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Regional Climate Studies

Markus Quante
Franciscus Colijn Editors

North Sea Region

Climate Change
Assessment
Regional Climate Studies

Series editors
Hans-Jürgen Bolle†, München, Germany
Massimo Menenti, GA Delft, The Netherlands
S. Ichtiaque Rasool, Bethesda, USA

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/5071

The North Sea region as seen from satellite on 16 April 2003. Sensor Terra-Modis. Credit Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Rapid Response Team,
NASA/GSFC; Saharan dust signals have been removed
Markus Quante Franciscus Colijn
•

Editors

North Sea Region Climate

Change Assessment
Editors
Markus Quante Franciscus Colijn
Institute of Coastal Research Institute of Coastal Research
Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht
Geesthacht Geesthacht
Germany Germany

ISSN 1862-0248 ISSN 1865-505X (electronic)

Regional Climate Studies
ISBN 978-3-319-39743-6 ISBN 978-3-319-39745-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39745-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016941308

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016. This book is published open access.
Open Access This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
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Foreword

Climate change is a major threat for the 21st century and beyond as recognised by the world’s
governments who have funded the five assessments of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) and numerous special reports since the 1980s. These efforts have been
important in supporting global climate policy, culminating in the recent Paris Agreement on
reducing future greenhouse gas emissions. In contrast, adaptation happens on smaller scales
than climate mitigation and very different and more detailed information is required to support
such decisions. A number of regional and local assessments have been produced with these
issues in mind. As examples, in North America there have been several national assessments
of the implications of climate change as well as city level studies such as for New York. In
Europe there have been assessments at the EU scale such as the ACACIA and CLIMSAVE
projects, the Baltic Sea region, national assessments such as the Delta Commission in the
Netherlands, and city assessments such as for London and Hamburg.
The international North Sea Region Climate Change Assessment (NOSCCA) contributes
substantial new insight into these efforts for the greater North Sea Region, constituting the first
such assessment for this region. While North Sea societies have always faced climatic risk, the
challenges are growing due to human-induced climate change mainly forced by enhanced
greenhouse gas emissions, and often other significant non-climate drivers are in operation. At
the same time, the available knowledge of climate change and its implications has expanded
impressively over the past few decades. However, there is a challenge to synthesise and
communicate this information in accessible and useful forms. The present assessment rises to
these challenges to provide science-based information on climate change on the scale of
adaptation decision-makers.
The independent and voluntary assessment team come from across the North Sea region.
The component chapters have all been subject to extensive peer review and modification to
promote wide and inclusive perspectives. Collectively, the chapters address a range of issues
embracing climate science, ecosystems and socio-economics providing a unique integrated
perspective which can support decision-makers and policy development. The authorship and
editorship team are to be commended for their supreme efforts, establishing a platform for
further assessments and updates as needed. The approach is readily transferable and might be
transferred to other interested regions.

Robert J. Nicholls
Professor of Coastal Engineering
Review Editor for the North Sea Region Climate Change Assessment (NOSCCA)
University of Southampton, UK

v
Preface

Climate change impacts show wide regional variability; their strength, nature and evolution
depending on the principal features of the area in which they are occurring. To cope
responsibly with its impacts, decision-makers and authorities need sound information on the
specifics of climate change in their region. The science community would also benefit from a
comprehensive analysis of the state-of-knowledge on regional climate change and its effects.
The North Sea region is a precious natural and cultural environment and a major economic
entity within Europe. The North Sea is one of the world’s richest fishing grounds as well as
being one of the busiest seas with respect to marine traffic and its related infrastructure, oil and
gas extraction is also of high economic value. More recently the area has become a major site
for wind energy, with many large offshore wind farms. Climate change impacts are expected
to have profound effects on North Sea ecosystems and economic development. Despite its
importance, until now a comprehensive analysis of climate change and its impacts for the
region as a whole had not been attempted. Some nationally-focused studies with an emphasis
on climate change projections have been published in recent years, such as the UK Climate
Projections—Marine and Coastal Projections and the KNMI’14 Climate Scenarios for The
Netherlands to name but two examples,1 and these have all been considered in the present
study.
A few years ago, inspired by our colleague Hans von Storch, we initiated an international
climate change assessment of the North Sea region. We adopted a similar approach to that
successfully employed for reviews of knowledge on climate change in the Baltic Sea basin,
published in 2008 and 2015.2 This activity was named the North Sea Region Climate Change
Assessment—NOSCCA—and has involved around 200 climate scientists in different research
areas from all countries around the North Sea, as well as a few from more distant localities.
NOSCCA developed into an independent international initiative, with all scientists involved
contributing their time and effort on a voluntary basis as there was no extra funding available.
Present knowledge of climate change in the North Sea region has been evaluated mainly
using peer-reviewed publications on climate change in the physical systems and its effects on
land and marine systems. Two types of impact studies were envisaged: those concerning
specific ecosystems and those related to specific human activities causing degradation of the
environment.
After an introductory chapter on the North Sea region and its characteristics in terms of
geography, geology, hydrography, present-day climate and ecology, Part I describes the
climate change experienced over the past 200 years, described separately in each of three
chapters on the atmosphere, the North Sea and river flow. Part II examines projections of

1
Lowe, JA, Howard TP, Pardaens A, Tinker J, Holt J, Wakelin S, Milne G, Leake J, Wol J, Horsburgh K,
Reeder T, Jenkins G, Ridley J, Dye S, Bradley S. (2009) UK Climate Projections science report: Marine and
coastal projections. Met Office Hadley Centre, Exeter, UK; KNMI (2015): KNMI’14 climate scenarios for the
Netherlands; A guide for professionals in climate adaptation, KNMI, De Bilt, The Netherlands, 34 pp.
2
The BACC Author Team (2008), Assessment of Climate Change for the Baltic Sea Basin. Regional Climate
Studies, Springer-Verlag, 473pp; The BACC II Author Team (2015) Second Assessment of Climate Change
for the Baltic Sea Basin, Regional Climate Studies, Springer, 501pp.

vii
viii Preface

future climate with separate chapters on the atmosphere, the North Sea, and river flow and
urban drainage. The impacts of recent and future climate change on marine, coastal, lake and
terrestrial ecosystems are presented in Part III. The report concludes with a consideration of
climate change impacts on socio-economic sectors, Part IV contains chapters on fisheries,
agricultural systems, offshore activities related to the energy sector, urban climate, air quality,
recreation, coastal protection and finally coastal management and governance. Important
background information is presented in five annexes to the report. An overall summary
containing key statements from the different chapters precedes the main body of the book.
Climate change and its impacts on ecosystems has received much attention for many years.
However, assessing the impacts of climate change on natural systems is far from straight-
forward. Environmental impacts resulting from non-climate drivers often make it very difficult
to clearly establish the specific effects of climate change, which are already hard to attribute
due to the difficulties of discriminating between natural variability and human interventions
and their potential interactions. As a result, for many of the topics addressed in this assess-
ment, other drivers have also been discussed, especially those that may mask potential climate
change signals. Strict detection and attribution has not been undertaken here, mainly due to the
lack of relevant published work. This could be the subject of a follow-up activity.
This assessment is a joint effort of 35 Lead Authors and a large group of contributing
authors, who were willing to share their knowledge on many different aspects of the North Sea
region and to contribute to compiling the different chapters. The process has been overseen by
an international Scientific Steering Committee; the members are listed in the section ‘About
NOSCCA’. A review phase involving a sovereign review editor and more than 60 external
reviewers was crucial to establishing an independent and scientifically sound product. All
authors worked without financial support for this book and were supported by their respective
institutions. We are extremely grateful for their contributions. Authors and reviewers are
acknowledged and listed by name on the following pages. The open access publication of this
report was made possible by funds provided by various institutions, which are listed in the
acknowledgements section.
We consider this assessment to be the most comprehensive study of climate change in the
North Sea region to date. It is hoped that NOSCCA will be of use to decision-makers in the
many countries surrounding the North Sea as well as to those who are responsible for planning
and implementing climate change adaptation in the region. We hope this assessment will
stimulate further monitoring and topical studies on climate change in this ecologically and
economically important region of Europe and as a result will increase the effectiveness of
decision-making at the local level.

Geesthacht, Germany Markus Quante

Franciscus Colijn
Acknowledgements

Book Production, Meetings, and Talks

A comprehensive and thorough assessment of climate change in the North Sea region would
not be possible without the tremendous effort of many experts analysing regional climate
change and its impacts and compiling dedicated topical chapters or reviewing manuscripts.
Therefore, our thanks go primarily to the lead authors and contributing authors, who through
excellent teamwork have produced the most comprehensive assessment of climate change in
the North Sea region to date. We also thank the many reviewers, whose work has been crucial
in ensuring the high scientific standard of this assessment report. Lead authors, contributing
authors and disclosed reviewers are listed by name and institution on the following pages.
The entire review process was defined and overseen by an independent review editor. We
are extremely grateful to Prof. Robert J. Nicholls of the University of Southampton, UK, for
taking on and so competently accomplishing this important function.
The NOSCCA initiative was advised and supported, throughout the entire process, by an
international Scientific Steering Committee (SSC), whose contributions are greatly appreci-
ated. The members of the SSC are introduced in the section ‘About NOSCCA’ of this front
matter.
Working efficiently with a large group of experts from many different institutes and
countries in Europe profits from face-to-face exchange. Therefore several meetings of
NOSCCA lead authors and members of the SSC were held during the writing and revision
phases. The support—including financial—of some of our colleagues is greatly appreciated.
Monika Breuch-Moritz of the Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency (BSH), Germany,
hosted the first meeting of the SSC in close proximity to Hamburg harbour. The initial
gathering of the NOSCCA lead authors together with the members of the SSC took place in
the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in Amsterdam. This meeting was made
possible by Hein J.W. de Baar from the Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research and the
University of Groningen, The Netherlands. The second lead author meeting took place in the
Carlsberg Academy in Copenhagen, Denmark, and was arranged by Eigil Kaas of the Niels
Bohr Institute, Denmark. Jaap Kwadijk from Deltares, The Netherlands, arranged the third
lead author meeting at the Deltares subsidiary in Delft. The final lead author meeting took
place in the Chile House in Hamburg and was hosted by Daniela Jacob from the Climate
Service Centre Germany of the Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht.
The various topics of the envisaged climate change assessment were introduced during our
meetings by invited keynote speakers. For their inspiring talks we thank Bas Amelung
(Wageningen University, The Netherlands), Peter Burkill (Plymouth University, UK), Jens
Hesselbjerg Christensen (Danish Meteorological Institute), Ken Drinkwater (Institute of
Marine Research, Norway), Kirstin Halsnæs (Technical University of Denmark), Daniela
Jacob (Climate Service Centre Germany), Albert Klein Tank (Royal Netherlands Meteoro-
logical Institute), Jaap Kwadijk (Deltares, The Netherlands), John K. Pinnegar (Centre for
Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, UK), Marcus Reckermann (Baltic Earth),

ix
x Acknowledgements

Markku Rummukainen (Lund University, Sweden), Lesley Salt (Royal Netherlands Institute
for Sea Research), Corinna Schrum (University of Bergen, Norway, and Helmholtz-Zentrum
Geesthacht, Germany), Hendrik M. van Aken (Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research),
and Hans von Storch (Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Germany).
Producing such an extensive book is not possible without the technical support of particular
individuals, to whom we are extremely grateful. Special thanks go to our colleague Ingeborg
Nöhren; Ingeborg was deeply involved in technical editing, obtaining reproduction permis-
sions and improving most of the many graphics. Graphical expertise was also provided by
Beate Gardeike and Bianca Seth. Merja Helena Tölle, Marcus Lange, and Sabine Hartmann
supported us in coordinating NOSCCA during its initial phase. Sönke Rau helped formatting
the chapters. Insa Puchert conducted an actor analysis for the North Sea region. Thanks to Ina
Frings for maintaining the NOSCCA homepage.
Last but by no means least, we thank Carolyn Symon (UK) for professional language
editing and many useful editorial suggestions.

Reproduction Permission

As is inevitable for a review of this type, a great number of published figures and tables were
reprinted here. Every effort was made to obtain permission from the copyright holders. We
apologise for any inadvertent infringement of copyright that may still have occurred despite
our best efforts; if such a case is brought to our attention we will certainly rectify this in any
future reprint. We thank all copyright holders that granted reproduction permission free of
charge.

Open Access

To foster a wider outreach and to enhance the availability of our climate change review to
young researchers and students, it was recently decided to release the NOSCCA report as an
open access publication. This was made possible by shared funding with contributions pro-
vided by the following institutions and programmes: Cluster of Excellence ‘Integrated Climate
System Analysis and Prediction’ at the University of Hamburg (CLISAP; Germany), Danish
Meteorological Institute (DMI; Denmark), German Meteorological Service (DWD; Germany),
Met Office (UK), Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI; The Netherlands),
Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI; Sweden), Technical University of
Denmark (DTU; Denmark), University of Bergen (Norway), and the Library and Institute of
Coastal Research of the Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht (Germany). Thank you very much for
the essential support at short notice.

We sincerely hope that we have not forgotten anyone. Thank you so much to all of you for
your tremendous effort and support, which together has made this assessment possible.

Geesthacht, Germany Markus Quante

Franciscus Colijn
Contents

1 Introduction to the Assessment—Characteristics of the Region . . . . . . . . . . 1

Markus Quante, Franciscus Colijn, Jan P. Bakker, Werner Härdtle,
Hartmut Heinrich, Christiana Lefebvre, Ingeborg Nöhren,
Jørgen Eivind Olesen, Thomas Pohlmann, Horst Sterr,
Jürgen Sündermann and Merja Helena Tölle

Part I Recent Climate Change (Past 200 Years)

2 Recent Change—Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Martin Stendel, Else van den Besselaar, Abdel Hannachi,
Elizabeth C. Kent, Christiana Lefebvre, Frederik Schenk,
Gerard van der Schrier and Tim Woollings
3 Recent Change—North Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
John Huthnance, Ralf Weisse, Thomas Wahl, Helmuth Thomas, Julie Pietrzak,
Alejandro Jose Souza, Sytze van Heteren, Natalija Schmelzer,
Justus van Beusekom, Franciscus Colijn, Ivan Haigh, Solfrid Hjøllo,
Jürgen Holfort, Elizabeth C. Kent, Wilfried Kühn, Peter Loewe,
Ina Lorkowski, Kjell Arne Mork, Johannes Pätsch, Markus Quante,
Lesley Salt, John Siddorn, Tim Smyth, Andreas Sterl and Philip Woodworth
4 Recent Change—River Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Jaap Kwadijk, Nigel W. Arnell, Christoph Mudersbach, Mark de Weerd,
Aart Kroon and Markus Quante

Part II Future Climate Change

5 Projected Change—Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Wilhelm May, Anette Ganske, Gregor C. Leckebusch, Burkhardt Rockel,
Birger Tinz and Uwe Ulbrich
6 Projected Change—North Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Corinna Schrum, Jason Lowe, H.E. Markus Meier, Iris Grabemann,
Jason Holt, Moritz Mathis, Thomas Pohlmann, Morten D. Skogen,
Andreas Sterl and Sarah Wakelin
7 Projected Change—River Flow and Urban Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Patrick Willems and Benjamin Lloyd-Hughes

xi
xii Contents

Part III Impacts of Recent and Future Climate Change on Ecosystems

8 Environmental Impacts—Marine Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Keith M. Brander, Geir Ottersen, Jan P. Bakker, Gregory Beaugrand,
Helena Herr, Stefan Garthe, Anita Gilles, Andrew Kenny, Ursula Siebert,
Hein Rune Skjoldal and Ingrid Tulp
9 Environmental Impacts—Coastal Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Jan P. Bakker, Andreas C.W. Baas, Jesper Bartholdy, Laurence Jones,
Gerben Ruessink, Stijn Temmerman and Martijn van de Pol
10 Environmental Impacts—Lake Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Rita Adrian, Dag Olav Hessen, Thorsten Blenckner, Helmut Hillebrand,
Sabine Hilt, Erik Jeppesen, David M. Livingstone and Dennis Trolle
11 Environmental Impacts—Terrestrial Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Norbert Hölzel, Thomas Hickler, Lars Kutzbach, Hans Joosten,
Jakobus van Huissteden and Roland Hiederer

Part IV Climate Change Impacts on Socio-economic Sectors

12 Socio-economic Impacts—Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
John K. Pinnegar, Georg H. Engelhard, Miranda C. Jones,
William W.L. Cheung, Myron A. Peck, Adriaan D. Rijnsdorp
and Keith M. Brander
13 Socio-economic Impacts—Agricultural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Jørgen Eivind Olesen
14 Socio-economic Impacts—Offshore Activities/Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Kirsten Halsnæs, Martin Drews and Niels-Erik Clausen
15 Socio-economic Impacts—Urban Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
K. Heinke Schlünzen and Sylvia I. Bohnenstengel
16 Socio-economic Impacts—Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Stig Bjørløw Dalsøren and Jan Eiof Jonson
17 Socio-economic Impacts—Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Edgar Kreilkamp, Nele Marisa von Bergner and Claudia Mauser
18 Socio-economic Impacts—Coastal Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Hanz D. Niemeyer, Gé Beaufort, Roberto Mayerle, Jaak Monbaliu,
Ian Townend, Holger Toxvig Madsen, Huib de Vriend and Andreas Wurpts
19 Socio-economic Impacts—Coastal Management and Governance . . . . . . . . 475
Job Dronkers and Tim Stojanovic

Annex 1: What is NAO? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489

Annex 2: Climate Model Simulations for the North Sea Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495

Annex 3: Uncertainties in Climate Change Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

Annex 4: Emission Scenarios for Climate Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515

Annex 5: Facts and Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

Lead Authors

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Assessment—Characteristics of the Region

Markus Quante
Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
markus.quante@hzg.de

Franciscus Colijn
Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
franciscus.colijn@hzg.de

Part I—Recent Climate Change (Past 200 Years)

Chapter 2: Recent Change—Atmosphere

Martin Stendel
Department for Arctic and Climate, Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI), Copenhagen,
Denmark
mas@dmi.dk

Chapter 3: Recent Change—North Sea

John Huthnance
National Oceanography Centre, Liverpool, UK
jmh@noc.ac.uk

Ralf Weisse
Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
ralf.weisse@hzg.de

Chapter 4: Recent Change—River Flow

Jaap Kwadijk
Deltares, Delft, The Netherlands, and Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Department of
Water Engineering and Management, Twente University, Enschede, The Netherlands
jaap.kwadijk@deltares.nl

Nigel W. Arnell
Walker Institute for Climate System Research, University of Reading, UK
n.w.arnell@reading.ac.uk

xiii
xiv Lead Authors

Part II—Future Climate Change

Chapter 5: Projected Change—Atmosphere

Wilhelm May
Research and Development Department, Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI), Copenhagen,
Denmark, and Centre for Environmental and Climate Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
wm@dmi.dk; wilhelm.may@cec.lu.se

Chapter 6: Projected Change—North Sea

Corinna Schrum
Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen, Norway, and Institute of Coastal Research,
Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
corinna.schrum@gfi.uib.no; corinna.schrum@hzg.de

Jason Lowe
Met Office Hadley Centre, Exeter, UK
jason.lowe@metoffice.gov.uk

H.E. Markus Meier

Research Department, Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, Norrköping,
Sweden, and Department of Physical Oceanography and Instrumentation, Leibniz-Institute for
Baltic Sea Research (IOW), Rostock, Germany
markus.meier@smhi.se; markus.meier@io-warnemuende.de

Chapter 7: Projected Change—River Flow and Urban Drainage

Patrick Willems
Department of Civil Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
patrick.willems@bwk.kuleuven.be

Benjamin Lloyd-Hughes
Walker Institute for Climate System Research, University of Reading, Reading, UK
B.LloydHughes@reading.ac.uk

Part III—Impacts of Recent and Future Climate Change on Ecosystems

Chapter 8: Environmental Impacts—Marine Ecosystems

Keith M. Brander
National Institute of Aquatic Resources, Technical University of Denmark, Charlottenlund,
Denmark
kbr@aqua.dtu.dk

Geir Ottersen
Institute of Marine Research (IMR), Bergen, Norway, and CEES Centre for Ecological and
Evolutionary Synthesis, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
geir.ottersen@imr.no
Lead Authors xv

Chapter 9: Environmental Impacts—Coastal Ecosystems

Jan P. Bakker
Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen,
The Netherlands
j.p.bakker@rug.nl

Chapter 10: Environmental Impacts—Lake Ecosystems

Rita Adrian
Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
adrian@igb-berlin.de

Dag Olav Hessen

Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
d.o.hessen@ibv.uio.no

Chapter 11: Environmental Impacts—Terrestrial Ecosystems

Norbert Hölzel
Institute of Landscape Ecology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
norbert.hoelzel@uni-muenster.de

Thomas Hickler
Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F), and Department of Physical
Geography, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
thomas.hickler@senckenberg.de

Lars Kutzbach
Institute of Soil Science, CEN, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
lars.kutzbach@uni-hamburg.de

Part IV—Climate Change Impacts on Socio-economic Sectors

Chapter 12: Socio-economic Impacts—Fisheries

John K. Pinnegar
Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Lowestoft, UK, and
School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia (UEA), Norwich, UK
john.pinnegar@cefas.co.uk

Chapter 13: Socio-economic Impacts—Agricultural Systems

Jørgen Eivind Olesen

Department of Agroecology—Climate and Bioenergy, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
jorgene.olesen@agrsci.dk

Chapter 14: Socio-economic Impacts—Offshore Activities/Energy

Kirsten Halsnæs
Systems Analysis, DTU Management Engineering, Lyngby, Denmark
khal@dtu.dk
xvi Lead Authors

Martin Drews
Systems Analysis, DTU Management Engineering, Lyngby, Denmark
mard@dtu.dk

Chapter 15: Socio-economic Impacts—Urban Climate

K. Heinke Schlünzen
Institute of Meteorology, CEN, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
heinke.schluenzen@uni-hamburg.de

Chapter 16: Socio-economic Impacts—Air Quality

Stig Bjørløw Dalsøren

CICERO Center for International Climate and Environmental Research-Oslo, Oslo, Norway
s.b.dalsoren@cicero.uio.no

Chapter 17: Socio-economic Impacts—Recreation

Edgar Kreilkamp
Institute of Corporate Development, Leuphana University of Lüneburg, Lüneburg, Germany
edgar.kreilkamp@uni.leuphana.de

Chapter 18: Socio-economic Impacts—Coastal Protection

Hanz D. Niemeyer
Independent Consultant, ret. Coastal Research Station, Norderney, Germany
hanz.niemeyer@yahoo.com

Chapter 19: Socio-economic Impacts—Coastal Management and Governance

Job Dronkers
Deltares, Delft, and Netherlands Centre for Coastal Research, Delft, The Netherlands
j.dronkers@hccnet.nl

Tim Stojanovic
Department of Geography and Sustainable Development, University of St Andrews, UK
tas21@st-andrews.ac.uk

Annexes

Annex 1: What is NAO?

Abdel Hannachi
Department of Meteorology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
a.hannachi@misu.su.se

Annex 2: Climate Model Simulations for the North Sea Region

Diana Rechid
Climate Service Center Germany (GERICS), Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Hamburg,
Germany
diana.rechid@hzg.de
Lead Authors xvii

Annex 3: Uncertainties in Climate Change Projections

Markku Rummukainen
Centre for Environmental and Climate Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
markku.rummukainen@cec.lu.se

Annex 4: Emission Scenarios for Climate Projections

Markus Quante
Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
markus.quante@hzg.de

Annex 5: Facts and Maps

Ingeborg Nöhren
Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
ingeborg.noehren@hzg.de
Contributing Authors

Andreas C.W. Baas Department of Geography, King’s College London, London, UK

Jan P. Bakker Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen,
Groningen, The Netherlands
Jesper Bartholdy Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, Univer-
sity of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Gé Beaufort Hydr. Engineering Cons., De Meern, The Netherlands
Gregory Beaugrand CNRS, Laboratoire d’Océanologie de Géosciences (LOG), Wimereux,
France
Christian Bjørnæs CICERO Center for International Climate and Environmental
Research-Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Thorsten Blenckner Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, Stockholm,
Sweden
Sylvia I. Bohnenstengel Department of Meteorology, University of Reading, Reading, UK;
Present Address: MetOffice@Reading, University of Reading, Reading, UK
Keith M. Brander National Institute of Aquatic Resources, Technical University of Den-
mark, Charlottenlund, Denmark
Katharina Bülow Climate Service Center Germany (GERICS), Helmholtz-Zentrum Gees-
thacht, Hamburg, Germany
William W.L. Cheung Institute for the Ocean and Fisheries, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, Canada
Niels-Erik Clausen DTU Wind Energy, Roskilde, Denmark
Franciscus Colijn Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Gees-
thacht, Germany
Huib de Vriend Independent Consultant, Oegstgeest, The Netherlands
Mark de Weerd TAUW, Deventer, The Netherlands
Alberto Elizalde Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany
Georg H. Engelhard Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas),
Lowestoft, UK; School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia (UEA), Nor-
wich, UK
Anette Ganske Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency (BSH), Hamburg, Germany
Stefan Garthe Research and Technology Centre (FTZ), University of Kiel, Büsum, Germany

xix
xx Contributing Authors

Anita Gilles Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary
Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Büsum, Germany
Iris Grabemann Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht,
Germany
Ivan Haigh Ocean and Earth Science, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
Abdel Hannachi Department of Meteorology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
Werner Härdtle Institute of Ecology, Leuphana University of Lüneburg, Lüneburg,
Germany
Hartmut Heinrich Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency (BSH), Hamburg, Germany
Helena Herr Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary
Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Büsum, Germany
Roland Hiederer Institute for Environment and Sustainability, European Commission Joint
Research Centre, Ispra, Italy
Helmut Hillebrand Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment, Carl
von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
Sabine Hilt Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Berlin,
Germany
Solfrid Hjøllo Institute of Marine Research (IMR), Bergen, Norway
Jürgen Holfort Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency (BSH), Rostock, Germany
Jason Holt National Oceanography Centre, Liverpool, UK
Erik Jeppesen Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
Laurence Jones Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Bangor, UK
Miranda C. Jones NF-UBC Nereus Program, Fisheries Centre, University of British
Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
Jan Eiof Jonson Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo, Norway
Hans Joosten Institute of Botany and Landscape Ecology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt University of
Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
Andrew Kenny Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Low-
estoft, UK; School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia (UEA), Norwich,
UK
Elizabeth C. Kent National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, UK
Aart Kroon Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of
Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Wilfried Kühn Institute of Oceanography, CEN, University of Hamburg, Hamburg,
Germany
Gregor C. Leckebusch School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University
of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Christiana Lefebvre German Meteorological Service (DWD), Hamburg, Germany
David M. Livingstone Department of Water Resources and Drinking Water, EAWAG Swiss
Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland
Contributing Authors xxi

Peter Loewe Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency (BSH), Hamburg, Germany
Ina Lorkowski Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency (BSH), Hamburg, Germany
Moritz Mathis Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany
Claudia Mauser IFOK GmbH, Bensheim, Germany
Roberto Mayerle Research and Technology Centre Westcoast, Kiel University, Kiel,
Germany
H.E. Markus Meier Research Department, Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological
Institute, Norrköping, Sweden; Department of Physical Oceanography and Instrumentation,
Leibniz-Institute for Baltic Sea Research (IOW), Rostock, Germany
Jaak Monbaliu Department of Civil Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Kjell Arne Mork Institute of Marine Research (IMR), Bergen, Norway
Christopher Moseley Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany
Christoph Mudersbach Institute of Water and Environment, Bochum University of Applied
Sciences, Bochum, Germany
Ingeborg Nöhren Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht,
Germany
Jørgen Eivind Olesen Department of Agroecology—Climate and Bioenergy, Aarhus
University, Aarhus, Denmark
Johannes Pätsch Institute of Oceanography, CEN, University of Hamburg, Hamburg,
Germany
Myron A. Peck Institute of Hydrobiology and Fisheries Science, CEN, University of
Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
Julie Pietrzak Environmental Fluid Mechanics Section, Delft University of Technology,
Delft, The Netherlands
Thomas Pohlmann Institute of Oceanography, CEN, University of Hamburg, Hamburg,
Germany
Markus Quante Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht,
Germany
Adriaan D. Rijnsdorp Institute for Marine Research and Ecosystem Studies (IMARES),
Wageningen University, IJmuiden, The Netherlands
Burkhardt Rockel Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Gees-
thacht, Germany
Gerben Ruessink Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht
University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
Markku Rummukainen Centre for Environmental and Climate Research, Lund University,
Lund, Sweden
Lesley Salt Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Texel, The Netherlands
Frederik Schenk Bolin Centre for Climate Research, University of Stockholm, Stockholm,
Sweden
Natalija Schmelzer Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency (BSH), Rostock, Germany
xxii Contributing Authors

Corinna Schrum Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Institute of

Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
John Siddorn Met Office, Exeter, UK
Ursula Siebert Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of
Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Büsum, Germany
Hein Rune Skjoldal Institute of Marine Research (IMR), Bergen, Norway
Morten D. Skogen Institute of Marine Research (IMR), Bergen, Norway
Tim Smyth Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Plymouth, UK
Alejandro Jose Souza National Oceanography Centre, Liverpool, UK
Martin Stendel Department for Arctic and Climate, Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI),
Copenhagen, Denmark
Andreas Sterl Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI), De Bilt, The Netherlands
Horst Sterr Department of Geography, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
Jian Su Institute of Oceanography, CEN, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
Jürgen Sündermann Institute of Oceanography, CEN, University of Hamburg, Hamburg,
Germany
Stijn Temmerman Ecosystem Management Research Group, Antwerp University, Antwerp,
Belgium
Helmuth Thomas Department of Oceanography, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
Birger Tinz German Meteorological Service (DWD), Hamburg, Germany
Merja Helena Tölle Department of Geography, Climatology, Climate Dynamics and Cli-
mate, Justus-Liebig-University Gießen, Gießen, Germany
Ian Townend Ocean and Earth Sciences, University of Southampton, Winchester, UK
Holger Toxvig Madsen Danish Coastal Authority, Lemvig, Denmark
Dennis Trolle Department of Bioscience—Lake Ecology, Aarhus University, Silkeborg,
Denmark
Ingrid Tulp Institute for Marine Resources and Ecosystem Management (IMARES),
IJmuiden, The Netherlands
Uwe Ulbrich Institute of Meteorology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Justus van Beusekom Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht,
Geesthacht, Germany
Martijn van de Pol Department of Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of
Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia; Department of Animal Ecology,
Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Wageningen, The Netherlands
Else van den Besselaar Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI), De Bilt, The
Netherlands
Gerard van der Schrier Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI), De Bilt, The
Netherlands
Sytze van Heteren Department of Geomodeling, TNO-Geological Survey of the Nether-
lands, Utrecht, The Netherlands
Contributing Authors xxiii

Jakobus van Huissteden Department of Earth Sciences, University Amsterdam, Amsterdam,

The Netherlands
Nele Marisa von Bergner Institute for Tourism and Leisure ITF, HTW Chur, Chur,
Switzerland
Thomas Wahl College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, USA;
University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
Sarah Wakelin National Oceanography Centre, Liverpool, UK
Philip Woodworth National Oceanography Centre, Liverpool, UK
Tim Woollings Atmospheric Physics, Clarendon Laboratory, University of Oxford, Oxford,
UK
Andreas Wurpts Coastal Research Station, Norderney, Germany
Reviewers

Review Editor

Robert J. Nicholls
Engineering and the Environment, University of Southampton, UK
R.J.Nicholls@soton.ac.uk

Reviewers
(Listed are in alphabetical order reviewers, who disclosed their identity)

Jürgen Alheit
Leibniz Institute for Baltic Research (IOW), Rostock, Germany
juergen.alheit@io-warnemuende.de

Rob Allan
Met Office, Exeter, UK
rob.allan@metoffice.gov.uk

Eric Audsley
Operational Research, Cranfield University, UK
EAudsley@aol.com; e.audsley@cranfield.ac.uk

Jan P. Bakker
Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen,
The Netherlands
j.p.bakker@rug.nl

Alexander Baklanov
Danish Meteorological Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark
alb@dmi.dk

Frank Berendse
Plant Ecology and Nature Conservation, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
frank.berendse@wur.nl

Barbara Berx
Marine Scotland, Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen, UK
B.Berx@marlab.ac.uk

Fred Bosveld
The Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI), De Bilt, The Netherlands
fred.bosveld@knmi.nl

xxv
xxvi Reviewers

Jørgen Brandt
Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Denmark
jbr@envs.au.dk

Ida Brøker
DHI, Hørsholm, Denmark
ibh@dhigroup.com

James Bullock
Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, UK
jmbul@ceh.ac.uk

Hans Burchard
Leibniz Institute for Baltic Research (IOW), Rostock, Germany
hans.burchard@io-warnemuende.de

Virginia Burkett
US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, USA
virginia_burkett@usgs.gov

Matthew Chamberlain
CSIRO, Oceans and Atmosphere, Hobart, Australia
matthew.chamberlain@csiro.au

Mark Dickey-Collas
ICES, Copenhagen, Denmark
mark.dickey-collas@ices.dk

Markus Donat
Climate Change Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
m.donat@unsw.edu.au

Stephen Dye
Cefas, Lowestoft, UK
stephen.dye@cefas.co.uk

Henrik Eckersten
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
henrik.eckersten@slu.se

Karen Edelvang
GEUS, Copenhagen, Denmark
kae@geus.dk

Kay-Christian Emeis
Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Germany
kay.emeis@hzg.de

Jon French
Department of Geography, University College London, UK
j.french@ucl.ac.uk
Reviewers xxvii

Audrey Geffen
Department of Biology, University of Bergen, Norway
audrey.geffen@bio.uib.no

Simon Gosling
School of Geography, University of Nottingham, UK
Simon.Gosling@nottingham.ac.uk

Lukas Gudmundsson
Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zürich, Switzerland
lukas.gudmundsson@env.ethz.ch

Jacqueline M. Hamilton
Research Unit Sustainability and Global Change, CEN, University of Hamburg, Germany
jacqueline_m_hamilton@yahoo.co.uk

Lars Anders Hansson

Aquatic Ecology, Lund University, Sweden
lars-anders.hansson@biol.lu.se

Gareth Harrison
School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, UK
Gareth.Harrison@ed.ac.uk

Jan Geert Hiddink

School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, UK
ossc06@bangor.ac.uk

Jochen Hinkel
Global Climate Forum, Berlin, Germany
hinkel@globalclimateforum.org

Ian Holman
Cranfield Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, UK
i.holman@cranfield.ac.uk

Jose A. Jiménez
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya,
Barcelona, Spain
jose.jimenez@upc.edu

Jürgen Jensen
Department of Civil Engineering, Siegen University, Germany
juergen.jensen@uni-siegen.de

Birgit Klein
Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency (BSH), Hamburg, Germany
birgit.klein@bsh.de

Sven Kotlarski
Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss, Zurich, Switzerland
sven.kotlarski@meteoswiss.ch
xxviii Reviewers

Jürg Luterbacher
Department of Geography, Justus-Liebig-University Gießen, Germany
juerg.luterbacher@geogr.uni-giessen.de

Rob Maas
National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
rob.maas@rivm.nl

Robert Marrs
School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, UK
Calluna@liverpool.ac.uk

Valéry Masson
Météo France, National Centre for Meteorological Research, Toulouse, France
valery.masson@meteo.fr

Andreas Matzarakis
University of Freiburg, Chair for Environmental Meteorology, and Research Centre Human
Biometeorology, German Meteorological Service (DWD), Freiburg, Germany
andreas.matzarakis@meteo.uni-freiburg.de; andreas.matzarakis@dwd.de

Erik van Meijgaard

The Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI), De Bilt, The Netherlands
vanmeijg@knmi.nl

Jack Middelburg
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands
J.b.m.middelburg@uu.nl

Hans Middelkoop
Department of Physical Geography, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands
H.Middelkoop@uu.nl

Birger Mo
SINTEF ENERGY, Trondheim, Norway
Birger.Mo@sintef.no

Luke Myers
Engineering and the Environment, University of Southampton, UK
L.E.MYERS@soton.ac.uk

Claas Nendel
Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), Institute of Landscape Systems
Analysis, Müncheberg, Germany
nendel@zalf.de

Ingeborg Nöhren
Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
ingeborg.noehren@hzg.de
Reviewers xxix

Gualbert Oude Essink

Faculty of Geosciences, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands
gualbert.oudeessink@deltares.nl

Myron A. Peck
Institute of Hydrobiology and Fisheries Science, CEN, University of Hamburg, Hamburg,
Germany
myron.peck@uni-hamburg.de

Tom Rientjes
Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente,
The Netherlands
rientjes@itc.nl; t.h.m.rientjes@utwente.nl

Markku Rummukainen
Centre for Environmental and Climate Research, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
markku.rummukainen@cec.lu.se

Enrique Sánchez
Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Biochemistry, University of Castilla-La Mancha
(UCLM), Toledo, Spain
E.Sanchez@uclm.es

Daniel Scott
Geography and Environmental Management, University of Waterloo, Canada
dj2scott@uwaterloo.ca

Øystein Skagseth
Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
oystein.skagseth@imr.no

Thomas Spencer
Cambridge Coastal Research Unit, University of Cambridge, UK
ts111@cam.ac.uk

Horst Sterr
Department of Geography, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
sterr@geographie.uni-kiel.de

Dietmar Straile
Limnological Institute, University of Konstanz, Germany
Dietmar.Straile@uni-konstanz.de

Justus van Beusekom

Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
Justus.Beusekom@hzg.de

David Viner
Mott MacDonald Consultancy, Cambridge, UK
David.Viner@mottmac.com
xxx Reviewers

James Voogt
Department of Geography, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
javoogt@uwo.ca

Craig Williamson
Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, USA
craig.williamson@miamiOH.edu

Kai Wirtz
Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Germany
kai.wirtz@hzg.de
Acronyms and Abbreviations

20CR 20th century reanalysis

AGCM Atmospheric general circulation model
AH Azores high
AMO Atlantic multidecadal oscillation
AMOC Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
AMSL Absolute mean sea level
AO Arctic oscillation
AOGCM Atmosphere–Ocean general circulation model
AR4 Fourth assessment report (IPCC)
AR5 Fifth assessment report (IPCC)
AT Total alkalinity
AVHRR Advanced very high resolution radiometer
Bft Beaufort scale
CH4 Methane
CMIP3 Coupled model intercomparison project phase 3
CMIP5 Coupled model intercomparison project phase 5
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CO2eq Carbon dioxide equivalent
CPR Continuous plankton recorder
CPUE Catch-per-unit-effort
CTD Conductivity-temperature-depth profiler
DGVM Dynamic global vegetation model
DIC Dissolved inorganic carbon
DOC Dissolved organic carbon
DOM Dissolved organic matter
DON Dissolved organic nitrogen
ECMWF European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts
EEA European Environment Agency
EEZ Exclusive economic zone
ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation
ENW Equivalent neutral wind
EOF Empirical orthogonal function
ESM Earth system model
ETM Estuarine turbidity maximum
EU European Union
EUR Euro
GCM General circulation model/Global climate model
GEV Generalised extreme value
GHG Greenhouse gas
GIA Glacial isostatic adjustment

xxxi
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 II. Siluridæ Heteropteræ.—The rayed dorsal fin is very little
developed, and, if it is present, it belongs to the abdominal portion of
the vertebral column; the adipose fin is exceedingly small or absent.
The extent of the anal is not much inferior to that of the caudal
vertebral column. The gill-membranes overlap the isthmus,
remaining more or less separate: Silurina.
Saccobranchus.—Adipose fin none; dorsal very short, without
pungent spine, placed above the ventrals. Cleft of the mouth
transverse, anterior, of moderate width; barbels eight. Eyes rather
small. The upper and lateral parts of the head osseous or covered
with a very thin skin. Gill-cavity with an accessory posterior sac,
extending backwards between the muscles along each side of the
abdominal and caudal portions of the vertebral column. Ventrals six-
rayed.
Small fishes from East Indian rivers; four species are known. The
lung-like extension of the branchial cavity receives water, and is
surrounded by contractile transverse muscular fibres by which the
water is expelled at intervals. The vessels of the sac take their origin
in the last branchial artery, and pass into the aorta.
Silurus.—No adipose fin; one very short dorsal, without pungent
spine. Barbels four or six, one to each maxillary, and one or two to
each mandible. Nostrils remote from each other. Head and body
covered with soft skin. The eye is situated above the level of the angle
of the mouth. The dorsal fin is anterior to the ventrals which are
composed of more than eight rays. Caudal rounded.
This genus, of which five species are known, inhabits the
temperate parts of Europe and Asia. The species which has given
the name to the whole family, is the “Wels” of the Germans, Silurus
glanis. It is found in the fresh waters east of the Rhine, and is,
besides the Sturgeons, the largest of European Freshwater-fishes,
and the only species of this family which occurs in Europe. Barbels
six. It attains to a weight of 300 or 400 lbs., and the flesh, especially
of smaller specimens, is firm, flaky, and well flavoured. Aristotle
described it under the name of Glanis. Its former occurrence in
Scotland has justly been denied. In China it is represented by a
similar species, S. asotus, which, however, has four barbels only.
 Fig. 260.—The “Wels,” Siluris glanis.

This sub-family is well represented by various other genera in the

fresh waters of the African as well as Indian region. African genera
are Schilbe and Eutropius; East Indian: Silurichthys, Wallago,
Belodontichthys, Eutropiichthys, Cryptopterus, Callichrous,
Hemisilurus, Siluranodon, Ailia, Schilbichthys, Lais, Pseudeutropius,
Pangasius, Helicophagus, and Silondia.
III. Siluridæ Anomalopteræ.—Dorsal and adipose fins very
short, the former belonging to the caudal vertebral column; anal very
long. Ventrals in front of the dorsal. Gill-membranes entirely
separate, overlapping the isthmus: (Hypophthalmina.)
Hypophthalmus.—Dorsal fin with seven rays, the first of which is
slightly spinous. The lower jaw is rather the longer. Barbels six, those
of the mandible long. No teeth; intermaxillaries very feeble. Head
covered with skin. Eye of moderate size, situated behind and below
the angle of the mouth. Ventrals small, six-rayed.

Four species from tropical America. The second genus of this

sub-family is Helogenes from the Essequibo.
IV. Siluridæ Proteropteræ.—The rayed dorsal fin is always
present, short, with not more than twelve short rays, and belongs to
the abdominal portion of the vertebral column, being placed in
advance of the ventrals. The adipose fin is always present and well
developed, although frequently short. The extent of the anal is much
inferior to that of the caudal vertebral column. The gill-membranes
are not confluent with the skin of the isthmus, their posterior margin
always remaining free even if they are united with each other.
Whenever the nasal barbel is present it belongs to the posterior
nostril.

a. Bagrina.
Bagrus.—Adipose fin long; a short dorsal with a pungent spine
and nine or ten soft rays; anal fin short, with less than twenty rays.
Barbels eight. The anterior and posterior nostrils are remote from
each other, the posterior being provided with a barbel. Teeth on the
palate in a continuous band. Eyes with a free orbital margin. Caudal
forked; ventrals six-rayed.
This genus consists of two species only, common in the Nile, viz.
the “Bayad,” B. bayad, and B. docmac. Both grow to a large size,
exceeding a length of five feet, and are eaten. Chrysichthys and
Clarotes are two other Siluroid genera from African rivers, closely
allied to Bagrus. Similar Siluroids are common in the East Indies,
and have been referred to the following genera: Macrones,
Pseudobagrus, Liocassis, Bagroides, Bagrichthys, Rita,
Acrochordonichthys, Akysis.

b. Amiurina.
Amiurus.—Adipose fin of moderate length; a short dorsal with a
pungent spine and six soft rays; anal fin of moderate length. Barbels
eight. The anterior and posterior nostrils are remote from each other,
the posterior being provided with a barbel. Palate edentulous. Head
covered with skin above. Ventrals eight-rayed.
The “Cat-fishes” of North America, of which about a dozen
different species are known. One species occurs in China. Allied, but
smaller forms are Hopladelus and Noturus, likewise from North
America.

c. Pimelodina.
 Platystoma.—Adipose fin of moderate length; a short dorsal fin
with a pungent spine and six or seven soft rays; anal fin rather short.
Snout very long, spatulate, with the upper jaw more or less projecting;
the upper surface of the head not covered by the skin. Barbels six; the
anterior and posterior nostrils remote from each other, none with a
barbel. Palate toothed. Caudal forked; ventrals six-rayed, inserted
behind the dorsal.
Twelve species from South America, some attaining a length of
six feet, the majority being ornamented with deep-black spots or
bands. Allied genera from South America, likewise distinguished by
a long spatulate snout, are Sorubim, Hemisorubim, and
Platystomatichthys, whilst Phractocephalus, Piramutana,
Platynematichthys, Piratinga, Bagropsis, and Sciades, have a snout
of ordinary length. The barbels of some are of extraordinary length,
and not rarely dilated and band-like.
Pimelodus.—Adipose fin well developed; dorsal fin short, with a
more or less pungent spine and six rays; anal fin short. Barbels six,
cylindrical or slightly compressed, none of them belonging to either of
the nostrils, which are remote from each other. Palate edentulous.
Ventrals six-rayed, inserted behind the dorsal.
Of all South American genera this is represented by the greatest
number of species, more than forty being well characterised; they
differ chiefly with regard to the length of the adipose fin and barbels,
and the strength of the dorsal spine. Singularly, two species (P.
platychir and P. balayi), are found in West Africa. The majority are of
but moderate size and plain coloration.—Allied South American
genera (also without teeth on the palate), are Pirinampus,
Conorhynchus, Notoglanis, Callophysus, Lophiosilurus.
Auchenoglanis.—Adipose fin rather long, dorsal short, with a
pungent spine and seven rays; anal short. Snout produced, pointed,
with narrow mouth. Barbels six, none of which belongs to either of the
nostrils, which are remote from each other. The teeth of each jaw form
a pair of small elliptic patches which are longer than broad; palate
edentulous. Eyes of moderate size. Ventrals six-rayed.
One species, Au. biscutatus, from the Nile, Senegal, and other
West African rivers.
 d. Ariina.
Arius.—Adipose fin of moderate length or short; a short dorsal fin
with a pungent spine and seven soft rays; anal fin rather short. Head
osseous above; barbels six, four at the mandible, none at either of the
nostrils which are close together. Eyes with a free orbital margin.
Caudal fin forked; ventrals six-rayed, behind the dorsal.
Of all Siluroid genera this has the greatest number of species
(about seventy), and the widest distribution, being represented in
almost all tropical countries which are drained by large rivers; some
of the species prefer brackish to fresh water, and a few enter the
sea, but keep near to the coast. Some of the species are of small
size, whilst others exceed a length of five feet. The extent of the
armature of the neck and the dentition vary much in the different
species, and affords two of the principal characters by which the
species are separated.—The following genera are allied to Arius,
Galeichthys from South Africa; Genidens and Paradiplomystax from
Brazil; Diplomystax from Chile; Aelurichthys from Central and South
America; Hemipimelodus, Ketengus, Osteogeniosus, and
Batrachocephalus from the East Indies; and Atopochilus from West
Africa.
 Fig. 261.—Arius australis,
from Queensland.
e. Bagariina.
Bagarius.—Adipose fin rather short; a short dorsal with one spine
and six rays; anal fin of moderate length. Barbels eight, of which one
pair stands between the anterior and posterior nostrils which are close
together. Head naked above. Caudal fin deeply forked; ventrals rays
six. Thorax without longitudinal plaits of the skin.
A large Siluroid (B. bagarius) from rivers of India and Java;
exceeding a length of six feet.
 Fig. 262.—Euglyptosternum
coum, thoracic adhesive
apparatus.
Euglyptosternum.—Adipose fin of moderate length; a short
dorsal with a pungent spine and six rays; anal fin short. Barbels eight,
of which one pair is placed between the anterior and posterior nostrils
which are close together. Teeth on the palate villiform, in two separate
patches. Eyes small, below the skin. Caudal forked; ventral rays six.
Pectorals horizontal, with a thoracic adhesive apparatus between,
which is formed by longitudinal plaits of the skin.

This fish (Eu. coum) inhabits the river Coic in Syria, and is about
twelve inches long. The plaited structure on the thorax probably
increases the capability of the fish of maintaining its position in the
rapid current of the stream, a function which appears to be chiefly
performed by the horizontally expanded pectoral fins. A similar
structure is found in Glyptosternum, a genus represented by eight
species in mountain streams of the East Indies, and differing from
the Syrian species in lacking the teeth on the palate.
V. Siluridæ Stenobranchiæ.—The rayed dorsal fin is short, if
present, belonging to the abdominal portion of the vertebral column,
the ventrals being inserted behind it (except in Rhinoglanis). The gill-
membranes are confluent with the skin of the isthmus.
 a. Doradina.
Some of the genera have no bony shields along the lateral line,
and a small adipose fin or none whatever; all of these are South
American—Ageniosus, Tetranematichthys, Euanemus,
Auchenipterus, Glanidium, Centromochlus, Trachelyopterus,
Cetopsis, and Astrophysus.
Others have a series of bony scutes along the middle of the side;
they form the genus Doras with two closely allied forms, Oxydoras
and Rhinodoras. Some twenty-five species are known, all from rivers
of tropical America, flowing into the Atlantic. These fishes have
excited attention by their habit of travelling, during the dry season,
from a piece of water about to dry up, in quest of a pond of greater
capacity. These journeys are occasionally of such a length that the
fish spends whole nights on the way, and the bands of scaly
travellers are sometimes so large that the Indians who happen to
meet them, fill many baskets of the prey thus placed in their hands.
The Indians supposed that the fish carry a supply of water with them,
but they have no special organs, and can only do so by closing the
gill-openings, or by retaining a little water between the plates of their
bodies, as Hancock supposes. The same naturalist adds that they
make regular nests, in which they cover up their eggs with care and
defend them, male and female uniting in this parental duty until the
eggs are hatched. The nest is constructed at the beginning of the
rainy season, of leaves, and is sometimes placed in a hole scooped
out in the beach.
Finally, in the last genus, the lateral scutes are likewise absent,
viz. in
Synodontis.—The adipose fin is of moderate length or rather
long; the dorsal fin has a very strong spine and seven soft rays. The
teeth in the lower jaw are movable, long, very thin at the base, and
with a slightly-dilated brown apex. Mouth small. Barbels six, more or
less fringed with a membrane or with filaments. Neck with broad
dermal bones.

Synodontis is characteristic of the fauna of tropical Africa, where

it is represented by fifteen species. Several occur in the Nile, and are
known by the vernacular name “Schal.” Some attain a length of two
feet. The species figured is from West Africa, and characterised by
its long upper jaw.

Fig. 263.—Synodontis xiphias.

b. Rhinoglanina.
Rhinoglanis.—Two dorsal fins, both composed of rays, the first
with a strong spine; anal rather short. Barbels six; anterior and
posterior nostrils close together, the posterior very large, open. Neck
with broad dermal bones. Ventrals with seven rays, inserted below the
posterior rays of the first dorsal fin.
This Siluroid is known from a single example only one and a half
inches long, obtained at Gondokoro on the Upper Nile. Callomystax
represents this type in the Ganges and Indus.

c. Malapterurina.
Malapterurus.—One dorsal fin only, which is adipose and
situated before the caudal; anal of moderate length or short; caudal
rounded; ventrals six-rayed, inserted somewhat behind the middle of
the body; pectorals without pungent spine. Barbels six: one to each
maxillary and two on each side of the mandible. The anterior and
posterior nostrils are remote from each other. No teeth on the palate.
The entire head and body covered with soft skin. Eyes small. Gill-
opening very narrow, reduced to a slit before the pectoral.
The “Electric Cat- or Sheath-fishes” are not uncommon in the
fresh waters of tropical Africa; three species have been described, of
which M. electricus occurs in the Nile; they grow to a length of about
four feet. Although the first dorsal fin is absent, its position (if it had
been developed) is indicated by a rudimentary interneural spine,
which rests in the cleft of the neural process of the first vertebra. The
electric organ extends over the whole body, but is thickest on the
abdomen; it lies between two aponeurotic membranes, below the
skin, and consists of rhomboidal cells which contain a rather firm
gelatinous substance. The electric nerve takes its origin from the
spinal chord, does not enter into connection with ganglia, and
consists of a single enormously-strong primitive fibre, which
distributes its branches in the electric organ.

Fig. 264.—Malapterurus electricus.

VI. Siluridæ Proteropodes.—The rayed dorsal fin is always
present and rather short; the ventrals are inserted below (very rarely
in front of) the dorsal. The gill-membranes are confluent with the skin
of the isthmus, the gill-opening being reduced to a short slit.
Pectorals and ventrals horizontal. Vent before, or not much behind,
the middle of the length of the body.

a. Hypostomatina.
Stygogenes.—Adipose fin short; dorsal and anal short; the outer
fin-rays somewhat thickened and rough; palate toothless; cleft of the
mouth of moderate width, with a maxillary barbel on each side; a short
broad flap on each side between the nostrils, which are close
together. Lower lip very broad, pendent. Eyes small, covered with
transparent skin. Head covered with soft skin. Ventrals six-rayed.
 These small Siluroids, which are called “Preñadillas” by the
natives, together with the allied Arges, Brontes, and Astroplebus,
have received some notoriety through Humboldt’s accounts, who
adopted the popular belief that they live in subterranean waters
within the bowels of the active volcanoes of the Andes, and are
ejected with streams of mud and water during eruptions. Humboldt
himself considers it very singular that they are not cooked and
destroyed whilst they are vomited forth from craters or other
openings. The explanation of their appearance during volcanic
eruptions is, that they abound in the numerous lakes and torrents of
the Andes, that they are killed by the sulphuretted gases escaping
during an eruption, and swept down by the torrents of water issuing
from the volcano.
Callichthys.—Adipose fin short, supported anteriorly by a short
movable spine; dorsal with a feeble spine and seven or eight rays;
anal short. Teeth minute or entirely absent; cleft of the mouth rather
narrow, with a pair of maxillary barbels on each side, which are united
at the base. Eyes small. Head covered with osseous plates; body
wholly protected by two series of large imbricate shields on each side.
Ventrals six-rayed.
Twelve species of this genus are known; they are small, and
similarly distributed as Doras, with which they have much in common
as regards their mode of life. They likewise are able to travel over
land, and construct nests for their ova.
 Fig. 265.—Callichthys armatus, from the Upper Amazon. Natural size.
Chætostomus.—A short adipose fin, supported anteriorly by a
short, compressed, curved spine; dorsal fin of moderate length, with
from eight to ten rays, the first of which is simple; anal fin short;
ventral six-rayed; pectoral with a strong spine. Head and body
completely cuirassed, the lower parts being sometimes naked; body
rather short, with four or five longitudinal series of large imbricate
scutes on each side; tail not depressed. Snout produced, obtuse in
front; mouth inferior, transverse, with a single series of generally very
fine bent teeth in both jaws. Interoperculum very movable and armed
with erectile spines.

This genus, with the allied Plecostomus, Liposarcus,

Pterygoplichthys, Rhinelepis, Acanthicus, and Xenomystus, is well
represented in the fresh waters of South America, whence about
sixty species are known. The majority do not exceed a length of
twelve inches, but some attain to more than double that size. In
some of the species the male is provided with long bristles round the
margin of the snout and interoperculum.
 Fig. 266.—Upper and Lower
side of the head of Chætostomus
heteracanthus, Upper Amazons.
Hypoptopoma.—Differing from Chætostomus in the peculiar
formation of the head, which is depressed, spatulate, the eyes being
on the lateral edge of the head. The movable gill-covers are reduced
to two bones, neither of which is armed, viz.—the operculum small
and placed as in Chætostomus, and a second, larger one, separated
from the eye by the narrow sub-orbital ring, and placed at the lower
side of the head.
 Fig. 267.—Hypoptopoma thoracatum, Upper Amazons. Natural size.
Loricaria.—One short dorsal fin; anal short; the outer ray of each
fin thickened, but flexible. Head depressed, with the snout more or
less produced and spatulate. Mouth situated at the lower side of the
snout, remote from its extremity, transverse, surrounded by broad
labial folds which are sometimes fringed; a short barbel at each corner
of the mouth. Teeth in the jaws small, bent, with a dilated, notched
apex, in a single series, sometimes absent. Head and body cuirassed;
tail depressed, long; eye rather small or of moderate size.
 Fig. 268.—Loricaria lanceolate, Upper Amazons. Natural size.
Small fishes from rivers of tropical America; about twenty-six
species are known. The male of some species has a bearded or
bristly snout.
Acestra differs from Loricaria in having the snout much
prolonged.
Sisor.—Head depressed, spatulate; trunk depressed; tail long and
thin. One short dorsal fin; anal short; ventrals seven-rayed. Head
partially osseous, rough; a series of bony plates along the median line
 of the back; lateral line rough. Eyes very small. Mouth inferior, small,
transverse, with barbels; teeth none.
A single species, S. rhabdophorus, from rivers of northern
Bengal. Allied to this genus is Erethistes from Assam.
Pseudecheneis.—Adipose fin of moderate length; a short dorsal
with one spine and six rays; anal fin rather short. Barbels eight. Mouth
small, inferior. Head depressed, covered with soft skin above; eyes
small, superior. Caudal fin forked; pectorals horizontal, with a thoracic
adhesive apparatus between, formed by transverse plaits of the skin.
Ventrals six-rayed.
A very small species, inhabiting the mountain-streams of
Khassya; by means of the adhesive apparatus it is enabled to hold
on to stones, thus preventing the current from sweeping it away.
Exostoma is a similar small Siluroid from Indian mountain-streams,
but without the thoracic apparatus; probably its mouth performs the
same function.

b. Aspredinina.
Aspredo.—Adipose fin none; dorsal short, without pungent spine;
anal very long, but not united with the caudal. Head broad, much
depressed; tail very long and slender. Barbels not less than six, one of
which is attached to each intermaxillary; none at the nostrils. Eyes
very small. Head covered with soft skin; the anterior and posterior
nostrils are remote from each other. Ventrals six-rayed.
Six species are known from Guyana; the largest grows to a
length of about eighteen inches. The remarkable mode of taking care
of their ova has been noticed above (p. 161, Fig. 72). Bunocephalus,
Bunocephalichthys, and Harttia, from tropical America, are other
genera of this sub-family which remain to be mentioned.
VII. Siluridæ Opisthopteræ.—The rayed dorsal fin is always
present, short, and placed above or behind the middle of the length
of the body, above or behind the ventrals which, however, are
sometimes absent; anal short. Nostrils remote from each other; if a
nasal barbel is present, it belongs to the anterior nostril. Lower lip not
reverted. The gill-membranes are not confluent with the skin of the
isthmus: Nematogenyina and Trichomycterina.
 The genera Heptapterus, Nematogenys, Trichomycterus,
Eremophilus, and Pariodon, belong to this sub-family. They are small
South American Siluroids, the majority of which inhabit waters at
high altitudes, up to 14,000 feet above the level of the sea. In the
Andes they replace the Loaches of the Northern Hemisphere, which
they resemble in appearance and habits, and even in coloration,
offering a striking example of the fact that similar forms of animals
are produced under similar external physical conditions.
VIII. Siluridæ Branchicolæ.—The rayed dorsal fin is present,
short, and placed behind the ventrals; anal short. Vent far behind the
middle of the length of the body. Gill-membranes confluent with the
skin of the isthmus.
Stegophilus and Vandellia, two genera from South America,
comprising the smallest and least developed Siluroids. Their body is
narrow, cylindrical, and elongate; a small barbel at each maxillary;
the operculum and interoperculum are armed with short stiff spines.
The natives of Brazil accuse these fishes of entering and ascending
the urethra of persons while bathing, causing inflammation and
sometimes death. This requires confirmation, but there is no doubt
that they live parasitically in the gill-cavity of larger fishes
(Platystoma), but probably they enter these cavities only for places
of safety, without drawing any nourishment from their host.

Second Family—Scopelidæ.
Body naked or scaly. Margin of the upper jaw formed by the
intermaxillary only; opercular apparatus sometimes incompletely
developed. Barbels none. Gill-opening very wide; pseudobranchiæ
well developed. Air-bladder none. Adipose fin present. The eggs are
enclosed in the sacs of the ovary, and excluded by oviducts. Pyloric
appendages few in number or absent. Intestinal tract very short.
Exclusively marine, the majority being either pelagic or deep-sea
forms. Of fossil remains the following have been referred to this
family:—Osmeroides, from Mount Lebanon, which others believe to
be a marine salmonoid; Hemisaurida, from Comen, allied to Saurus;
Parascopelus and Anapterus, from the miocene of Licata, the latter
genus allied to Paralepis.
Saurus (inclus. Saurida).—Body sub-cylindrical, rather elongate,
covered with scales of moderate size; head oblong; cleft of the mouth
very wide; intermaxillary very long, styliform, tapering; maxillary thin,
long, closely adherent to the intermaxillary. Teeth card-like, some
being elongate, slender; all can be laid downwards and inwards. Teeth
on the tongue, and palatine bones. Eye of moderate size. Pectorals
short; ventrals eight- or nine-rayed, inserted in advance of the dorsal,
not far behind the pectorals. Dorsal fin nearly in the middle of the
length of the body, with thirteen or less rays; adipose fin small; anal
short or of moderate length; caudal forked.
Fifteen species of small size, from the shores of the tropical and
sub-tropical zones. The species figured on p. 42, Fig. 5, occurs on
the north-west coast of Australia and in Japan.
Bathysaurus.—Shape of the body similar to that of Saurus, sub-
cylindrical, elongate, covered with small scales. Head depressed, with
the snout produced, flat above. Cleft of the mouth very wide, with the
lower jaw projecting; intermaxillary very long, styliform, tapering, not
movable. Teeth in the jaws, in broad bands, not covered by lips,
curved, unequal in size and barbed at the end. A series of similar
teeth runs along the whole length of each side of the palate. Eye of
moderate size, lateral. Pectoral of moderate length. Ventral eight-
rayed, inserted immediately behind the pectoral. Dorsal fin in the
middle of the length of the body, with about eighteen rays. Adipose fin
absent or present. Anal of moderate length. Caudal emarginate.
Deep-sea fishes, obtained in the Pacific at depths varying from
1100 to 2400 fathoms. The largest example is twenty inches long.
Two species.
Bathypterois.—Shape of the body like that of an Aulopus. Head
of moderate size, depressed in front, with the snout projecting, the
large mandible very prominent beyond the upper jaw. Cleft of the
mouth wide; maxillary developed, very movable, much dilated behind.
Teeth in narrow villiform bands in the jaws. On each side of the broad
vomer a small patch of similar teeth; none on the palatines or on the
tongue. Eye very small. Scales cycloid, adherent, of moderate size.
Rays of the pectoral fin much elongated, some of the upper being
separate from the rest, and forming a distinct division. Ventrals
abdominal, with the outer rays prolonged, eight-rayed. Dorsal fin
 inserted in the middle of the body, above or immediately behind the
root of the ventral, of moderate length. Adipose fin present or absent.
Anal short. Caudal forked.
This very singular form is one of the discoveries of the
“Challenger;” it is widely distributed over the seas of the Southern
Hemisphere, in depths varying from 520 to 2600 fathoms. The
elongate pectoral rays are most probably organs of touch. Four
species were discovered, the largest specimen being thirteen inches
long.
Harpodon.—Body elongate, covered with very thin, diaphanous,
deciduous scales. Head thick, with very short snout; its bones are very
soft, and the superficial ones are modified into wide muciferous
cavities; the lateral canal of the body is also very wide, and a pair of
pores corresponds to each scale of the lateral line, one being above,
the other below the scale. Cleft of the mouth very wide; intermaxillary
very long, styliform, tapering; maxillary absent. Teeth card-like,
recurved, unequal in size; the largest are in the lower jaw, and
provided with a single barb at the posterior margin of the point. Eye
small. Ventral fins long, nine-rayed, inserted below the anterior dorsal
rays; dorsal fin in the middle of the length of the body; adipose fin
small; anal of moderate length; caudal fin three-lobed, the lateral line
being continued along the central lobe. Centre of the vertebræ open in
the middle.
Two species only are known of this singular genus; both are
evidently inhabitants of considerable depths, and periodically come
nearer to the surface. One (H. nehereus) is well known in the East
Indies, being of excellent flavour. When newly taken its body is
brilliantly phosphorescent. When salted and dry it is known under the
names of “Bombay-ducks” or “Bummaloh,” and exported in large
quantities from Bombay and the coast of Malabar. The second
species (H. microchir) exceeds the other in length, and has been
found in the sea off Japan.
 Fig. 269.—Scopelus boops.
Scopelus.—Body oblong, more or less compressed, covered with
large scales. Series of phosphorescent spots run along the lower side
of the body, and a similar glandular substance sometimes occupies
the front of the snout and the back of the tail. Cleft of the mouth very
wide. Intermaxillary very long, styliform, tapering; maxillary well
developed. Teeth villiform. Eye large. Ventrals eight-rayed, inserted
immediately in front of or below the anterior dorsal rays. Dorsal fin
nearly in the middle of the length of the body; adipose fin small; anal
generally long; caudal forked. Branchiostegals from eight to ten.
The fishes of this genus are small, of truly pelagic habits, and
distributed over all the temperate and tropical seas; they are so
numerous that the surface-net, when used during a night of
moderate weather, scarcely ever fails to enclose some specimens.
They come to the surface at night only; during the day and in very
rough weather they descend to depths where they are safe from
sunlight or the agitation of the water. Some species never rise to the
surface; indeed, Scopeli have been brought up in the dredge from
almost any depth to 2500 fathoms. Thirty species are known.
Gymnoscopelus differs from Scopelus in lacking scales.
Ipnops.—Body elongate, sub-cylindrical, covered with large, thin,
deciduous scales, and without phosphorescent organs. Head
depressed, with broad, long, spatulate snout, the whole upper surface
of which is occupied by a most peculiar organ of vision (or luminosity),
longitudinally divided in two symmetrical halves. Bones of the head
well ossified. Mouth wide, with the lower jaw projecting; maxillary
dilated behind. Both jaws with narrow bands of villiform teeth; palate
toothless. Pectoral and ventral fins well developed, and, owing to the
shortness of the trunk, close together. Dorsal fin at a short distance