 𝑑𝐴
cos(θ ) dA
𝐼 =
dvarphi = r (2)
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW Ir =
dω 𝑑𝜔 = 𝑑𝐴/ℎ 2 cos θ 5 of 21 (2)
(dA/h ) cos(θ )

Figure 6. LED light intensity distribution (𝜇 = 0, 𝜎 = 54.1218).

Figure 6. LED light intensity distribution (µ = 0, σ = 54.1218).
Electronics 2022, 11, 2077 5 of 21

Figure 6. LED light intensity distribution (𝜇 = 0, 𝜎 = 54.1218).

Figure 7. The measured relation between luminance intensity and height.

Figure 7. The measured relation between luminance intensity and height.

Theilluminance
The illuminanceintensity
intensityformula
formulacan canbe beconverted
convertedinto intothethecartesian
cartesiancoordination
coordination
wherethe
where theilluminance
illuminance atat any
any point
point P(x,y,z)
P(x, y, z) can bebe
can obtained
obtained as inas (3) where
in (3) (X, Y,
where (X,Z)Y,rep-
Z)
resent thethe
represent global coordination
global coordination with respect
with respect to the light
to the source.
light source. TheTheequation
equationto obtain
to obtainthe
total
the illuminance
total illuminancefrom thethe
from LEDLEDmatrix at any
matrix at any point in the
point surface
in the surfacecancanbe be
represented
representedin in(4)
[23].
(4) [23].
zIr
E( x, y, z) = 𝑧𝐼 (3)
E 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 (=X 2 , Y 2 , Z2 )−2 ln (2)/ ln/(cos (θ )) (3)
𝑋 ,𝑌 ,𝑍
24 24
zIr 𝑧𝐼
∑ i E 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∑
E ( x, y, z ) = =  −2 ln (2)/ ln (cos (θ ))
/
(4)
(4)
i =1 i =1 ( x − 𝑥X−
)2𝑋
, (y ,−𝑦Y−
)2𝑌, (z), 2 𝑧

2.2. PV Cells
2.2. PV Cells
The principle of the PV effect has emerged from semiconductor technology, where
The principle of the PV effect has emerged from semiconductor technology, where
the conductivity status of semiconductor materials such as silicon can be determined by
the conductivity status of semiconductor materials such as silicon can be determined by
adding impurities. The impurities convert the pure semiconductor material into major and
adding impurities. The impurities convert the pure semiconductor material into major
minor electron carriers, representing a positive P-channel region or a negative N-channel
and minor electron carriers, representing a positive P-channel region or a negative N-
region [24]. The silicon PV cell is constructed from a PN-junction where a thin N-channel
channel region [24]. The silicon PV cell is constructed from a PN-junction where a thinofN-
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
is used to absorb the light allowing the photons to reach the P-channel. If the photon6 has 21
channel is used to absorb the light allowing the photons to reach the P-channel. If the
sufficient energy to hit the bond of the silicon crystal, an electron pair of positive holes and
photon has sufficient energy to hit the bond of the silicon crystal, an electron pair of pos-
negative electrons will be generated, as illustrated in Figure 8. This process will cause a
itive holes and negative electrons will be generated, as illustrated in Figure 8. This process
voltage difference
will cause between
a voltage the N-channel
difference between and the P-channel,
the N-channel and which by its role,
the P-channel, will drive
which by its
the electrical current to flow through the depletion layer [25,26].
role, will drive the electrical current to flow through the depletion layer [25,26].

Figure 8. The internal structure of a silicon solar cell.

Figure 8. The internal structure of a silicon solar cell.

Polycrystalline (P-c) and monocrystalline (M-c) solar cells are the most commonly
used types of silicon PV [27]. P-c solar cells are synthesized from several silicon crystals.
The efficiency of the P-c solar cells can reach 13%. On the contrary, M-c solar cells are
synthesized from a single silicon crystal. The M-c silicon cells have higher efficiency than
Electronics 2022, 11, 2077 6 of 21

Figure 8. The internal structure of a silicon solar cell.

Polycrystalline
Polycrystalline(P-c)
(P-c)and
andmonocrystalline
monocrystalline(M-c)
(M-c)solar
solarcells
cellsare
arethe
themost
mostcommonly
commonly
used
used types of silicon PV [27]. P-c solar cells are synthesized from severalsilicon
types of silicon PV [27]. P-c solar cells are synthesized from several siliconcrystals.
crystals.
The
Theefficiency
efficiencyofofthe
theP-c
P-csolar
solarcells
cellscan
canreach
reach13%.
13%.OnOnthe
thecontrary,
contrary,M-c
M-csolar
solarcells
cellsare
are
synthesized from a single silicon crystal. The M-c silicon cells have higher efficiency
synthesized from a single silicon crystal. The M-c silicon cells have higher efficiency than
than the P-c cells, which can reach 15% [28]. However, the prices of M-c cells are much
the P-c cells, which can reach 15% [28]. However, the prices of M-c cells are much higher
higher than P-c cells. Besides the silicon-based solar cells, the PV effect can be obtained
than P-c cells. Besides the silicon-based solar cells, the PV effect can be obtained from dif-
from different non-silicon materials such as organic solar cells, perovskite solar cells, and
ferent non-silicon materials such as organic solar cells, perovskite solar cells, and dye-
dye-sensitized solar cells [29–31]. In this study, two P-c solar panels have been used to
sensitized solar cells [29–31]. In this study, two P-c solar panels have been used to collect
collect the ambient light from the indoor environment. The solar panels have a total area
the ambient light from the indoor environment. The solar panels have a total area of
of 11.5 × 23.0 square centimeters, as shown in Figure 9. The light intensity in the study
11.5 23.0 square centimeters, as shown in Figure 9. The light intensity in the study area
area varies according to the height of the light source. The closer the distance to the light
varies according to the height of the light source. The closer the distance to the light
source, the higher the luminance intensity; hence, the generated voltage is proportional to
source, the higher the luminance intensity; hence, the generated voltage is proportional to
the luminance intensity, where the measured relation is shown in Figure 10. The relation
the luminance intensity, where the measured relation is shown in Figure 10. The relation
between the height and the open-circuit generated voltage can be found in Figure A2.
between the height and the open-circuit generated voltage can be found in Figure A2.

Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 21

Figure 9. An 11.5 × 23 cm2 polycrystalline solar panel.
Figure 9. An 11.5 × 23 cm2 polycrystalline solar panel.

Figure10.
Figure 10.The
Themeasured
measuredrelation
relationbetween
betweenthe
theluminance
luminanceand
andthe
thegenerated
generatedopen-circuit
open-circuit voltage.
voltage.

Thepanels
The panelshave
havebeen
beenconnected
connectedinina aparallel
parallelconfiguration
configurationtotomaximize
maximizethe theoutput
output
currentsince
current sinceaa single panel
panel has
hasan
anoutdoor
outdoormaximum
maximum output
output current of 390
current mA mA
of 390 and and
0.644
mA for
0.644 mAindoor performance.
for indoor The measured
performance. outdoor
The measured and indoor
outdoor performance
and indoor of theof
performance panels
the
is shown
panels in Figure
is shown 11. The
in Figure 11. figure describes
The figure the non-linear
describes relation
the non-linear between
relation betweencurrent and
current
voltage,
and known
voltage, known as as
thethe
IVIVcurve.
curve.The
TheMaximum
MaximumPower PowerPoint
Point (MPP) is the
the result
resultofofthe
the
directmultiplication
direct multiplicationofofthe
themaximum
maximumcurrent 𝐼 times
currentI Mpp timesthe
themaximum
maximumvoltage 𝑉 , as
voltageVMpp , as
in (5). The outdoor MPP value was 1.76 W, and in contrast, the indoor MPP was 1.4 mW.
The modeling of PV cells is significant in studying the efficiency of solar panels. There are
two common models for solar cells: the one-diode model and the two-diode model [32].
Both models can represent the solar cell, whereas, in this study, we used the one-diode
 Figure 10. The measured relation between the luminance and the generated open-circuit voltage.

The panels have been connected in a parallel configuration to maximize the output
current since a single panel has an outdoor maximum output current of 390 mA and 0.644
mA for indoor performance. The measured outdoor and indoor performance of the panels
Electronics 2022, 11, 2077 7 of 21
is shown in Figure 11. The figure describes the non-linear relation between current and
voltage, known as the IV curve. The Maximum Power Point (MPP) is the result of the
direct multiplication of the maximum current 𝐼 times the maximum voltage 𝑉 , as
in
in (5). The outdoor MPP value was 1.76 W, and in contrast,the
(5). The outdoor MPP value was 1.76 W, and in contrast, the indoor
indoor MPP
MPP was
was 1.4
1.4 mW.
mW.
The
The modeling of PV cells is significant in studying the efficiency of solar panels. Thereare
modeling of PV cells is significant in studying the efficiency of solar panels. There are
two
twocommon
commonmodels
modelsforforsolar
solarcells:
cells:the
theone-diode
one-diodemodel
modeland andthe
thetwo-diode
two-diode model
model [32].
[32].
Both models can represent the solar cell, whereas, in this study, we used the one-diode
Both models can represent the solar cell, whereas, in this study, we used the one-diode
representation as in Figure 12.
representation as in Figure 12.
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21

maximum outdoor solar irradiance is (1000 w/m2), where the total size of the solar panel
is (11.65 23 𝑐𝑚 ). The outdoor efficiency of the P-c solar panels can be estimated as in
(8), where FF is the fill factor as in (7).
𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉 𝐼 (5)

𝑣 +𝑖 𝑅
𝑖 =𝐼 −𝐼 𝑒 −1 − , 𝑘 = 1.380650 10 𝐽/𝐾 (6)
𝑅

𝑀𝑃𝑃 1.76
𝐹𝐹 = = = 0.47438 (7)
𝐼 𝑉 577 10 6.43

𝑃Figure 11. 𝑉 𝐹𝐹
𝐼 Solar panel performance; (a)1.76 the measured indoor I-V characteristic curve and (b) the
𝜂 % = Figure=11. Solar panel100 =
performance; 100 =
(a) the measured indoor I-V6.654% at 45.7
characteristic °C and (b) the(8)
curve
𝑃
measured 𝑃
outdoor 100 11.5
I-V characteristic curve. 23 10
measured outdoor I-V characteristic curve.

The one-diode model describes the parameters of the solar cells where 𝑖 represents
the source photon current generated by the PV effect. The total net current 𝑖 can be
calculated as in (6) where 𝐼 is the reverse saturation current, 𝐼 is the shunt current, T
is the absolute temperature, q is the charge of the electron, k is the Boltzmann constant,
𝑅 is the shunt resistor, 𝑣 is the voltage difference across the PV cell terminals, 𝑅 is
a series resistor, and 𝛼 is the diode factor [33,34]. The efficiency of the solar cell 𝜂 is re-
lated to the ratio between the input power and the maximum output power. The

Figure
Figure 12.12.The
Theone-diode
one-diodemodel
modelsolar
solar cell
cell equivalent
equivalent circuit.
circuit.

According
The one-diode to model
P. R.Michael
describes et al.
the[35], for an indoor
parameters of theenvironment withi Ph
solar cells where LED light, the
represents
conversation between irradiance and luminance can be estimated
the source photon current generated by the PV effect. The total net current i Pv can as in (9). At the height
be
of 1.6 m from
calculated as in the ceilingI0LED,
(6) where is thethe amount
reverse of lux was
saturation 582 lux;
current, therefore,
Ish is the shuntthe indoorTeffi-
current, is
ciency
the of the
absolute solar panels
temperature, q iscanthebe calculated
charge of the as in (11).k Table
electron, 1 comparesconstant,
is the Boltzmann the indoorRShand
is
outdoor
the parameters
shunt resistor, v Pv of
is the solar
voltage panels.
difference across the PV cell terminals, RS is a series
resistor, and α is the diode factor [33,34]. The efficiency of the solar cell η is related to the
𝑊
ratio between the input power 1and the = 116 output
𝑚 maximum 3 lux indoor
power. The maximum outdoor
solar irradiance is (1000 w/m2 ), where the total size𝑚𝑊 of the solar panel is (11.65 × 23 cm2(9) ).
∴ 𝑎𝑡 582 𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 0.50172 𝑐𝑚 0.02
The outdoor efficiency of the P-c solar panels can be estimated as in (8), where FF is the fill
factor as in (7). 𝑀𝑃𝑃 0.0014
𝐹𝐹 = MPP ==VMpp × I Mpp = 0.42772 (10)
(5)
𝐼 𝑉 0.98 10 3.34
 q(v
pv+ IPh RS ) v pv + i pv Rs
    
𝑃 𝐼i Pv 𝑉= I𝐹𝐹
Ph − I0 e
( αkT )
1.400 − 1 10− , k = 1.380650 × 10−23 J/K (6)
𝜂 %= = 100 = Rsh 100 = 1.055% 0.045 at 25 °C (11)
𝑃 𝑃 0.50172 11.5 23 10

Table 1. Comparison between indoor and outdoor parameters.

Temp (°𝐂) ISC (mA) VOC VMPP IMPP(mA) MPP (mW) 𝜼%

Indoor 25 0.98 3.34 1.977 0.707 1.4 1.055 0.045
Outdoor 45.7 577 6.43 3.88 453.4 1760 6.654
Electronics 2022, 11, 2077 8 of 21

MPP 1.76
FFoutdoor = = = 0.47438 (7)
ISC VOC 577 × 10−3 × 6.43
Pout I V FF 1.76
ηoutdoor % = = SC OC × 100 = × 100 = 6.654% (at 45.7 ◦ C) (8)
Pin Pin 100 × 11.5 × 23 × 10−3
According to P. R. Michael et al. [35], for an indoor environment with LED light, the
conversation between irradiance and luminance can be estimated as in (9). At the height of
1.6 m from the ceiling LED, the amount of lux was 582 lux; therefore, the indoor efficiency
of the solar panels can be calculated as in (11). Table 1 compares the indoor and outdoor
parameters of the solar panels.
 
W
1 m 2 = 116 ± 3 lux (indoor)
  (9)
∴ at 582 lux = 0.50172 mW cm2
± 0.02

MPP 0.0014
FFindoor = = = 0.42772 (10)
ISC VOC 0.98 × 10−3 × 3.34

Pout I V FF 1.400 × 10−3

ηindoor % = = SC OC × 100 = × 100 = 1.055% ± 0.045(at 25 ◦ C) (11)
Pin Pin 0.50172 × 11.5 × 23 × 10−3

Table 1. Comparison between indoor and outdoor parameters.

Temp (◦ C) ISC (mA) VOC VMPP IMPP (mA) MPP (mW) η%

Indoor 25 0.98 3.34 1.977 0.707 1.4 1.055 ± 0.045
Outdoor 45.7 577 6.43 3.88 453.4 1760 6.654

2.3. Power Management Unit

The PMU is essential for IoT applications that work without a consistent power sup-
ply [36–38]. In this study, the Texas Instrument bq25570 energy management module [39]
was used to manage the harvested solar power. The module is mainly designed for ULP
applications where it provides an efficient power extraction from low-power, high-input
impedance generators such as solar cells. The module’s operation starts by converting the
input voltage into higher voltage levels through an embedded DC to DC boost converter.
The converter can operate at a low starting input voltage of 330 mV; once the voltage at
the boost charger VSTOR terminal reaches 1.8 V, the converter will accept lower voltages as
120 mV. The efficiency of the boost converter depends on the amount of power reaching the
storage element concerning the input power as in (12). Figure 13 shows the efficiency curve
of the boost charger concerning the input voltage. In addition to this, the module offers a
programable MPPT unit that enables extracting the maximum power under various ambi-
ent light conditions. Additionally, the module can maintain a stable output voltage through
the embedded buck converter, which can deliver up to 100 mA to the buck converter output
terminal. Figure 14 shows the bq25570 module and the connection terminals.

Pout V × ISTOR
η% = = STOR (12)
Pin VI N × I I N
 ous
ous ambient
ambient light
light conditions.
conditions. Additionally,
Additionally, the
the module
module can
can maintain
maintain aa stable
stable output
output volt-
volt-
age through the embedded buck converter, which can deliver up to 100 mA
age through the embedded buck converter, which can deliver up to 100 mA to the buckto the buck
converter
converter output
output terminal.
terminal. Figure
Figure 14
14 shows
shows thethe bq25570
bq25570 module
module and
and the
the connection
connection ter-
ter-
minals.
minals.
Electronics 2022, 11, 2077 𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝐼 9 of 21
𝜂%
𝜂% =
= 𝑃 == 𝑉 (12)
(12)
𝑃 𝑉 𝐼𝐼

Figure
Figure 13. The
13.The
Figure13. measured
Themeasured boost
measuredboost converter
boostconverter efficiency
converterefficiency curve
curve(I(𝐼
efficiencycurve =
= 0.656𝑚𝐴).
(𝐼I N = 0.656𝑚𝐴).
0.656 mA).

Figure 14.
Figure14. The
14.The bq25570
Thebq25570 power
bq25570power management
powermanagement module.
managementmodule.
module.
Figure

There are
Thereare
There many
aremany types
manytypes of
typesof rechargeable
ofrechargeable batteries
rechargeablebatteries that
batteriesthat can
thatcan be
canbe used
beused to
usedto store
tostore the
storethe harvested
theharvested
harvested
voltage, such
voltage,such
voltage, suchasas lithium-ion
aslithium-ion (Li-ion)
lithium-ion(Li-ion) and
(Li-ion)and Lithium-ion
andLithium-ion Polymer
Lithium-ionPolymer (LiPo)
Polymer(LiPo) batteries.
(LiPo)batteries. However,
batteries. However,
However,
these types of storage elements have a high Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) and a
short cycle life [40,41]. The supercapacitor can be used alternative to batteries in energy
harvesting applications [42–44]. The supercapacitors have low ESR, which provides a fast
peak power delivery. Additionally, supercapacitors have a long cycle life compared with
Li-ion batteries. In this study, we used a 90 F supercapacitor with a maximum charging
voltage of 4.2 V to store the harvested solar power. Figure 15 shows the open-circuit
supercapacitor charging curve through the PMU.

Electronics 2022, 11, 2077
these types of storage elements have a high Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) and a short
cycle life [40,41]. The supercapacitor can be used alternative to batteries in energy harvest-
ing applications [42–44]. The supercapacitors have low ESR, which provides a fast peak
power delivery. Additionally, supercapacitors have a long cycle life compared with Li-
ion batteries. In this study, we used a 90 F supercapacitor with a maximum charging volt-
10 of 21
age of 4.2 V to store the harvested solar power. Figure 15 shows the open-circuit superca-
pacitor charging curve through the PMU.

Figure15.
Figure 15.The
Themeasured
measuredopen-circuit
open-circuitsupercapacitor
supercapacitorcharging
chargingcurve
curveversus
versusthe
thesolar
solarinput
inputvoltage
voltage
(at 582 lux).
(at 582 lux).

2.4.
2.4.Wireless
WirelessSensor
SensorUnit
Unit
The
Thewireless
wirelesssensor
sensorunit unitconsists
consistsofofthree
threemain
maincomponents,
components,the theDHT11
DHT11humidity
humidity
and
and temperature sensor, the ATMEGA328P MCU, and the RFM96W LoRa module[45,46],
temperature sensor, the ATMEGA328P MCU, and the RFM96W LoRa module [45,46],
asasshown
shownininFigure
Figure16;16;more
moredesign
designdetails
detailscan
canbe
befound
foundininFigure
FigureA1.A1.Table
Table22describes
describes
the
thecurrent
currentand
andvoltage
voltagecharacteristics
characteristicsofofthe
theWSTx
WSTxcomponents.
components.The TheMCUMCUcan canmanage
manage
the
thecontrol
controlsignals
signalsandandthethecommunication
communicationprotocols;
protocols;hence,
hence,thetheMCU
MCUisisthe thekey
keyelement
element
ininreducing
reducingthe thepower
powerconsumption
consumptionfrom fromthe
theWStx.
WStx.Many
Manystudies
studieshavehavebeen
beenpublished
published
about reducing MCU power consumption. For instance, Amit Sinha et
about reducing MCU power consumption. For instance, Amit Sinha et al. [47] proposed al. [47] proposed an
Operating System (OS) based dynamic power management of WSN.
an Operating System (OS) based dynamic power management of WSN. The authors pro- The authors proposed
event-driven power management
posed event-driven power management to reduce the power
to reduce consumption
the power wherewhere
consumption the OS thecan
OS
automatically determine the operation mode of the MCU. Additionally,
can automatically determine the operation mode of the MCU. Additionally, the OS can the OS can adjust
the MCU
adjust thefrequency to optimize
MCU frequency the power
to optimize theconsumption.
power consumption.The authors suggestsuggest
The authors an ARM- an
based MCU for the OS implementation. However, the implementation
ARM-based MCU for the OS implementation. However, the implementation of OS in lim- of OS in limited
resource 8-bit microcontrollers
ited resource such assuch
8-bit microcontrollers the ATMEGA328P
as the ATMEGA328P will force
willthe MCU
force thetoMCU
operate at
to op-
higher frequencies dissipating more energy. Another study by Ling Lin et al.
erate at higher frequencies dissipating more energy. Another study by Ling Lin et al. [38] [38] proposed
aproposed
multipower space fabrication
a multipower spacescheme for MCUs
fabrication to reduce
scheme the power
for MCUs consumption
to reduce the power during
con-
sleep mode, which required a redesign of the MCU.
sumption during sleep mode, which required a redesign of the MCU.
Angelo Silva et al. [48] proposed a power gating technique to reduce the power
consumption during the sleep mode. Power gating techniques simply disable the power
line from all the WSTx elements. The efficiency of this technique highly depends on the
type of WSN application. The disadvantage of power gating is the power consumption
during the initialization period, which is required upon resting all the WSTx elements.
The initialization period is the period needed for the WSTx to define the communication
parameters, registers, and connection ports. One important consideration in designing
ultra-low-power WSN is the type of MCU. Some microcontrollers have a relatively high-
power consumption under the deep sleep mode [49]. For example, Md. Rokonuzzaman
et al. [50] proposed a similar self-power WSN device based on an indoor solar harvester.
The study used the ESP32 MCU, DHT temperature humidity sensor, moisture sensor, and
Electronics 2022, 11, 2077 11 of 21

ADP5091
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW PMU with a total power consumption of 200 mW, representing a considerable 11 of 21
consumption value. The harvested energy lasted for 96 s via a 0.47 F supercapacitor.

Figure 16. The designed WSTx where (a) is the circuit diagram and (b) is the actual design.
Figure 16. The designed WSTx where (a) is the circuit diagram and (b) is the actual design.

TableAngelo Silva et
2. The current al.voltage
and [48] proposed a power
characteristics gating
of the WSTxtechnique to reduce the power con-
components.
sumption during the sleep mode. Power gating techniques simply disable the power line
ATMEGA328P RFM96Wof this technique highly depends
from all the WSTx elements. The efficiency DHT11on the type
Operating of WSN application. The disadvantage of power gating is the power consumption during
1.8–5.5 1.8–3.7 3–5.5
Voltage (V) the initialization period, which is required upon resting all the WSTx elements. The ini-
Active tialization0.2
period is theSleep
period needed for 0.0002–0.001
the WSTx to define theMeasuring
communication 0.5–2.5
param-
Power-down 0.00010 Idle 0.0015 Average 0.2–1
eters, registers, and connection ports. One important consideration in designing ultra-
Standby 1.6–1.8
Current low-power WSN is the type
Receiveof MCU. Some microcontrollers
11.47 (AVG) have a relatively high-power
Consumption(mA) consumption under the deep sleep mode [49]. For example,
+20 dBm 120 Md. Rokonuzzaman et al. [50]
Power-saveproposed0.00074 Standby 0.01–0.15
a similar self-power WSN +17device
dBmbased on an 87indoor solar harvester. The study
Transmit
used the ESP32 MCU, DHT temperature +13 dBm 29 moisture sensor, and ADP5091
humidity sensor,
PMU with a total power consumption +7ofdBm 20
200 mW, representing a considerable consump-
tion value. The harvested energy lasted for 96 s via a 0.47 F supercapacitor.
To reduce the power consumption from the WSTx, we proposed a firmware-based
Table 2. The current and voltage characteristics of the WSTx components.
power managing method. The proposed method applies only to digital sensors due to
its programmability
ATMEGA328Pfeature. The method has two stages, the initialization
RFM96W DHT11stage and the
Operating main program loop stage. The initialization is only performed once to avoid high power
consumption 1.8–5.5 1.8–3.7
during the initialization period [51]. The initialization stage3–5.5
consists of three
Voltage (V)
procedures. The first procedure is the MCU initialization, which includes the following
Active 0.2 Sleep 0.0002–0.001 Measuring 0.5–2.5
tasks: disabling the unused devices inside the MCU, such as the Brown-Out Detector (BOD)
Power-down 0.00010 Idle 0.0015 Average 0.2–1
and the Analog to Digital Converter (ADC), setting the input and output ports, defining
Standby 1.6–1.8
the operating frequency, defining the sleep mode, and setting the Watch-Dog-Timer (WDT).
Current The BOD is the device responsible Receive 11.47 (AVG)
for distinguishing between high and low voltage levels.
Consumption(mA) However, in such an energy harvesting +20 dBmthe120
situation, low voltage level from the boost
Power-save 0.00074 Standby 0.01–0.15
charger is always less than the Transmit
standard BOD +17 dBm 87 Disabling the BOD will help
logic level.
accept voltages lower than the BOD level,+13 as dBm
low as 1.829 V, representing the minimum
voltage level to operate the MCU and the Lora +7 dBm
module.20 Figure 17 shows the logic voltage
levels of the boost charger versus the BOD 2.7 voltage level. The program structure of the
WSTxTo is reduce
shown the power18.
in Figure consumption from the WSTx, we proposed a firmware-based
power managing method. The proposed method applies only to digital sensors due to its
programmability feature. The method has two stages, the initialization stage and the main
program loop stage. The initialization is only performed once to avoid high power con-
sumption during the initialization period [51]. The initialization stage consists of three
procedures. The first procedure is the MCU initialization, which includes the following

Electronics 2022, 11, 2077
defining the operating frequency, defining the sleep mode, and setting the Watch-Dog-
Timer (WDT). The BOD is the device responsible for distinguishing between high and low
voltage levels. However, in such an energy harvesting situation, the low voltage level
from the boost charger is always less than the standard BOD logic level. Disabling the
BOD will help accept voltages lower than the BOD level, as low as 1.8 V, representing the
minimum voltage level to operate the MCU and the Lora module. Figure 17 shows the 12 of 21
logic voltage levels of the boost charger versus the BOD 2.7 voltage level. The program
structure of the WSTx is shown in Figure 18.

Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 21

Figure 17.
Figure 17. The
TheBOD
BODvoltage
voltagelevel versus
level the charger
versus voltage
the charger levels.levels.
voltage

The ADC converts the continuous-time signals into digital signals. Usually, the ADC
is attached to an analog sensor that measures a physical quantity. However, the analog-
to-digital transformation process consumes more energy; hence a digital sensor can be
used to avoid using the ADC. The clock frequency is essential in reducing power con-
sumption, where higher clock rates require more power [51]. The ATMEGA38P has six
sleeping modes: idle, ADC noise reduction, power-down, power-save, standby, and ex-
tended standby.

Figure 18. The proposed firmware-based power consumption flowchart.

Figure 18. The proposed firmware-based power consumption flowchart.
Figure 19 illustrates the power consumption of the ATMEGA328P sleep modes,
where the power down represents the most miniature power consumption mode. The
power-down sleep mode halts the system clock where an interrupt signal is required to
wake up the processor. Since the WDT is separate from the system clock, it can be used as
a system clock-independent device to wake up the processor. Therefore, we used the WDT
to produce an internal interrupt signal after completing the sleep duration. The WDT has
 Electronics 2022, 11, 2077 13 of 21

The ADC converts the continuous-time signals into digital signals. Usually, the ADC
is attached to an analog sensor that measures a physical quantity. However, the analog-to-
digital transformation process consumes more energy; hence a digital sensor can be used
to avoid using the ADC. The clock frequency is essential in reducing power consumption,
where higher clock rates require more power [51]. The ATMEGA38P has six sleeping modes:
idle, ADC noise reduction, power-down, power-save, standby, and extended standby.
Figure 19 illustrates the power consumption of the ATMEGA328P sleep modes, where
the power down represents the most miniature power consumption mode. The power-
down sleep mode halts the system clock where an interrupt signal is required to wake
up the processor. Since the WDT is separate from the system clock, it can be used as a
system clock-independent device to wake up the processor. Therefore, we used14the
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW of WDT
21
to produce an internal interrupt signal after completing the sleep duration. The WDT has
been set to the maximum time-out value of 8 s.

703.22 703.22
Power Consumption (µW)

606.17

21.09 42.19 42.19

Idle ADC Noise Power Down Power Save Standby Extended

Reduction Standby

Figure
Figure TheThe
19.19. measured
measured power
power consumption
consumption comparison
comparison between
between different
different sleep
sleep modes
modes of the
of the
ATMEGA328P MCU (at 3.7 v
ATMEGA328P MCU (at 3.7 v input).input).

TheThe second
second stage
stage of of
thethe initialization
initialization is of
is of thethe RFM96
RFM96 LoRa
LoRa module.
module. This
This process
process
aimed to define the LoRa modulation, define the communication parameter, and setset
aimed to define the LoRa modulation, define the communication parameter, and thethe
RFM96 sleep mode. The communication between the MCU and
RFM96 sleep mode. The communication between the MCU and the LoRa module is done the LoRa module is done
through the Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) protocol. The third stage of the initialization is
through the Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) protocol. The third stage of the initialization
thesensor
is the sensorinitialization
initializationwhich
whichconsists
consistsofofsetting
setting the
the sensor
sensor pins
pins andand defining
defining thethe sensor
sensor
communication protocol where the DHT11 uses a half-duplex single-wire serial communi-
communication protocol where the DHT11 uses a half-duplex single-wire serial commu-
cation protocol. The sampling rate of the DHT sensor has been set to 1 Hz, which is the
nication protocol. The sampling rate of the DHT sensor has been set to 1 Hz, which is the
maximum sampling frequency of the device; hence a ts delay of 1 s has been added after
maximum sampling frequency of the device; hence a ts delay of 1 s has been added after
every reading.
every reading.
The program loop starts with acquiring the data from the sensor through the single-
The program loop starts with acquiring the data from the sensor through the single-
wire protocol. This process requires an amount of delay ts . After the delay period, the MCU
wire protocol. This process requires an amount of delay ts. After the delay period, the
will transfer the sensor data to the LoRa module, which will transmit the data to the gate
MCU will transfer the sensor data to the LoRa module, which will transmit the data to the
node or any neighbor node. After the transmission process, the LoRa module will go to
gate node or any neighbor node. After the transmission process, the LoRa module will go
sleep mode, followed by the MCU. Some digital sensors also can be configured to enable
to sleep mode, followed by the MCU. Some digital sensors also can be configured to ena-
the sleep mode; therefore, more power can be saved during the sleep mode. The WDT will
ble the sleep mode; therefore, more power can be saved during the sleep mode. The WDT
interrupt the MCU after the time-out duration, and the loop will start again after acquiring
willnew
interrupt the MCU
data from after the time-out duration, and the loop will start again after ac-
the sensor.
quiring new data from the sensor.
3. Results
3. Results
This section provides details about the designed ultra-low power WSTx. To develop
This section
an efficient provides
energy details
harvester, theabout
sourcethepower
designed ultra-low
Ps from the PMUpower WSTx.
should To develop
always be greater
an efficient energy harvester, the source power Ps from the PMU should always be greater
than the consumption power Pc. Therefore, the lower the power consumption at the WSTx,
the more efficient the harvesting system. Practically, some amount of power dissipates
through the power management and the storing processes, affecting the harvesting sys-
tem’s efficiency. Mathematically, the power consumption can be described as the in (13)
Electronics 2022, 11, 2077 14 of 21

than the consumption power Pc. Therefore, the lower the power consumption at the WSTx,
the more efficient the harvesting system. Practically, some amount of power dissipates
through the power management and the storing processes, affecting the harvesting system’s
efficiency. Mathematically, the power consumption can be described as the in (13) where
B0 is the initial stored energy, ηc is the charging efficiency, f is the capacity limit function,
which has been described in (14), Pleak is the capacitance leakage power, and B is the size of
the supercapacitor [52].
Z T Z T Z T
B0 + ηc f ( Ps (t) − Pc (t))dt − f ( Pc (t) − Ps (t))dt − Pleak (t)dt ≥ B, ∀ T ∈ [0, ∞) (13)
0 0 0
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW  15 of 21
x x≥0
f (x) = (14)
0 x<0
The
Themaximum
maximumvoltagevoltagelimit
limitof
ofthe
thesupercapacitor
supercapacitorrepresents
representsone
oneofofthe
thefundamental
fundamental
limitations in the harvesting system, where it will affect the Ps side [52]. Additionally,
limitations in the harvesting system, where it will affect the Ps side [52]. Additionally, the
the supercapacitor
supercapacitor hashas
anan internalresistance
internal resistanceininwhich
which self-discharging
self-discharging occurs
occurs without
withoutthe the
presence
presenceofofaaload.
load.TheTheself-discharging
self-dischargingproblem
problemcan canrepresent
representaachallenge
challengeififthere
thereisisno
no
input
inputpower
powerfor fora long
a longduration,
duration,where thethe
where voltage across
voltage the supercapacitor
across should
the supercapacitor always
should al-
be greater than 1.8 V. Figure 20 shows the measured voltage drop across the supercapacitor
ways be greater than 1.8 V. Figure 20 shows the measured voltage drop across the super-
terminal
capacitordue to the self-discharging
terminal impact. impact.
due to the self-discharging

Figure20.
Figure 20.The
Themeasured
measuredsupercapacitor
supercapacitorvoltage
voltagedrops
dropsdue
duetotoself-discharge
self-dischargeimpact
impact(open-circuit).
(open-circuit).

The
Thevoltage
voltagedrop
dropcan
canbebeminimized
minimizedby byincreasing
increasingthe thedeep
deepsleep
sleepduration.
duration. However,
However,
the
theWDT
WDTofofthe theATMEGA328P
ATMEGA328P hashas
a maximum
a maximum time-out
time-outduration
durationof 8of
s. 8Table 3 shows
s. Table the
3 shows
results of theofproposed
the results firmware-based
the proposed firmware-basedpower reduction
power technique.
reduction In thisInmeasurement,
technique. this measure-
the transmission
ment, power power
the transmission of the LoRa
of the module was set
LoRa module wasto set
a fixed gain of
to a fixed gain7 dbm; also, also,
of 7 dbm; the
power consumption was measured with a fixed input voltage of 3.7
the power consumption was measured with a fixed input voltage of 3.7 V. The resultsV. The results prove
the efficiency
prove of disabling
the efficiency the ADC,
of disabling the reducing the internal
ADC, reducing clock frequency
the internal clock frequencyto 1 MHz, and
to 1 MHz,
selecting the power-down sleep mode. This technique reduced power
and selecting the power-down sleep mode. This technique reduced power consumption consumption during
the sleepthe
during mode
sleeptomode
21.09toµW andµW
21.09 11.1
andmW11.1inmWthe in
operation mode.mode.
the operation Figure 21 shows
Figure the
21 shows
current consumption
the current during
consumption the initialization,
during operation,
the initialization, and sleep
operation, modemode
and sleep concerning the
concerning
solar input the boost charger output.
the solar input the boost charger output.

Table 3. Comparison of power consumption with different firmware configurations (at 3.7 V, Tx
gain 7 dBm).

MCU Measured Power Measured Power

µC Sleep Mode Internal ADC Consumption (µW) Consumption (µW)
Frequency (MHz) at Operation Mode at Sleep Mode
Case 1 Idle 4 On 25900 15540
Case 2 Idle 2 On 22200 13283
Electronics 2022, 11, 2077 15 of 21

Table 3. Comparison of power consumption with different firmware configurations (at 3.7 V, Tx gain
7 dBm).

MCU Measured Power Measured Power

µC Sleep Mode Internal ADC Consumption (µW) Consumption (µW)
Frequency (MHz) at Operation Mode at Sleep Mode
Case 1 Idle 4 On 25,900 15,540
Case 2 Idle 2 On 22,200 13,283
Case 3 Idle 2 Off 22,090 12,395
Case 4 Idle 1 Off 17,020 9990
Case 5 Power save
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1 Off 11,100 83 16 of 21
Case 6 Power down 1 Off 11,100 21.09

Figure21.
Figure 21. WSTx
WSTx measured
measuredcurrent
currentconsumption
consumptionduring
duringthethe
initialization, operation,
initialization, andand
operation, deepdeep
sleep
mode.
sleep mode.

Thealgebraic
The algebraic summation
summation of of the
thepower
powerconsumption
consumption through
through thethe
WSTx
WSTxelements rep-
elements
resents the total power consumption 𝑃 .as in (15). Where P is the
represents the total power consumption Pwstx .as in (15). Where Pβ is the power consump-
β power consumption
through
tion throughthe Printed Circuit
the Printed Board
Circuit (PCB)(PCB)
Board and theand resistors. Figure Figure
the resistors. 22 describes the percent-
22 describes the
age of the net
percentage power
of the consumption
net power of the WSTx
consumption of thecomponent. The energy
WSTx component. Thecan be described
energy can be
as the amount
described as theofamount
power of
consumption per time unit
power consumption (16), unit
per time where thewhere
(16), total energy consump-
the total energy
tion can be calculated
consumption as in (17)
can be calculated as in[53].
(17)Equation (17) emphasizes
[53]. Equation the crucial
(17) emphasizes role of
the crucial sleep
role of
duration
sleep in reducing
duration the energy
in reducing wherewhere
the energy tcycle describes how frequent
tcycle describes the operation
how frequent cycle is;
the operation
therefore,
cycle increasing
is; therefore, the sleep
increasing thetime
sleepwill decrease
time the sum
will decrease ofsum
the the active
of the durations.
active durations.
𝑃 = P= 𝑃 + P+ 𝑃 + P+ 𝑃 + P
Pwstx +𝑃 (15)
(15)
mcu sen LoRa β
𝐸 = 𝐼. 𝑉. 𝑇 (16)
E = I.V.T (16)
𝐸 =𝑃 .𝑡 +𝑃  . 𝑡 −𝑡  +𝐸 (17)
Ewstx = Pwstx .t active + Pwstx(sleep). tcycle − t active + Ewstx(wake−up) (17)

60

50
Consumption (%)

40

30
 duration in reducing the energy where tcycle describes how frequent the operation cycle is;
therefore, increasing the sleep time will decrease the sum of the active durations.
𝑃 =𝑃 +𝑃 +𝑃 +𝑃 (15)

𝐸 = 𝐼. 𝑉. 𝑇 (16)
Electronics 2022, 11, 2077 16 of 21
𝐸 =𝑃 .𝑡 +𝑃 . 𝑡 −𝑡 +𝐸 (17)

60

50

Power Consumption (%)

40

30

20

10

0
MCU LoRa Sensor

Figure
Figure 22.22.
TheThe power
power consumption
consumption percentage
percentage of of
thethe WSTx
WSTx elements.
elements.
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 21
The sleep duration should be long enough to allow the solar harvester to compensate
for the consumed power. Figure 23 shows the closed-circuit voltage drop across the
supercapacitor terminals as an impact of the 8 s sleep duration. However, the WDT
The sleep duration should be long enough to allow the solar harvester to compensate
time-out of 8 s is not enough to support the WDTx for a long time where the capacitor
for the consumed power. Figure 23 shows the closed-circuit voltage drop across the su-
charge
percapacitorlast
can only for
terminals as ancontinuous
impact of the6 8h.s sleep
The duration.
critical deep sleepthe
However, time
WDT can be estimated
time-out
based
of 8 s is not enough to support the WDTx for a long time where the capacitor charge can during
on the energy harvesting rate. Figure 24 compares the energy harvesting
the
lastopen-
only forand closed-circuit
continuous 6 h. Theconfiguration. The time
critical deep sleep closed-circuit harvesting
can be estimated based rate can reach
on the
aenergy
maximum harvesting rate. Figure 24 compares the energy harvesting during the open- and rapidly
of 1.2 mW per second; however, the energy harvesting rate declines
due to the imbalance
closed-circuit between
configuration. power consumption
The closed-circuit harvestingandratethe
canpower
reach asource.
maximum Therefore,
of at
1.2 mW
least 12 sper second;
of deep however,
sleep the energy
are required harvesting
to match rate declines
the power rapidly due
consumption to the
during theim-
operation
balanceThe
mode. between
maximumpowerpower
consumption andηWSTx
efficiency the power
of thesource.
WSTxTherefore,
unit can be at calculated
least 12 s ofas in (18).
deep sleep are required to match the power consumption during the operation
Fortunately, the current revolution in the Lithium-ion capacitor may significantly mode. Theimprove
maximum power efficiency 𝜂 of the WSTx unit can be calculated as
the supercapacitor’s electrical characteristics [54] by reducing the self-discharging in (18). Fortu- rate.
nately, the current revolution in the Lithium-ion capacitor may significantly improve the
supercapacitor’s electrical characteristics
Max Pout [54] by reducing
1.2 mW the self-discharging rate.
ηWSTx % = × 100% = × 100% = 85.714% (18)
𝑀𝑎𝑥 indoor
MPP 1.2𝑚𝑊
1.4 mW
𝜂 %= 100% = 100% = 85.714% (18)
𝑀𝑃𝑃 1.4𝑚𝑊

Figure 23.
Figure 23. Voltage
Voltagedrop
droprate
rateduring
duringthethe
harvesting (closed-circuit).
harvesting (closed-circuit).
Electronics 2022, 11, 2077 17 of 21

Figure 23. Voltage drop rate during the harvesting (closed-circuit).

Figure24.
Figure 24.Energy
Energy harvesting
harvesting profile,
profile, where
where (a)
(a)isisthe
theopen-circuit
open-circuit energy
energy harvesting
harvesting and
and (b)
(b) isisthe
the
closed-circuit energy harvesting.
closed-circuit energy harvesting.

Thesignificance
The significanceofofthis
thisstudy
studylies
lies
inin
thethe use
use of of
LoRaLoRa
as aasCommunication
a Communication Infrastruc-
Infrastructure
turebetween
(CI) (CI) between the nodes,
the nodes, whichwhich significantly
significantly reducesreduces the amount
the amount of power
of power consumed
consumed while
the system is in operation. Table 4 compares the findings to the most relevant research [50].

Table 4. A Comparison with the most related study where PCO is the Power Consumption at
Operation mode.

Power Supporting
Reference CI PCO (mW) MPP (mW)
Period (s)
Md. Rokonuzzaman et al. [50] Wi-fi/Bluetooth >200 500 95
Ours LoRa 11.1 1.4 21,600

4. Discussion
The study shows the ability of the indoor solar harvester to support the WSTx device
without depending on any external source of power supply. However, the proposed
method can function only by considering digital sensors where the MCU’s ADC is not
required. Additionally, disabling the BOD might not be suitable if the indoor environment
has high luminance fluctuation. Furthermore, more concerns should be raised about the
high price of the supercapacitor with respect to a typical 3.7 v Li-ion battery. The following
points describe a possible enhancement that can be addressed by future works:
• Studying the feasibility of using different types of PV technologies;
• Using different MCUs that have long WDT time-out duration;
• Studying the impact of using lithium-ion capacitors to improve the self-discharging effect.

5. Conclusions
The aim of this paper was to design a low-power WSTx unit using an indoor solar
power harvester and LoRa technologies. A description of the design details and the ex-
pected power management limitations were provided. The study demonstrated a potential
for self-powered WSN by utilizing emerging energy harvesting and low-power commu-
nication technologies. Furthermore, we discussed the efficiency of using polycrystalline
photovoltaic PV cells to harvest the ambient indoor light. The PV panels can provide a
maximum power of 1.4 mW. The measured power consumption of the developed WSTx
was 0.02109 mW during the sleep mode and 11.1 mW during the operation mode, where the
harvested energy can support the WSTx for a continuous 6 h. The harvesting system was
able to harvest up to 1.2 mW per second, where the designed WSTx achieved a maximum
power efficiency of 85.714%.
Electronics 2022, 11, 2077 18 of 21

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.M.E.H. and A.A.A.; Data curation, F.M.E.H.; Formal
analysis, A.A.A. and N.M.D.; Funding acquisition, N.M.D. and S.N.M.D.; Investigation, A.A.A. and
N.M.D.; Methodology, F.M.E.H.; Project administration, N.M.D. and S.N.M.D.; Resources, N.M.D. and
S.N.M.D.; Software, F.M.E.H.; Supervision, N.M.D. and S.N.M.D.; Validation, A.A.A.; Visualization,
F.M.E.H.; Writing—original draft, F.M.E.H.; Writing—review and editing, N.M.D. and A.A.A. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Universiti Tenaga National (UNITEN) Malaysia, under the
IC6-BOLDREFRESH2025 grant, project code J510050002.
Data Availability Statement: Not application.
Acknowledgments: The authors expressed their sincere gratitude to all bodies that have provided
their insight and expertise in this study, especially The Energy Sphere IoT lab.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Electronics 2022,
Electronics 2022, 11,
11, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 19 of
19 of 21
21
Appendix A

FigureA1.
Figure
Figure A1.The
A1. ThePCB
The PCBdesign
PCB designofof
design ofthe
theWSTx.
the WSTx.
WSTx.

Figure A2.
Figure A2. The measured
measured relation between
between the
the solar
solar panel’s
panel’s height
height and
and the
the generated open-circuit
open-circuit
Figure A2. The
The measuredrelation
relation between the solar panel’s height and generated
the generated open-
voltage.
voltage.
circuit voltage.
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