PALMR (Leadership & Management) 3.

Laisse-faire- member focus (members nagdedecide)

* Laisse-faire is best to use: when the members are
Management- art of getting things done with and matured enough
through people so that the goals of the organization can * Leader acts as a monitor only (pababayaan ka lang
be achieved magtrabaho pagnagkamali ka sasabihan ka lang
- Its about goals accomplishment * Laisse-faire happens when the leader is new from the
unit
Leadership- the use of one’s skills to influence others 4. Bureaucratic- focuses more on rules & regulations (by
to perform to the best of their ability toward goal the book)
achievement * Contingency theory- a leadership style may or may not
• Leadership skills- it can be learned be effective depending on the situation
• L e a d e r s u s e s d i ff e r e n t i n f l u e n c e t a c t i c s
(AIRCUBES) Power & Authority
✓ Assertiveness- sending direct messages; Authority- legitimate right to give command and to act on
standing up for your own rights w/o stepping the the interest of an organization
rights of others - An officially sanctioned responsibility
✓ ngratiation- making others feel good before - You need to be officially elected so not all leaders have
making a request the authority
✓ Rationality- relying on a detailed plan; reason or
logic Power- ability to obtain, retain, and motivate people and to
✓ Coalition- backing up a request together w/ your organize informational and material resources to
co-members accomplish a task
✓ Upward appeal- using the name of a superior; - Formal & Informal have power
formally/informally
✓ Blocking- threatening somebody to damage his Sources of Powers (LR C2RIES)
opportunity for advancement; not being friendly • Legitimate Power- people who hold a position in the
to another person until he grants the request organization (Formal Leader)
(Blackmail) • Reward Power- ability to give incentives and benefits
✓ Exchange- reminding somebody of a previous (Positive reinforcement/Token economy)
favor; return of favor • Coercive Power- ability to give fear and punishment
✓ Sanction- either giving or preventing incentives/ • Connection Power- people you know
benefits or promotions • Referent Power- charisma (kahit walang position)
• Information Power- who knows
Types of Leaders • Expert Power- people w/ special skills and abilities
• Formal leader: hold a position in the organization • Self Power- power that emanates from self due to
A. Top leader- focuses on the organization e.g maturity, experience or gender
President, CEO, Vice President, COO,
Chairman, Chief nurse, assistant chief nurse, - In management, do you need to become a good leader?
nursing directors YES
B. Middle leader- coordinates w/ the top and first - Does good leader enough? NO
level leaders e.g. Supervisors, Coordinator, - You also have to become a good manager
Dept. heads,
C. First level- focuses on the operations e.g. Head Functions of Management
nurses, Unit managers 1. PLANNING- knowing where you are and where you
want to be
• Informal leader: people who do not hold a position in 2 Types of Planning
the organization but they can motivate members to • Strategic/long term plan- 3-5 years; type of plan
perform that benefits the organization; Top level leader does
- E.g Senior staff, Charge nurse the strategic plan
• Operational/short term plan- usually change
Styles of Leadership annually/monthly/weekly/daily; benefits the
1. Authoritarian/Autocratic- leader focus operation; First level does the operational plan
* Best time to use autocratic: during emergency/ - Is it easy to create a plan? NO
crisis situations - Do you need to perform activities in planning?
* Why emergency?: Because members have a high YES
level of anxiety during emergency so they are - SWOT(Strength, Weakness, Opportunity, Threat)
incapable of decision making, they need Analysis:
supervisions of leader - Planning Formula:
2. Democratic- members have a voice in decision • What action is necessary?
making and the leader acts as a facilitator (leader • Where will it take place?
parin nagdedecide pero kasali lang member sa • When will it take place?
decision making) • Who will do it?
* Democratic is best to use: when you need the • How will it be done?
compliance of the members
* It’s not the best during emergency Hierarchy of Planning
• Mission: reason for existence
 • Vision: what the agency wants to achieve;
futuristic
• Philosophy: statement of beliefs, values, and
principles
• Goals: general statement of aims and purposes;
focus of management
• Objectives: specific statement of aims &
purposes that are used to carry out the goals
• Policies: are plans reduce to statements that
helps organization in decision making; directed to
all stakeholders
• Procedures: step-by-step instructions
• Rules: guidelines for action & non-action (do’s &
don’ts); directed to employees; subjected for
regulation
Budget
- systematic way of meeting the expenses
- it will always involved the past, present, and
future expenses
- Focuses on revenues/income & expenses/costs
(it should be both)
4 Types of Budget
• Capital Budget- usually expensive; long term
use regardless of the price e.g chairs in sch
• Operational Budget- day-to-day expense e.g
kuryente, consumable materials
• Personnel Budget- salary of full time
employees; prepare ahead of time e.g q8 hrs
for 5 days a week
• Cash Budget/Petty cash- available all the
time for emergency purpose
2. ORGANIZING- establish a formal structure of the
organization & create the job qualification and job
description
Purpose of the Organizational Structure
• For work distribution
3 Elements of Organizational Structure
(necessary)
• Levels of Authority: dapat may boss
- 3 levels of authority (Top, Middle, First level)
- Do you need to have all the 3 levels of authority?
NO bcoz it depends on the size of the
organization
- - Promote better interpersonal relationship
• Lines of Communication
- In an organization we usually see 2 lines of
communication.
- 1 line is called the solid line: represents direct
relationship; u have the superior-subordinate
relationship
- Principle of Management: UNITY OF
COMMAND (Hindi pwede utusan ni CN si HN;
there is only one person who could give orders
and that is the immediate superior
- Another principle for solid line: SCALAR CHAIN/
CHAIN OF COMMAND- follow the hierarchical
order
- The other one is called the broken/dotted line:
represents indirect relationship; they don’t have
superior-subordinate relationship (So hindi
pwedeng utusan ng MD ang HN kasi they don’t
have solid line)
- Nurses and doctors have a separate organization
kaya hindi ka pwedeng utus utusan ng doctor
except if these are doctor’s order pertaining to
patient care because that is included in your job
description
• Span of Control: number of workers that directly
report to a superior/ number of workers that a superior
handles; only limited
Major Forms of Organizational Structure
• Centralized Models- responsibility is assumed and
confined only to one authority (only one person who is
responsible for decision making); Isang boss, staff
lahat
Advantages
- Highly cost-effective
- Makes management easier
Disadvantages
- As the organization becomes bigger and complex,
the hierarchical arrangement becomes cumbersome
(sisikip so u can’t monitor all)
- The attention of manager becomes diluted due to his
many responsibilities
- The arrangement does not readily adapt to change
- Obtaining quick decisions or actions is not easy
• Decentralized Models or Participating Approach-
the bigger organizations broken down into smaller
units and the responsibility for decision making is
delegated to the ones nearest the majority of the
workers
- Majority of workers: STAFF NURSE
Advantages
- Reflects the interest of the workers and have a voice
in decision making
- Communication departmentally interdepartmentally
- Allows problem to be solved with greater
imagination and creativity
Disadvantages
- Not cost-effective
- Communication breakdown
- Problems with role communication can occur
* Which is better? Depends on the size of org
* Pag maliit- Centralized
* Pag malaki- Decentralized
Job Description- termed as a performance responsibility
- spells out your precise job content
Purpose
• It prevents malpractice
• Delegation
• Use for evaluation
• Also used for staffing

3. STAFFING- assign of competent people to fill the
roles of the organization
- Basis in choosing competent people: job description
The Staffing Process
• 4 common methods for staffing
✓ Conventional- oldest method; the manager could
either centralized or decentralized; there’s no
system (manager nasusunod); making of schedule
is based on the manager’s decision (discretionary)
- If centralized: 1 person gumagawa ng schedule
- If decentralized: marami gumagawa ng sched
✓ Cyclic- the schedule repeats itself; paulit ulit lang;
so pwede mapredict ng nurses kung kelan sya
papasok or magooff
✓ Forty hours- 8 hours/day, 5 days/week w/ 2 days
off; very important because its mandated by the law
in Philippines (PD 442 Labor Code for private
institution only); pre-pandemic
✓ Seven days- nearest staffing method that was used
during the pandemic; work from minimum of 10h a
day for 7 days/week followed by 7 days off
Nursing Care System/Modalities of Nursing Care/
Patterns of Nursing Care
- system that is used to deliver nursing care
• Case Nursing/Case Method
- the total care nursing
- nurse patient ratio 1:1
- eg. private duty nurse
- ideal to be used in the ICU
• Functional Nursing- task are delegated among the
staff; kanya kanya ng trabaho
• Team Nursing- group of nurses assigned to a
group of patients wherein there’s a team leader
- eg. clinical duty
- Marami nurse: marami din patient
• Primary Nursing- 24 hr continuous, coordinated,
comprehensive nursing service of 5-6 patients from
admission to discharge
- NP ratio 1:5 or 1:6
- madami nurses dito so kung 24 hrs si nurse uuwi
parin sya and kapag ganon may associate
primary nurse para magpalit muna sa kanya
- nurse per shift 1 nurse lang
- primary nurse is the one that’s responsible to
create the NCP since sa kanya inendorse px so
icocordinate nya din sa associate nurse nya
- associate cannot change the ncp except if theres
a change in the px condition provided report to
the primary nurse para macoordinate nya ulit
yung bagong NCP to other associates
- important because this is ideal to be used in the
ward
• Modular Nursing- a combination of team and
primary nursing
- group of nurses assigned to a group of patient
- group of nurses are the one responsible for the
24hr of care to this group of patients
- the only difference is there is a geographical
assignment of patients
- eg. Bagyong yolanda so almost all of the building in
tacloban are nabaha including hospital so kulang ng
manpower kaya pwede magpadala red cross ng
nurses to take care of all the patients there
• Case Management- utilizing the healthcare delivery
system wherein the goals are to deliver quality care, to
promote the quality of life, to decrease fragmentation,
and to contain costs.
- E.g Nursing home
- Decrease fragmentation: decrease isolation
(hospital)
4. DIRECTING/DELEGATION- issuance of orders,
assignments and instructions
- Doing phase of management (iniimplement nyo na yung
plan)
2 aspects
• Technical aspect: includes task, procedures,
materials & equipments
- show/teach/demonstrate/supervise/do or perform it
w/the nurse: if one of the question is “your staff is
incompetent”
• Interpersonal aspect: includes attitudes, behaviors, &
style of direction giving
- If attitude problem: verbalization of feelings sa board
exam
- Styles of direction giving or communicating:
assertiveness lang sagot sa BE
- If what & who ang delegation sa BE: first thing to
consider is the position of the staff (licensed/non),
ward (kung san galing at kung saang ward
pupunta), incapability depending on the position &
ward, condition of the patient
Communication
- the sending of messages from sender to receiver and
vice versa and hoping what is being sent is
understood
Elements of Communication (necessary)
• Message
• Encoding
• Transmitting (channels of communication)
• Decoding
• Feedback/Action- will always vary depending on the
receiver
3 Barriers in Communication
• Physical Barriers- environmental e.g. noise, distance
• Social-Psychologic Barrier- pertains to relationship
w/ other people and includes the state of the mind e.g
lack of trust
• Semantic Barrier- misinterpretation of signs &
symbols eg. Road signs, deaf & mute
- In communication there’s a grapevine which is
beneficial because it gives the manager an opportunity
to solve the problem immediately
- Grapevine is a chismis so kapag may problema isolve
mo muna yung problem saka mo alamin kung saan
nanggaling or nagsimula
Conflict
- is the misunderstanding or disagreement between 2
or more persons, agencies, or organization
 - In order for the manager to solve the problem, the
manager uses different conflict-resolution
strategies
1. Avoidance- “let us not talk about it”
2. Dominance & Suppression- “I am the manager
here, you have no choice”; manager lang
nasusunod, staff don’t have a voice here
(negative dating)
3. Restriciton/power- “I am the manager here, I
will what is best for everybody”; manager
gumagawa ng paraan/sacrifice; staff are sitting
pretty lang (positive dating sa staff)
4. Majority rule- “let us divide the house”; voting
nangyayari; commonly used
5. Smoothing- the unacceptable appears to be
acceptable (ang mali ay ginagawang tama)
6. Compromise- meeting halfway; parehas may
sinasacrifice; commonly used ng magjowa
7. Collaboration- working hand in hand in solving
the problem; the time that we use brainstorming
which everybody gives suggestion to solve the
problem
- #1 Rule of brainstorming is that all ideas are
welcome
4 Approaches in Problem Solving
1. Win-lose: manager nagbenefit, members
nagsacrifice; able to solve the problem at the
expense of others (Dominance & Suppression)
2. Lose-win: members nagbenefit, managers
nagsacrifice; able to solve the problem at your
own expense; Restriction/power, Soothing
3. Lose-lose: walang nagbenefit, both parties
sacrifice in the solution of problem (Compromise)
4. Win-win: both parties benefit from the solution of
problem, walang nagsacrifice (Collaboration)
- In all of these approaches, the manager are able
to solve the problem
- The first part pertains to the manager or you
- 2nd part pertains to the members or others
Change Management
- Any alteration in the status quo
- Status quo: present situation
The Change Process
• Perceive the need for change- identify the problem/
issue, determine that there’s something that needs to
be change, need to accept that there’s something that
needs to change
- Most of the time nakaindicate na ang problem so
you don’t need to perceive anymore
• Initiate a group interaction- it’s important because this
is the key to problem solving (sagot sa BE)
- Who is the key? THE GROUP therefore you need
their support, approval, acceptance and have
open communication w/ your members
- If your problem concerns the group, it should
always be group
- If your problem is just one staff, you have to
confront the staff privately & confidentially not in
front of the group bc that will be a violation of BON
Res. 220 series of 2004
✓ Identify internal and external forces
✓ State of the problem
✓ Identify the constraints
✓ List change strategies
✓ Develop plan for implementation
✓ Select or develop tools for evaluation
• Implement plan one step at a time- change status quo
gradually so that you can prevent resistance
• Evaluate over-all results- look if the solution has been
effective
5. CONTROLLING/EVALUATION
- seeing to it that what is planned is done
- Eg. NCP
- If controlling is not in BE, pwede evaluating, reviewing,
checking, determining, comparing
4 Basic Steps in Controlling
1. Develop standards & criteria
- Standards: predetermine level of care
- Criteria: characteristics used to meet the level of
care
- Hindi kapa nag eevaluate kasi u’re still creating the
basis of evaluation (standards & criteria)
- Tip in BE: basta controlling/evaluating ang question,
standard lang ang sagot kasi yun ang basis of
evalution
3 types of standards (SPO)
1. Structure- includes facilities, equipments,
materials, and management system
2. Process- includes plans & procedures
3. Outcome- pertains to results
• Question: Px has a well lit and well ventilated room.
Answer: Structure
• Q: Nurse gave TSB to a patient. Answer: Process
• Q: Px answered an evaluation form Answer:
Outcome
• If nurse gumawa- process
• If manager- structure
2. Determine compliance to standards & criteria
- nag eevaluate kana
2 types of evaluation in nursing unit
• Nursing Audit- patient focus
2 types of Nursing Audit
✓ Concurrent- evaluate as the care is given (pagkabigay
ng nursing care evaluate na agad)
✓ Retrospective- nadischarge na patient so the source
of evaluation is patients chart
• Performance Appraisal- staff focus
2 types of Performance Appraisal
✓ Informal- incidental performance appraisal (sudden
situation)
✓ Formal- systematically done based on the
procedure, usually ends up in review sessions
3. Identify strengths &weaknesses
- Should always focus on both (S&W)
- The same in delegation
4. Act to reinforce strengths and to take corrective actions
on the weaknesses
- Support whatever strength your staff may have but you
are going to correct their weaknesses
- How do you correct? By using the 2 aspects which is the
interpersonal therefore you use verbalization
Research
• Scientific Method- informal way to discover new
things
- e.g experiment which can finish for a couple of
hours
• Research- more formal, intensive, and
comprehensive method for the discovery of new
knowledge
2 Types of Research of Nursing
• Nursing Research- deals with clinical problem;
mas madalas ginagawa
• Research in Nursing- more broader study of
nursing in the profession; focuses more in issues
• Evidence-Based Practice- use of the current/latest
“best” evidence/findings in to practice
Importance of Research in Nursing
• Professionalism- we are doing research so that we
can enhance the profession
• Accountability- we wanted to know how far can
nursing go
• Social relevance of Nursing- you wanted to
contribute to the society
• Research and decision making- you wanted to
make new discoveries so that you can come up w/ the
best decisions
• Ultimate Goal of Research- to improve the practice
of the profession; highest goal of research; shared
among different professions
• If walang nursing practice na term sa BE, you can
use client care, patient care, health care, nursing
care.
Steps of the Research Process
Phase I: The Conceptual Phase
THE PROBLEM
Sources of Research Problem (NITES2)
• Nursing literature- journals, magazines, newsletter
• Ideas from external sources- hindi sayo nanggaling it
can be suggested by your friends, prof etc
• Theory- could be an existing theory, own theory
• Experience and clinical fieldwork- naranasan mo in
the clinical area during your duty; its important
because its said to be the one that is richest in
information
• Social issues- issues about society that could affect
nursing profession; eg. Autism, Alcoholism
• Scientific research- previous researches; least that is
being used
Criteria of Good Research Problems (SALTLIN)
• Significance of the study- address it to the people, to
the society at large, to the profession;
• Availability of the subjects- kasi kay subject mo
kukunin information
• Limitation of subjects
• Time allotment and research ability- time allotment is the
time that is given to you for you to be able to finish the
research
• Limitation of tools- instruments for data collection
Major Types of Data Collection Method
✓ Use of existing data- any forms of records/documents
that are already available
✓ Self reports- use of interviews & questionnaires; most
widely used form of data collection; it can gather
information that cannot be gathered by other methods
bc self reports usually gathers opinion
✓ Observation- either be participant or non-participant; its
the best when u want to assess the feelings &
emotions
Phenomena Amenable to Observations
• Characteristics and condition of the individual/
subjects
• Activities & behavior
• Skill attainment and performance
• Environmental characteristics- use observation
• Verbal communication- speech, tone
• Non verbal communication- gestures, facial
expression, body language, eye contact, mannerism
✓ Biophysiologic measures- use of equipments or
gadgets
2 Types of Measures
1. In Vivo- the measurement is performed directly
on the subjects; habang nakakabit sa subject ang
equipment u do the measurement
2. In Vitro- the measurement is performed outside;
gather specimen first then bring it to the
laboratory and measure it there
Criteria used to Know Effectivity
1. Validity- able to measure what is supposed to be
measured; if your tool can answer all of your
questions the it is valid
2. Reliability- repeatability/consistency of the tool;
kahit ilang beses mong inadminister yung same tool
u should get the same result
3. Sensitivity- ability to detect fine differences/small
variation; kahit maliit lang na pagkakaiba and
nadidistinguish ng tool mo then it is sensitive
- If the tool can answer all of your question then it is
efficient
- If it did not meet the criteria, that is the time that
researcher uses combination of tools
• Interest of the researcher-
• Novelty- newness/freshness of idea; dapat yung gagawin
mo yung bago
HYPOTHESIS
- tentative prediction of the relationship between variables
- Tentative bc at the end of the research u will either
approve or reject the hypothesis
4 Parts of Hypothesis
1. Independent Variables- cause
2. Dependent Variables- effect
3. Relationship
4. Population to which it applies- the most neglected part
of hypothesis
- First thing to identify is your population and their
characteristics
- 2nd: identify the set, if you have 2 or more sets of
population u concentrate on their characteristics that
 differentiates them= that will be your INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE
E.g Older pts are more at risk to fall than younger pts
- Pop: Older pts & Younger pts
- Sets: 2 sets (Older & younger)= concentrate on their
characteristics that differentiates them: their age=
therefore the independent variable will be their age
- Whatever varies in the population that is your
dependent (nagbabago): risk to fall
Eg. Girls are less sexually active than boys
- Pop: girls & boys
- Sets 2 sets= conc on characteristics: gender= I.V
- D.V= sexually active
Eg. Full term infants who are breastfed weigh more
than preterm infants who are mixed fed
- Pop: FT breastfed & PT mixed fed
- Set: 2 sets= conc on characteristics: term & feeding=
I.V
- DV= weight
Eg. Depressed pts who are living w/ significant others
have lesser chances of committing suicide than those
depressed pts who are living alone
- Pop: depressed pts live w/ SO & Depressed pts living
alone
- Sets: 2 sets= conc on characteristics: living
condition= I.V
- D.V= chances of committing suicide
- IF you only have 1 set of population, the
characteristics of population will become a form of
population kasi wala ng silbi
Eg. Educational attainment is not related to the
compliance of PTB pts
- Pop: PTB pts
- Set: 1 set= tanggal na characteristic (PTB)—> go
back to hypo/study and ask what is being studied—>
compliance & educational attainment
- IV: educational attainment bc fixed na yan (hindi
nababago)
- DV: compliance (nagbabago/vary)
- REMEMBER: If IV fixed/set na pero kung DV
nagvvary
- If the research is experimental theres always
manipulation
- Manipulation: anything that is given to your subjects
- IV: all manipulation is automatically your independent
Eg. Music therapy is assoc. to the levels of anxiety
among CA pts.
- Pop: CA pts
- IV: Music therapy (binigay mo sa subject mo/
manipulation)
- DV: levels of anxiety (nagbabago)
PHASE II: THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE- where
researchers spend most of their time
1. Selecting a research design
2. Developing protocols for the intervention- optional bc
this is only use for experimental research (experimental
lang may intervention)
3. Identifying the population to be studied
4. Designing the sampling plan
5. Specifying the methods to measure the research
variables- tools or instruments for data collection
6. Developing methods for safeguarding human/animal
rights- the right of the subjects are also your ethics
7. Finalizing and reviewing the research plan
PHASE III: THE EMPIRICAL PHASE- longest phase in
research
1. Collecting data
2. Preparing the data for analysis
PHASE IV: THE ANALYTIC PHASE
1. Analyzing the data
2. Interpreting the results
PHASE V: THE DISSEMINATING PHASE
1. Communicating the findings
2. Utilizing the findings in practice
Phase II: The Design & Planning Phase
SELECTING RESEARCH DESIGN
Types of Research Accdg to Motive
• Basic Research/Pure Research- to gain new knowledge
• Applied Research- to make new knowledge useful and
practical
Types of Research According to Levels of Investigation
• Level I Exploratory- identify the variables; if the research
is trying to get opinion (gusto mong malaman); if you see
the word “quality” or if the research is trying to get the
census/frequency automatically an exploratory
• Level II Descriptive- finding out whether the variables are
associated/related; If you see the word describe/
relationship/similarities/differences/facts & issues/study/
analysis that is automatically descriptive
a. Descriptive- wanted to describe the variables as it is
b. Correlational- wanted to describe the relationship of
the variables to each other
c. Comparative- compare the variables to each other
• Level III Experimental- finding out the cause & effects of
variables to each other; if you see the word effect or if
there is a manipulation
Types of research According to Approach/Design
• Non-experimental- w/o manipulation
a. Historical- study of the past; focus: past issues
(Descriptive bc of issues)
b. Survey- use of interviews & questionnaires to
gather public opinion (Exploratory bc of opinion)
c. Case Study- in depth of persons or entities
(Descriptive bc study)
d. Methodological- wanted to study methods, test &
procedures (Descriptive bc study)
e. Analytical- further analysis of issues &events
(Descriptive bc of analysis)
• Experimental - with manipulation
a. True experiment- there is a strict control over the
variables; for it to be considered a true experiment u
need the elements of E.R
Elements of E.R
✓ Randomization- u don’t have idea who will be
your subjects
✓ Manipulation- anything that is given to your
subjects
✓ Control
- Basta experimental whether true or quasi
always remember that we usually use 2 sets of
subjects
- Always remember that we give the
experimental manipulation only to the
experimental group
- Experimental manipulation: binibigay mo na
gusto mong pag aralan
- Eg. The effect of music therapy in decreasing
the levels of anxiety among cancer pts
- Purpose of control group: you are going to
compare the result of experimental group to
the control group
- So kailangan may mabigay for the control
group kasi magdududa sila bc they don’t know
na control group sila
- THATS WHY WE NEED TO HAVE A STRICT
CONTROL
- We usually give placebo to the control group
- Always remember in E.R we usually conduct a
blind experiment (the subject do not know in to
which group they belong)
- Double blind experiment: researcher and the
subject do not know in to which group any of
the subjects belong; we usually conduct this if
theres a danger for the researcher to predict
results
- Tip in the BE: you will not always see the word
true experimental so if u saw in the choices the
word experimental that is considered true exp
b. Quasi experiment- just like a true experiment; the
only difference is the control overcomes the
variables; ano man ang ibigay mo maoovercome
nila ang manipulation bc quasi experiment lacks
randomization= non random (so kilala mo na kung
sino subjects mo)
- so there will be bias kasi pipiliin mo lang subjects mo
- Tip: Quasi- experiment is always an option in BE
pero bihira sya maging sagot
Types of Research According to Time Frame
• Cross sectional study- one time study and u can
already established result; eg. Descriptive research
• Longitudinal study- repetitive studies; eg. Experimental
Research (3 trials), Trends of Alcoholism
• Retrospective- study of the past to explain the present;
eg Historical
• Prospective- study of the present to predict the future; eg
Global Warming
IDENTIFY POPULATION
Sampling Designs
• Population- the entire aggregation of cases that meet a
designated set of criteria
• Eligibility Criteria- exact criteria that the researcher will
used so that they can decide who will be included in the
population
• Accessible Population- within the reach of researcher
• Target Population/Universe- entire aggregate of cases
that the researcher would like to make generalization
• Sampling- is a process used to get a representative/
samples of the population
• Characteristic of Sample is representativeness/
representation
• Sampling Plans
✓ Non-probability Sampling (Non random)- may idea ka
kung sino samples mo pero lahat walang chance; Quasi
experimental
Types of Non-probability Sampling
• Convenience or accidental sampling- samples are ready
available
• Quota Sampling- u get a proportion of the population
(may limit lang)
• Purposive/Judgmental sampling- samples are hand-
picked by the researcher
• Snowball sampling- referral (like networking)
✓ Probability sampling (Random)- u don’t have idea so
lahat may chance; more accurate bc everybody has a
chance; Experimental research
Types of Probability Sampling
• Simple random sampling- everybody has a chance to
become a sample; eg roulette; walang grouping
• Stratified random sampling- u create strata/characteristics
of the population and then divide the population in to
homogenous group (pare pareho); may basis ang
grouping (strata/characteristics)
• Cluster sampling- is the successive random sampling of
units; big groups (grapes) pero walang basis
• Systematic sampling- you get the kth of the list
- Formula of systematic: K= N/n (population size ÷ sample
size)
- Slovin’s Formula:
- Tip: n equal big N divide by isa kasama si nene (1+Ne2)
- Simplify your denominator first
- e2- margin of error is always given
- N- population size
- n- sample size
- Eg. U have 2000 pop and u will be
needing 500 samples so what is your k?
DEVELOP METHODS ON HOW TO SAFEGUARD YOUR
SUBJECTS
4 Basic Rights of Research Subjects
• Right not to be harmed- protect your subjects from
possible inconveniences; Bioethical principle of
Beneficence (do good/to do) & Non-maleficence (do
no harm/protect/prevent)
• Right to full disclosure- veracity (truth-telling)
• Right to self-determination- autonomy; right of the
subject to decide for his own
• Right to privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality
- Anonymity- you don’t disclose the name of your
subject to protect their identity
- Confidentiality- when u do not disclose any
information or the case of the subjects
- Privacy- anything that is private is privacy (private
moments, private parts, private properties
Phase III: The Empirical Phase
COLLECTING THE DATA
Levels of Measurement
- assignment of numbers accdg to rules
- Both N & O are categorical
- Both I & R are numerical
1. Nominal- u just name the category
2. Ordinal- show ranking of events (pagkasunud
sunod)
3. Interval- it also shows ranking of events with equal
intervals and the 0 is not absolute (zero has a value)
eg Temperature (Basta may negative pa)
4. Ratio- just like interval with equal intervals and the 0
is absolute (zero means nothing) eg. Weight &
Height (basta last ang zero)
- Pearson Product Moment of Correlation (Pearson r): is
just like chi-square (1 set of pop w/ 2 or more variables
that focus on int/ratio data)
- Eg. You wanted to study the relationship of infant birth
weight to maternal weight among postpartum mothers
- 1 set of pop (postpartum mothers) & 2 variables (infant
birth wt & maternal wt) = your variable is numerical
• T-tests
Types of T-tests
- Student t-test- 2 sets of pop w/ 1 variable; just like
ANOVA pero dapat dalawa lang
- Eg. You wanted to study the level of anxiety between
Asians and Americans
- Paired t-test- 1 set of pop and your studying dependent
groups or results (Before&after)
- Dependent results: u have 2 results here but these
results are dependent to each other
- Eg. You wanted to study the ave. BP of women before &
after menstruation
- 1 set of pop (women) & results (before & after)
Phase V: The Disseminating Phase
COMMUNICATE THE FINDINGS

Phase IV: The Analytic Phase

ANALYZE THE DATA AND INTERPRET THE
RESULTS
2 Types of Analysis
1. Descriptive Analysis- do not prove your hypothesis it
just summarizes data
• Frequency Distribution- use of tables and graphs;
tables and graphs are the one that communicate to
the readers
• Measure of central tendency- includes the mean,
median & mode
- Mean: average (add all the values divided by the
number of population)
- Median: middle (in a value arrange in an array
whatever is in the middle automatic yun na or if
the question give you values of highest and lowest
add both then divided by 2)
- Mode: frequently appears
• Measure of variability- includes simple rank, range,
variance and standard deviation
2. Inferential Statistics- proves your hypothesis
• ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)- if you have 3 or more
sets w/ 1 variable
- Eg. You wanted to study the levels of anxiety among
Asians, Americans, Hispanics, Caucasians
- 3 set of pop & 1 variable
• Chi-square- 1 set of population w/ 2 or more variable
that is focus in frequency
- Eg. Educational attainment is not related to the
compliance of PTB pts
- 1 set of pop (PTB pts) & 2 variables (compliance &
educational attainment