Chapter three

In this chapter we will discuss the important and famous method to

measure the magnetization and magnetic parameters are the induction
method using VSM

• What is Electromagnetic Induction?

Electromagnetic induction is the production of electromotive force

otherwise known as voltage across an electrical conductor where the
magnetic field changes. For the discovery of induction, Micheal Faraday
was awarded this credit in 1831. Here, Faraday's law of induction was
described by Maxwell in mathematical terms. Take for example any
conductor and place it in a specific position. Here the process of
electromagnetic induction will let the conductor vary keeping the magnetic
field stationary.

Vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM)

Vibrating Sample Magnetometry is a method of investigation and study of

the magnetic properties of materials. The method is based on detecting the
magnetic flux variation, induced by the periodic movement (vibration) of
a sample of the material in study inside a uniform external applied magnetic
field (H), passing through special sensing pick-up coils, suitably positioned
near the vibrating sample.

Basic characterization of the overall magnetic state of the material, such as

determination of the diamagnetic or paramagnetic-antiferromagnetic
susceptibilities (χ), or ferromagnetic-ferrimagnetic magnetization(s) (M or
σ) can be conducted using VSM measurements, in a range of temperatures
(T) and applied magnetic fields. Moreover, information on the magnetic
properties of soft and hard ferromagnetic-ferrimagnetic materials, such as
saturation (MS) and remnant (MR) magnetizations, coercive fields (HC) and
Curie temperatures (TC), as well as Néel temperatures (TN) for
antiferromagnetic materials can be extracted. The superparamagnetic
properties of nanostructured magnetic materials can also be studied by
VSM.

VSM is a non-destructive technique and the measuring procedure requires

a relatively small amount of sample mass, usually in the range of a few to
a few tens of mg. Samples should be in the solid state, in the form of loose
or compressed powder, compact piece(s) or crystal(s). Special sample
forms of foils and films can also be successfully measured.

Vibrating sample magnetometer operates obeying Faraday’s Laws of

induction. This law states that rate of change of magnetic flux induces
electromotive force (e.m.f.). In this magnetometer, sample oscillates
vertically in between two detection pick up coils. A constant magnetic
field is applied by superconducting magnets to magnetize the sample. So,
a magnetic field is created around the sample due to its magnetization. As
sample is vibrating, magnetic flux is changing with time. So, according to
Faraday’s Laws, a voltage is induced in detection coil. This time
dependent induced voltage in pick up coil can be expressed by following
equation

Vcoil = dφ / dt

Where φ is magnetic flux enclosed by detection coil and t is time.

In the VSM, the sample is subjected to a sinusoidal motion (frequency ν)
and the corresponding voltage is induced in suitably located stationary
pickup coils. The electrical output signal of these latter coils has the same
frequency ν its intensity is proportional to the magnetic moment of the
sample, the vibration amplitude, and the frequency ν. A simplified
schematic representation of the VSM is given in the Figure. The sample to
be measured is centered in the region between the poles of a laboratory
magnet, able to generate the measuring field Ho. A thin vertical sample rod
connects the sample holder with a transducer assembly located above the
magnet. The transducer converts a sinusoidal ac drive signal, provided by
an oscillator/amplifier circuit, into a sinusoidal vertical vibration of the
sample rod. The sample is thus subjected to a sinusoidal motion in the
uniform magnetic field Ho. Coils mounted on the poles of the magnet pick
up the signal resulting from the motion of the sample. This ac signal at the
vibration frequency ν is proportional to the magnitude of the moment of
the sample. However, since it is also proportional to the vibration
amplitude and frequency, the moment readings taken simply by measuring
the amplitude of the signal are subject to errors due to variations in the
amplitude and frequency of vibration.

Description:
A vibrating sample magnetometer or VSM is a scientific instrument that
measures magnetic properties. A sample is placed inside a uniform
magnetic field to magnetize the sample. The sample is then physically
vibrated sinusoidal, typically through the use of a piezoelectric material.
By measuring in the field of an external electromagnet, it is possible to
obtain the hysteresis curve of a material.
Operation

A sample is made to oscillate using a vibrational unit extended on a rod.

The sample is placed between two electromagnetic pieces which are used
as the applied field for this this experiment. With the sample oscillating
induces a voltage between the search coils which creates a signal to
determine the magnetic properties of the sample. Reference coils are used
to create a reference signal such that noise generated from the signal can
be filtered using a lock-in amplifier. Because the signal and the reference
signal are directly related through its voltage and amplitude means that
precise measurements can be recorded using a voltmeter. Calibration
methods are important to determine the relation between the voltages
induced by the magnetic field and the sample and their magnetic properties.
Calibrating the applied field is done by increasing the voltage in steps
measuring the field until reaching a maximum. The system is calibrated
using a nickel standard normally as a number of volts per unit of magnetic
moment. Many materials such as types of barium ferrite or alnico materials
can be placed inside to determine properties. These properties include
remanence, coercivity, intrinsic coercivity and operating points once the
system has been calibrated.
 Figure 1. A schematic layout of the VSM

Advantages of VSM

• The precision and accuracy of VSM's are quite high even among
other magnetometers and can be on the order of ~ 10-6 emu.
• VSM's allow for a sample to be tested at varying angles with respect
to its magnetization letting researchers minimize the effects of
external influences.
• The induced signal is not affected by sample position and sample
geometry.
• Used to measure the magnetic properties of materials such as;
demagnetizing factors, anisotropy, magnetization processes, and
magnetic saturation.
Disadvantages of VSM

• VSM's are not well suited for determining the magnetization loop
due to the demagnetizing effects incurred by the sample.
• VSM's suffer from temperature dependence and cannot be used on
fragile samples that cannot undergo acceleration (from the vibration).
• High weight and density and Self-demagnetization