Environment Terminologies

RRP 2022 - Environment Terminologies Ready Reckoner
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RRP 2022– ENVIRONMENT

TERMINOLOGIES READY RECKONER
INDEX
Sl. No. Topic Page No.

1. Environment and Ecology 1–4
2. Ecosystem And Related Concepts 5 – 13
3. Functions of Ecosystem Energy Flow 14 – 20
4. Biogeochemical Cycles 21 – 23
5. Biotic Interactions 24 – 26
6. Ecological Succession 27 – 28
7. Species 29 – 30
8. Biodiversity 31 – 38
9. Environmental Degradation 39 – 44
10. Waste Management Techniques 45 – 46
11. Environmental Issues 47 – 49
12. Climate Change and Global Warming 50 – 52
13. Carbon Related Terminologies 53 - 55

1. Environment and Ecology
Environment is the Physical surrounding in which

biotic (living) and abiotic (non- living) factors
interact with each other.
The environment constitutes the physical factors
(nutrients, water, air etc.) and biological factors
Environment
(organisms) along with the interactions between
them. These interactions affect an organism.
The environment is not static. Both biotic and
abiotic factors are dynamic and keep changing
continuously.
Habitat is the physical environment in which an
organism lives. It corresponds to the address of an
organism. A single habitat may be common for
more than one organism which has similar
Habitat requirements.
For example, a single aquatic habitat may support
a fish, frog, crab, phytoplankton and many other
kinds of organisms. The various species sharing a
habitat thus have the same ‘address’.
A habitat always has life in it, whereas the
environment does not necessarily have life in it.
There are certain places in the environment like
Difference between
the summit of Mt. Everest or the Mariana Trench
Habitat and
where the living conditions are extreme and life
Environment
cannot exist.
All habitats are part of the environment but all the
places in the environment are not habitats.
Ecology is defined “as a scientific study of the
relationship of the living organisms with each other
and with their environment.”
Ecology Ecology encompasses study of individual,
organisms, population, community, ecosystem,
biome and biosphere which form the various levels
of ecological organization.

(Levels of Organization)
Holism in Ecology
Organism is an individual living being that has the

Organism ability to act or function independently. It may be
any organism.
Species are a group of similar organisms
Species consisting of similar genetic structure and are
capable of interbreeding.
Population is a large number of organisms which
Population belong to one species. Ex: populations of tigers,
lions, rhinos etc.
Populations of two or more different species living
together in an area is known as community.
Communities in most instances are named after
the dominant plant form (species). For example: A
Community
grassland community is dominated by grasses,
though it may contain herbs, shrubs, and trees,
along with associated insects and animals of
different species.
It is defined as structural and functional unit of
biosphere consisting of living beings and physical
Ecosystem
environment, both interacting and exchanging
materials between them.
Biome is a large naturally occurring community of
flora and fauna occupying a major habitat. E.g.
Rainforest biome or tundra biome. Plants and
Biome
animals in a biome have common characteristics
due to similar climatic condition throughout the
biome.
The biosphere is the biological component of earth
which includes the lithosphere, hydrosphere and
Biosphere atmosphere. The biosphere includes all living
organisms on earth, together with the dead organic
matter produced by them.

Components of
ecosystem
Abiotic components are the inorganic and non-

living parts which act as major limiting factors.
Limiting factor
Lot of factors determine the survival of an organism.
One single factor can limit the range of an organism.
Abiotic
This single factor is called as a limiting factor.
Components
For example, seeds don’t germinate quickly in
evergreen rain forests in spite of good rains and
vegetation as the surface soil is heavily leached
(nutrients washed away by running water). Here,
poor soil is the limiting factor.
Primary producers - Autotrophs (self-nourishing)
Primary producers are basically green plants,
certain bacteria and algae that carry out
photosynthesis.
In terrestrial ecosystem, grasses, plants and trees
are the primary producers while in aquatic
ecosystem, microscopic algae [plankton] and
aquatic plants are the primary producers.
Consumers  Heterotrophs or Phagotrophs (other
Biotic Components
nourishing)
Consumers are incapable of producing their own
food. They depend on plants, animals or both for
food. Consumers can be divided into two broad
groups namely micro and macro consumers.
Macro Consumers:
Herbivores are primary consumers which feed
mainly on plants e.g. cow.

Carnivores which feed on primary consumers e.g.

lion which can eat wolves, snakes etc.
Omnivores are organisms which consume both
plants and animals E.g. man, bear, etc.
Micro consumers - Saprotrophs
(decomposers).Also known as Detrivores.
They are bacteria and fungi which obtain energy and
nutrients from dead organic substances (detritus) of
plant and animals. The products of decomposition
such as inorganic nutrients which are released in
the ecosystem are reused by producers and thus
recycled.
Take Home Point: Virus are not decomposers.
Several species of bacteria and fungi are
decomposers. Decomposition is the process by
which organic substances are broken down into
simpler matter. Decomposition process is a part
of the nutrient cycle and is essential for
recycling the finite matter in the environment.
Filter feeding is a method of aquatic feeding in which
the animal takes in many small pieces of prey at one
time.
As opposed to predators who seek out specialized
Filter feeding
food items, filter feeding is simply opening up your
mouth and taking in whatever happens to be there,
while filtering out the undesirable parts.
Filter feeders are mostly underwater creatures.


2. Ecosystem and Related Concepts
Classification of
Ecosystem
Terrestrial
Ecosystem
Aquatic Ecosystem
Based on light penetration and plant distribution

they are classified as
Zones of Ocean 1) Photic Zone

Photic (or “euphotic”) zone is the portion that
extends from the lake surface down to where the
light level is 1% of that at the surface.

The depth of this zone depends on the

transparency of water.
Photosynthetic activity is confined to the photic
zone.
Both photosynthesis and respiration activity
takes place.
2) Aphotic Zone
The lower layers of the aquatic ecosystems, where
light penetration and plant growth are restricted
forms the aphotic zone (profundal zone).
Only respiration activity takes place in this zone.
The aphotic zone extends from the end of the
photic zones to bottom of the lake.
The aquatic organisms are classified on the basis of
their zone of occurrence.
• Neuston: These organisms live at the air-water
interface, e.g. floating plants.
• Periphyton: These are organisms which remain
attached to stems and leaves of rooted plants or
substances emerging above the bottom mud such
as sessile algae.
• Plankton: Microscopic floating organisms such as
Aquatic Organisms algae, diatoms, protozoans and larval forms are
Classification Based called plankton. This group includes both
on Zones microscopic plants like algae (phytoplankton) and
animals like crustaceans and protozoans
(zooplankton).
• The locomotory power of the planktons is limited
so that their distribution is controlled, largely, by
currents in the aquatic ecosystems.
• Nekton: This group contains powerful swimmers
that can overcome the water currents.
• Benthos: The benthic organisms are those found
living at the bottom of the water mass.
• Coral reefs are large underwater structures
composed of the skeletons of colonial marine
invertebrates called coral.
Coral Reefs • They represent mutualistic relationship
between coral animals and blue green algae called
zooxanthellae.
• Each individual coral is referred to as a polyp.

1. Fringing Reefs:
Fringing reefs are reefs that grow directly from a
shore.
They are located very close to land, and often

form a shallow lagoon between the beach and the
main body of the reef.
• They are the most common type of reef
Types of Corals structure found in the ocean.
• Sometimes they are separated by a shallow
lagoon.
• E.g. New Hebrides Society islands of
Australia and off the southern coast of
Florida.
2. Barrier Reefs
• Barrier reefs are extensive linear reef
complexes that parallel a shore, and are
separated from it by lagoon.
• This is the largest in size of the three reefs,
runs for hundreds of kilometres and is several
kilometres wide.
• Eg. Great Barrier Reef off the coast of
Queensland, Australia.
3. Atolls
• Atolls are similar to barrier reefs except that
they are circular, enclosing a shallow lagoon
without any land in the centre.
• The encircling ring is usually broken in a few
places to allow the free flow of water.
• Eg. Sudadiva in the Maldives, Bangaram

atoll in Lakshadweep.
When corals face stress by changes in conditions
such as temperature, light, or nutrients, they expel
the symbiotic algae zooxanthellae living in their
tissues, causing them to turn completely white. This
Coral Bleaching
phenomenon is called coral bleaching.
The pale white colour is of the translucent tissues of
calcium carbonate which are visible due to the loss
of pigment producing zooxanthellae.
A mangrove is a shrub or small tree that grows in
coastal saline or brackish water.
Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees, also called
halophytes.
Mangroves occur worldwide in the tropics and
subtropics, mainly between latitudes 25° N and 25°
S.
Mangroves They contain a complex salt filtration system and
complex root system to cope with salt water
immersion and wave action
Pneumatophores – air roots that protrude of the
mud
Stilt Roots - are adventitious roots that provide
support for the plant. Indian Sunderbans are the
best example for mangroves
Wetlands are defined as: "lands transitional
between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems where
Wetlands
the water table is usually at or near the surface or
the land is covered by shallow water".
These are wetlands that are being protected under
Ramsar Convention
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Ramsar Cites
Habitat is an international treaty for the
conservation and sustainable use of wetlands.
Ramsar philosophy is the “wise use” of wetlands
There are 37 Ramsar Sites in India
The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites
on the List of Wetlands of International Importance
where changes in ecological character have
Montreux Record
occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a
result of technological developments, pollution or
other human interference.

At present, there are two sites from India under

this.
1. Loktak lake, Manipur
2. Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan
Peatlands are wetlands with a thick water-logged soil
layer made up of dead and decaying plant material.
Peatlands include moors, bogs, mires, peat swamp
Peatlands forests and permafrost tundra. Peatlands represent
half of the Earth’s wetlands and cover 3% of the
global total land area. They are found all over the
world.
Each organism is adapted to its particular
environment. An adaptation is thus, “the
appearance or behavior or structure or mode of life
of an organism that allows it to survive in a
particular environment”.
Adaptation is any attribute of the organism that
enables the organism to survive and reproduce in
its habitat.
Ex:
• when trees grew higher, the giraffes neck got
Adaptation
longer; In the absence of an external source of
water,
• the kangaroo rat in North American deserts is
capable of meeting all its water requirements
through its internal fat oxidation.
• Some desert plants like Opuntia, have no leaves
- they are reduced
to spines-and the photosynthetic function is
taken over by the flattened stems [less leaves =
less area available for transpiration].
We need to breathe faster when we are on high
mountains. After some days, our body adjusts to
the changed conditions on the high mountain.
Such small changes that take place in the body of a
Acclimatization
single organism over short periods, to overcome
small problems due to changes in the
surroundings, are
called acclimatization.

Evolution is the change which gives rise to new

species. It happens in order to make the organism
better suit to the present environment. Evolution
leads to speciation or formation of new species.
Evolution
An ecotone is a zone of junction or a transition

area between two biomes or ecosystems. It is where
two communities from two different ecosystems
meet and integrate.
For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an ecotone
between marine and terrestrial ecosystem. Other
examples are grassland (between forest and desert),
estuary (between fresh water and salt water) and
marsh land (between dry and wet).
Ecotone
Characteristics of Ecotone
It may be narrow (between grassland and forest) or
wide (between forest and desert).
As it is a zone of transition, it has conditions
intermediate to the adjacent ecosystems.
A well-developed ecotone contains some organisms
which are entirely different from that of the adjoining
communities.

Sometimes the number of species and the

population density of some of the species in the
ecotoneis much greater than either community.
This is called edge effect.
The organisms which occur primarily or most
Edge Effect – Edge
abundantly in this zone are known as edge
Species
species.
In the terrestrial ecosystems edge effect is especially
applicable to birds. For example the density of birds
is greater in the mixed habitat of the ecotone
between the forest and the desert.
Niche refers to the unique functional role and
position of a species in its habitat or ecosystem.
In nature, many species occupy the same habitat
but they perform different functions.
Habitat of a species is like its ‘address’ (i.e. where
it lives) whereas niche can be thought of as its
“profession” (i.e. activities and responses specific to
the species).
A niche is unique for a species while many species
Ecological Niche share the habitat.
No two species in a habitat can have the same
niche. This is because of the competition with one
another.
A species' niche includes all of its interactions with
the biotic and abiotic factors of its environment
[habitat niche - where it lives, food niche - what is
eats or decomposes & what species it competes
with, reproductive niche - how
and when it reproduces].
Two species cannot co-exist in a community if their
Gause’s Principle
Niches are identical
These are the benefits people obtain from
ecosystems. These are the different goods and
services people get freely from the nature.
There are four categories of Ecosystem Services. They
are:
Ecosystem Services
1) Supporting Services:
These include services such as: nutrient
recycling, primary production, soil formation,
pollination etc. These services make it possible
for the ecosystems to provide other services. So

these form the basis for the other services.

2) Provisioning Services: These services are:
 Food: Food crops, foods such as honey and
fruits obtained from the forests.
 Raw materials: Including timber, skins, fire
wood, bio-mass, fodder etc
 Genetic Resources: Genetic resources are
beneficial genes present in the organisms
which give the organism beneficial
characteristics which are valuable to mankind.
Ex: Food crops which are pest and drought
resistant, cattle which give good quality milk
etc.
 Fresh Water and Air
 Bio-genic Materials- These are materials or
minerals obtained from living organisms
example: Calcium Carbonate made by coral
polyps.
 Medicinal Resources: Like medicinal plants.
 Ornamental Resources: including
handicrafts, jewellery, decoration, furs,
aquarium fish etc.
3) Regulating Services:
 Carbon Sequestration and climate regulation.
 Waste decomposition
 Purification of water and air.
 Pest control
4) Cultural Services:
 Use of nature in books, film, painting,
folklore, national symbols, advertising etc.
 Spiritual use, including use of nature for
religious purposes.
 Recreational use, including eco-tourism,
outdoor sports etc.
 Science and education, including use of
nature for research, scientific discoveries,
learning etc.
 Therapeutic uses, including Eco-therapy,
animal-assisted therapy, etc.

1. Energy Flow – Food Chain, Food Web, Biotic

Interactions and related concepts
2. Nutrient Cycling – Carbon, Nitrogen, Sulphur,
Phosphorous cycles
3. Ecological Succession – Primary, Secondary
Succession and related terminologies

3. Functions of Ecosystem Energy Flow
The flow of energy from producers to the top level

consumers is called energy flow.
Some part of the energy consumed is always lost in
the form of heat.
Flow of Energy
According to this law, only 10% of energy entering

into trophic level of energy will be available to be
transferred to the next trophic level.
Law Mf 10% Energy

Transfer
Trophic level is the position that an organism

occupies in a food chain - what it eats, and what
eats it.
Trophic Level
Autotrophs (or producers) make their own food using
light or chemical energy. Examples of autotrophs
include plants, algae, and some bacteria.

Heterotrophs (or consumers) get organic molecules

by eating other organisms or their by-products.
Animals, fungi, and many bacteria are heterotrophs.
Specialized heterotrophs, called decomposers break
down dead organic material and wastes.
Consumers are further classified into primary
producers, Secondary and tertiary consumers
Energy flows through the trophic levels from
producers to subsequent trophic levels is
unidirectional.
Transfer of food energy from green plants (producers)
through a series of organisms with repeated eating
and being eaten link is called a food chain.
Each step in the food chain is called trophic level. A
food chain starts with producers and ends with top
carnivores. The trophic level of an organism is the
position it occupies in a food chain.
Grazing food chain
The consumers which start the food chain, utilizing
Food Chain the plant or plant part as their food, constitute the
grazing food chain. This food chain begins from
green plants at the base and the primary consumer
is herbivore. For example, In terrestrial ecosystem,
grass is eaten by caterpillar, which is eaten by lizard
and lizard is eaten by snake. In Aquatic ecosystem
phytoplankton (primary producers) are eaten by zoo
planktons which are eaten by fishes and fishes are
eaten by pelicans.
Detritus food chain

This type of food chain starts from dead organic

matter of decaying animals and plant bodies.
Dead organic matter or detritus feeding organisms
are called detrivores or decomposer
decomposer. The
detrivores are eaten by predators. The two food
chains are linked. The initial energy source for
detritus food chain is the waste materials and dead
organic matter from the grazing food chain.
In an aquatic ecosystem, grazing food chain is
the major conduit for energy flow. As against this, in
a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of
energy flows through the detritus food chain than
through the grazing food chain.
Multiple interlinked food chains make a food web.

Food web represents all the possible paths of energy
flow in an ecosystem. If any of the intermediate food
chain is removed, the succeeding links of the chain
Food Web
will be affected largely. The food web provides more
than one alternative for food to most of the organisms
in an ecosystem and therefore increases their chance
of survival.

Also, food availability and preferences of food of the

organisms may shift seasonally e.g. we eat
watermelon in summer and peaches in the winter.
Thus, there are interconnected networks of feeding
relationships that take the form of food web.
Differences between Food Chain and Food Web

Food Chain Food Web
Single pathway through which
food and energy travels in a Interconnection of number of food chains.
ecosystem
Members of higher trophic level have
Members of higher trophic level
number
feed upon single type of
of alternate organisms in lower trophic level
organisms of lower trophic level
to feed upon
Isolated food chain adds Food web increases the stability of the
instability to the food chain ecosystem
Does not add to adaptability and Increases the adaptability and
competitiveness of the organism competitiveness of the organism.
Ecological productivity refers to the primary fixation of

Ecological solar energy by plants and the subsequent use of that
productivity fixed energy by plant-eating herbivores, animal-eating
carnivores, and the detritivores that feed upon dead

biomass.
Productivity of autotrophs such as plants is called
primary productivity, while that of heterotrophs such
as animals is called secondary productivity.
productivity
It is the diagramtic representation of the various trophic
levels in an ecosytem.
Ecological
Pyramids
Pyramid of Numbers for a Grassland Ecosystem is upright.

Pyramid of Numbers in aquatic ecosystem can be upright or
inverted.
Pyramid of Numbers for a Parasitic food chain is inverted.
For example: Tree ecosystem
Pyramid of
numbers
• It is always upright for any type of Ecosystem because

Pyramid of energy flow is unidirectional
Energy • The energy is lost in the form of heat from one trophic
level to another.

• The individual in each trophic level is weighed instead

of counting.
• Pyramid of Biomass in an Aquatic ecosystem will be
inverted
Pyramid of
Biomass
• It refers to how pollutants enter a food chain

• In this there is an increase in concentration of a
Bio accumulation
pollutant from the environment to the first organism
in the food chain
Bio- • It is increase in concentration of the pollutants from

concentration one trophic level to the next

• Bioconcentration occurs within a trophic level

through absorption from water (when intake from
water > excretion rate).
Bio-
• Rate of absorption is greater than that at which
magnification
the substance is lost.
• It is synonymous to bio accumulation except the
source.
• Biochar is charcoal that is produced by pyrolysis of
biomass in the absence of oxygen; it is used as a soil
conditioner.
• Biochar is a stable solid that is rich in carbon and can
endure in soil for thousands of years.
Biochar
• Biochar is being investigated as a means of carbon
sequestration, and it may be a means to mitigate climate
change.
• Biochar may increase the soil fertility of acidic soils and
increase agricultural productivity.
• It is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that uses algae

as its source of energy-rich oils
Algal fuel
• However, It requires too much fertilizer, too much water,
and too much energy to produce at scale.

4. Biogeochemical Cycles
• The continuous cycle of matter through the Earth’s

Biogeochemica l systems like atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere
Cycles and biosphere on a range of time period is called
Biogeochemical Cycles
Classification
The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which

carbon is exchanged among the biosphere,
pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere,
and atmosphere of the Earth. Carbon is the main
component of biological compounds as well as a major
component of many minerals such as limestone.
Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen needs to be ‘fixed’, that is, converted to ammonia,

Nitrogen Cycle nitrites or nitrates, before it can be taken up by plants.
Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished in three different ways:

By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-green algae),

By man using industrial processes (Sulphurer factories)
To a limited extent by atmospheric phenomena such as thunder
and lighting.
• Phosphorus plays a central role in aquatic

ecosytems and water quality
• Occurs in large amount as mineral in phosphate
rocks
• They enter the cycle from erosion and mining
activities
• This is considered to be the main cause of excess
growth of rooted and free floated microscopic plants in
lakes.
Phosphorus
Cycle
Sulphur Cycle The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except two of its

compounds, hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and sulphur dioxide (SO2),

which add a gaseous component.
Sulphur in the form of sulphates is taken up by plants and
incorporated through a series of metabolic processes. It then
passes through the grazing food chain.

5. Biotic Interactions
One species harms or restricts the other species without itself

being adversely affected or harmed by the presence of the other
species.
Organisms that secrete antibiotics and the species that get
inhibited by the antibiotics are examples of amensalism. For
Amensalism
example the bread mould fungi Pencillium produce penicillin
an antibiotic substance which inhibits the growth of a variety
of bacteria.
A large tree shades a small plant, retarding the growth of the
small plant. The small plant has no effect on the large tree.
In this relationship one of the species benefits while the
other is neither harmed nor benefited.
Some species obtain the benefit of shelter or transport from
another species.
For example sucker fish, remora often attaches to a shark by

means of its sucker which is present on the top side of its
head. This helps the remora get protection, a free ride as well
Commensali
as meal from the left over of the shark’s meal. The shark does
sm
not however get any benefit nor is it adversely affected by this
association.
Another example of commensalisms is the relationship
between trees and epiphytic plants.
Epiphytes live on the surface of other plants like ferns,
mosses and orchids and use the surface of trees for support
and for obtaining sunlight and moisture. The tree gets no
benefit from this relationship nor are they harmed.
This is a close association between two species in which both
the species benefit. One example of a mutualistic
relationship is that of the oxpecker (a kind of bird) and the
rhinoceros or zebra. Oxpeckers land on rhinos or zebras and
eat ticks and other parasites that live on their skin. The
oxpeckers get food and these animals get free pest control.
Mutualism
However, some mutualisms are so intimate that the
interacting species can no longer live without each other as
they depend totally on each other to survive. Such close
associations are called symbiosis (symbiosis is intense
mutualism –
E.g. coral and zooxanthellae).

An example of such close mutualistic association is that of

termite and their intestinal flagellates. Termites can eat
wood but have no enzymes to digest it. However, their
intestine contains certain flagellate protists (protozoans) that
have the necessary enzymes to digest the cellulose of the
wood eaten by termites and convert it into sugar.
In this type of interaction, one species is harmed and the
other benefits.
Parasitism involves parasite usually a small size
organism living in or on another living species called the
Parasitism
host from which the parasite gets its nourishment and often
shelter.
Many organisms like animal, bacteria and viruses are
parasites of plants and animals.
Predators like leopards, tigers and cheetahs use speed,
teeth and claws to hunt and kill their prey.
They keep prey populations under control. Without predators,
prey species could achieve very high population densities and
Predation cause ecosystem instability.
When certain exotic species are introduced into a
geographical area, they become invasive and start spreading
fast because the invaded land does not have its natural
predators.
• Allelopathy refers to a biochemical phenomena where
one organism influences the germination, growth, survival
and reproduction of another organism using biochemicals.
Allelopathy • These biochemicals are known as allelochemicals
Example: The black walnut (Juglans nigra) produces the
allelochemical juglone, which affects some species greatly
while others not at all.
All the interacting organisms living together in a specific

Biocoenosis
habitat (or biotope).
Summary Table – Biotic Interactions
Species Species
Type Example
1 2
Pollination – pollinator gets food
Mutualism + +
Plant gets cross fertilised
Tree frogs use plants as protection.
Commensalism + 0 Cattle egrets eat the insects stirred

up by cattle
Large tree providing shelter to birds

Amensalism
Black walnut (Juglans nigra),
(Allelopathy/Anti - 0
which secretes juglone, a
biotics)
herbaceous plants within its root
zone
Lion and Tiger hunting the same
Competition - -
deer
Predation + - Hawk eating a snake
Parasitism + - Ticks on pets

6. Ecological Succession
Communities are dynamic in nature and change over a period

of time. The process by which species of plants and animals in
Ecological an area are replaced or changed into another over a period of
Succession time is known as ecological succession.
Succession occurs when a series of communities replace one
another due to large scale destruction (natural or
• Autogenic Succession – Succession brought about by
living inhabitants of that community itself.
• Allogenic Succession – Succession brought about by
outside forces
Types of • Autotrophic Succession – Succession in which initially
Succession green plants are much greater in quantity
• Heterotrophic Succession – Succession in which
heterotrophs are much greater in number.
• Primary Succession
• Secondary Succession
Primary succession takes place an over a bare or unoccupied areas
such as rockss, newly formed deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano
islands, lava flows as well as glacial moraines (muddy area exposed by a
retreating glacier) where no community has existed previously.
Primary
Succession
Secondary succession occurs when plants colonize an area in

which the climax community has been disturbed. Secondary
succession is the sequential development of biotic
communities after the complete or partial destruction of the
Secondary
existing community.
Succession
In primary succession on a terrestrial site the new site is first
colonized by a few hardy pioneer species that are often
microbes, lichens and mosses. The pioneers over a few
generations alter the habitat conditions by their growth and

development. The new habitat conditions are suitable for the

growth of other organisms. Eventually the pioneer community
gets replaced by the other species.
Unlike in the primary succession, the secondary succession
starts on a well- developed soil already formed at the site.
Thus secondary succession is relatively faster as compared to
primary succession which may often require hundreds of
years.
 The first group of organism which establish their

Pioneer
community in the area is called ‘Pioneer’ Community.
Community
Ex: Lichen, Moss and Microbes
 The various developmental stage of a community is called
‘seres’.
Seral Stage
 Herbs and Shrubs usually grow after further weathering,
increase in moisture and soil.
The terminal (final) stage of succession forms the community

Climax
which is called as climax community. A climax community is
Community
stable, mature, more complex and long lasting.

7. Species
Keystone species is a species whose addition to or

loss from an ecosystem leads to major changes in
the occurrence of at least one other species.
Keystone Species
If keystone species is lost, it will result in the degradation
of the whole ecosystem.
Eg Top predators -Tiger, Lion, Crocodile, Elephant
Endemic Species are plants and animals that exist
only in one geographic region. Species can be endemic
Endemic Species to large or small areas of the earth: some are endemic
to a particular continent, some to part of a
continent, and others to a single island.
Umbrella species are very similar to keystone species,
but umbrella species are usually migratory and need a
large habitat.
Eg. Tigers
Umbrella Species
Efforts to save wild tigers in forests in the Indian
state of Rajasthan also accomplish the goal of saving
other species there, such as leopards, boars, hares,
antelopes, and monkeys.
Foundation species is a dominant primary producer in
Foundation an ecosystem both in terms of abundance and
Species influence.
Eg: kelp in kelp forests and corals in coral reefs
An indicator species is an organism whose presence,
absence or abundance reflects a specific environmental
condition.
Indicator Species Indicator species can signal a change in the biological
condition of a particular ecosystem
Eg. plants or lichens sensitive to heavy metals or
acids in precipitation may be indicators of air pollution.
The species which are found abundantly in ecotone

Edge Species
boundary are known as edge species.
They are species that play an important role in

supporting network species as pollinators, dispersal
Critical link agents, absorption or circulation of nutrients, etc.
Species Mycorrhizalfungi help the vascular plants in
obtaining inorganic nutrients from soil and organic
residues.

An alien species is a species introduced outside its

natural past or present distribution; if this species
becomes problematic, it is termed an invasive alien
species
Some commonly found alien species:
African apple snail (Achatina fulica): The most invasive
among all alien fauna in India, this mollusc was first
reported in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
Invasive alien
Species Papaya Mealy Bug (Paracoccus marginatus): Native of
Mexico and Central America, it is believed to have
destroyed huge crops of papaya in Assam, West Bengal
and Tamil Nadu.
Cotton Mealy Bug (Phenacoccus solenopsis): Native to
North America, it has severely affected cotton crops in
Deccan
Amazon sailfin catfish (Pterygoplichthys pardalis): This
species is responsible for destroying the fish population
in the wetlands of Kolkata.
A species which is at risk of becoming extinct because it
Endangered
is either few in number, or threatened by changing
Species
environmental or predation parameters.
Those able to thrive in a wide variety of environmental
Generalist
conditions and can make use of a variety of different
Species
resources.
The physical isolation of the biology population due to
Allopatric
the extrinsic barrier is called allopatric speciation
Speciation
Squirrels in the Grand Canyon, Darwin’s Finches, etc.
The evolution of new species from one ancestral
Sympatric species by living in the same habitat is called
Speciation sympatric speciation
Tobacco, Wheat, Cultivated corn, etc.

8. Biodiversity
Bio (Life) + Diversity (Variety)

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) DEFINES IT
as:
"the variability among living organisms from all sources
Biodiversity
including, among others, terrestrial, marine and other
aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
which they are part; this includes diversity
species, between species and of ecosystems"
Genetic diversity Species diversity Ecosystem diversity
Refers to
variation of genes
within a
particular species Refers to the number
Genetic diversity and variety of species
gives various on earth. Refers to the different types
characteristics to It is the ratio of one of habitats/ecosystems.
a given species species population over Grasslands, wetland, desert,
EG- Human total number of organisms mangrove and tropical rain
Beings Genetically across all species in the forests are some examples of
belong to the given biome. ecosystems.
homo-sapiens The diversity of The nature of ecosystem forces
group but differ in species can be measured the species
their through its richness, to adapt and hence leading to
characteristics abundance and types diversity in species
such as height, (Groups of individual (Ecosystem is structural and
colour, physical organisms having certain functional unit of biosphere
appearance etc similarities in their consisting of community of
The genetic physical characteristics living beings)
diversity is are
essential for a called species.)
healthy breeding
of population of
species.

It represents the number of different species in a given

Species richness
habitat or region. Low richness indicates
It is the measure of relative abundance of different
Species evenness species in the area Low evenness indicates that a few
species dominate the site
a) Alpha diversity
It refers to the diversity within a particular area or
ecosystem, and is usually expressed by the number
of species (i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem.
b) Beta diversity
It is a comparison of diversity between ecosystems,
usually measured as the change in amount of
species between the ecosystems.
Indices Used By c) Gamma diversity
Ecologists To It is a measure of the overall diversity for the
Measure Diversity different ecosystems within a region.
The term megadiverse country refers to any one of a group

of nations that harbor the majority of Earth's species and
high numbers of endemic species.
Conservation International identified 17 megadiverse
Megadiverse countries in 1998.Many of them are located in, or
Countries partially in, tropical or subtropical regions.
The main criterion for megadiverse countries is endemism
at the level of species, genera and families.
A megadiverse country must have at least 5,000 species of
endemic plants and must border marine ecosystems.
Biodiversity hotspots are regions with high species
richness and a high degree of endemism.
Biodiversity It is biogeographic region characterized both by

Hotspots exceptional levels of plant endemism and by serious
levels of habitat loss.
Concept given by Norman Myers in 1988
Conservation International adopted this concept in order

to conserve the Biodiversity of Earth

There are currently 36 recognized biodiversity hotspots.
The North American Coastal Plain (NACP) – was
recognized only recently as Hotspot
Criteria
It must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants
(> 0.5% of the world’s total) as endemics.
It has to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat. (It
must have
30% or less of its original natural vegetation).
Hope Spots are ecologically unique areas of the ocean designated
for protection under a global conservation campaign of Mission
Blue, a non profit organisation
It is an initiative of Dr. Sylvia Earle
It aims at creating a network of marine protected areas to
maintain healthy biodiversity
India has two recognised hotspots
Andaman Group of Islands
Lakshadweep Islands
Hope Spots
Institute Methods
Difference Between Sanctuary and National Park
Sanctuary National park
For protection of all species Protection of particular animal or
plant
Eg. Khaziranga National Park – One
Horned Rhino
Limited Human interference allowed Highest Level of Protection in India.
Eg. Controlled Grazing, Economic activities are not allowed

collection of firewood etc

Both central and state State governments can create National
governments can notify Park, but only Central Government
sanctuaries can notify
Tourism allowed Controlled Tourism
• Biosphere Reserves are not specifically defined by

any Parliamentary law, but derived from
UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere Program (1971).
• Biosphere reserves are nominated by national
governments and remain under the sovereign
jurisdiction of the states where they are located.
Their status is internationally recognized.
The Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme is

Biosphere Reserves an intergovernmental scientific programme,
launched in 1971 by UNESCO, that aims to
establish a scientific basis for the improvement of
relationships between people and their
environments.
• The programme is suited to respond to results of
the 1992 United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) and
especially the objectives of the Convention on
Biological Diversity.
Tiger Reserves are also legally protected areas, covered
under the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006.
Tiger Reserves These are also notified by state governments, but on the
recommendation of a Central
Authority- the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
Conservation Reserves can be declared by the State
Governments in any area owned by the government,
Conservation particularly the areas adjacent to National Parks and
Reserves Sanctuaries and those areas which link one Protected
Area with another. Such declaration should be made
after having consultations with the local communities.
These forests are under the direct supervision of the
government and no public entry is allowed for
collection of timber or grazing of cattle.
Reserved Forests
About 53 per cent of the total forest area falls in this

category.

Community Reserves can be declared by the State

Government in any private or community land, not
Community comprised within a National Park, Sanctuary or a
Reserves Conservation Reserve, where an individual or a
community has volunteered to conserve wildlife and
its habitat.
These forests are looked after by the government, but
the local people are allowed to collect fuel-wood/timber
Protected Forests and graze their cattle without causing serious damage
to the forests. These forests occupy about 29 per cent
of the total forest area of the country.
A sacred forest or grove comprises patches of natural
vegetation - from a few trees to several acres - that are
dedicated to local deities or tree spirits. These spaces
Sacred Forests
are protected by local communities because of their
religious beliefs and traditional rituals that run
through several generations.
 The New York Declaration on Forests is a
voluntary and non-legally binding political
declaration which grew out of dialogue among
governments, companies and civil society,
spurred by the United Nations Secretary-
New york
General’s Climate Summit held in New York in
declaration on
2014.
forests
 The Declaration pledges to halve the rate of
deforestation by 2020, to end it by 2030, and to
restore hundreds of millions of acres of degraded
land. The proposed land restoration is described
as covering "an area larger than India”.
 It is an international initiative to draw attention to
the global economic benefits of biodiversity.
The Economics of
 Its objective is to highlight the growing cost of
Ecosystems and
biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation and
Biodiversity
to draw together expertise from the fields of
(TEEB)
science, economics and policy to enable practical
actions.
Ex Situ Conservation
In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out from
their natural habitat and placed in special setting where they can be
protected and given special care. Zoological parks, botanical gardens,
wildlife safari parks and seed banks serve this purpose.

Seeds of different genetic strains of commercially important

plants can be kept for long periods in.
Svalbard Global Seed Vault is a secure seed bank on the
Norwegian island of Spitsbergen, near Arctic Svalbard
Seed Banks archipelago
Indian seed bank in Himalayas is the second largest seed
bank in the world after Svalbard Global Seed Vault. Seed
vault is 75 kms away from CHANG LA,
LEH
National Wildlife Genetic Resource Bank was inaugurated
at Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology’s (CCMB)
Laboratory of Conservation of Endangered Species
(LaCONES) facility in Hyderabad, Telanagana.
It is India’s first genetic resource bank where genetic
Genetic material will be stored for posterity which will further the
Resource Bank cause of conservation of endangered and protected animals.
The national gene bank at National Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources (NBPGR), Delhi Is primarily responsible for
conservation of unique accessions on long-term basis, as
base collections for posterity, predominantly in the form
of seeds.
Botanical garden refers to the scientifically planned
Botanical
collection of living trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers and other
Garden
plants from various parts of the globe.
Zoo is an establishment, whether stationary or mobile, where
captive animals are kept for exhibition to the public and also
Zoo
aims to conserve endangered animals through captive
breeding programmes.
• Knowledge system held by indigenous communities,
often relating to their surrounding natural environment
Traditional
like Agriculture knowledge, scientific knowledge,
knowledge (TK)-
technical knowledge, ecological knowledge, medicinal
knowledge.
Situation where indigenous knowledge of nature, originating
with indigenous people, is used by others for profit, without
Bio-piracy
permission from and with little or no compensation or
recognition to the indigenous people themselves.
It is the exploration of biodiversity for commercially valuable
biological and genetic resources.
Bioprospecting
The term specifically refers to the investigation of biological
resources for new commercial uses.

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, founded in 1964, is the

world’s most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation
status of biological species.
The IUCN Red List is a critical indicator of the health of the world’s
biodiversity.
Pink pages in this publication include the critically endangered
species. As the status of the species changes, new pages are sent to
the subscribers.
Green pages are used for those species that were formerly
endangered, but have now recovered to a point where they are no
longer threatened.
Iucn Redlist
• The Red List Index (RLI) was developed to show trends in

overall extinction risk for species and provide an indicator
for governments to track their progress in achieving
targets that reduce biodiversity loss.
• Currently, the RLI is available for five taxonomic groups
Red List Index
only. Birds, mammals, amphibians, cycads and corals
(RLI)
• An RLI value of 1.0 equates to all species qualifying
as Least Concern
(i.e., not expected to become Extinct in the near future).
• An RLI value of 0 equates to all species having gone
Extinct.
• APPENDIX Protection
CITES • Appendix I It includes species threatened with
Appendices extinction. Trade in specimens of these species is
permitted only in exceptional circumstances.

• Appendix II It includes species not necessarily

threatened with extinction, but in which trade must
be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible
with their survival.
Appendix It contains species that are protected in at
least one country,
• III which has asked other CITES
Parties for assistance in controlling the trade.
Appendix I – Threatened Migratory Species

CMS
Appendix II – Migratory Species that need or would
Appendices
significantly benefit with the international cooperation

9. Environmental Degradation
Environmental pollution is defined as “the

contamination of the physical and biological components
Environmental of the earth/atmosphere system to such an extent that
Pollution normal environmental processes are adversely affected.”
In simple words it is the addition of unwanted materials
into the environment
PAGE provides integrated and holistic support to countries
on eradicating poverty, increasing jobs and social equity,
strengthening livelihoods and environmental stewardship
Partnership for and sustaining growth.
Action on Green The programme is adaptive and aligns with national
Economy priorities to offer tailored and effective support to transform
economies to advance the 2030 Agenda and Paris
Agreement on Climate Change.
A pollutant is a substance or energy introduced into the

environment that has undesired effects, or adversely affects
the usefulness of a resource.
Pollutant
Pollutants can be naturally occurring substances or
energies, but they are considered contaminants when in
excess of natural levels.
Air pollution occurs when harmful or excessive quantities
of substances are introduced into Earth's atmosphere.
Sources of air pollution include gases (such as
Air Pollution ammonia, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrous
oxides, methane and chlorofluorocarbons),
particulates (both organic and inorganic), and biological
molecules.
• Acid rain refers to any precipitation (rain, fog, mist,
snow) that is more acidic than normal (pH of less
than 5.6. pH below 7 is acidic).
Acid Rain • Acid rain is caused by atmospheric pollution from
acidic gases such
as sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen emitted
from the burning of fossil fuels

National Air
• Executed by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
Quality
• Undertaken to determine status and trends of
Monitoring
ambient air quality, to ascertain the compliance
Programme
of NAAQS, to identify non – attainment cities
(NAMP)
• Launched in April, 2015
• Has 6 categories of air quality; GOOD,
National Air SATISFACTORY, MODERATELY POLLUTED,
Quality Index POOR, VERY POOR AND SEVERE
• 8 pollutants – PM10, PM 2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3
AND Pb
• Notified in 1982
• set by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
National • Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
Ambient Air empowers Central Pollution Control Board to set
Quality standards for the quality of air.
Standards • 12 pollutants – sulphur di oxide, nitrogen di oxide,
(NAAQS) PM10, PM 2.5, ozone,
lead carbon monoxide, arsenic, nickel, benzene,
ammonia, benzopyrene
• Launched in January,2019
• objective of the NCAP is comprehensive mitigation
actions for prevention, control and abatement of air
pollution, augmenting the air quality monitoring
National Clean
network across the country and strengthening the
Air
awareness and capacity building activities
Programme
• mid-term, five-year action plan with 2019 as the first
(NCAP)
year
• City specific action plans are being formulated for
102 non-attainment cities identified for
implementing mitigation actions under NCAP
• Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies,
usually as a result of human activities. Water bodies
include for example lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers
Water pollution and groundwater.
• For example, releasing inadequately treated wastewater
into natural water
bodies can lead to degradation of aquatic ecosystems

• The Water Credit Initiative was founded by the

organization Water.org
• Water credit applies the principles of microfinance to
the water and sanitation sector in developing
countries.
Water credit
• By making small loans to individuals and
communities who do not have access to credit, Water-
Credit empowers people to address their own water
and sanitation needs instead of depending on
government funds and charity.
Substance or Requirement Permissible
Characteristic (Desirable Limit) Limit
pH 6.5 – 8.5 Same
Total hardness
300 600
(mg/L)
Calcium hardness
75 200
(mg/L)
BIS standards on
Alkalinity (mg/L) 200 600
drinking water
Fluoride (mg/L) 1 1.5
Chloride (mg/L) 250 1000

Iron (mg/L) 0.3 1
Arsenic (mg/L) 0.01 Same
BIS: Bureau of
Indian Standards
Dissolved oxygen refers to the level of free, non-
compound oxygen present in water or other liquids.
Presence of organic and inorganic wastes in water
decreases the dissolved oxygen content of the water.
Water having DO content below 8.0 mg/L may be
Dissolved
considered as contaminated. Water having DO content
Oxygen
below. 4.0 mg/L is considered to be highly polluted.
The higher amounts of waste increase the rates of
decomposition and
O2 consumption thereby decreases the DO content of
water.
BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen used by
microorganisms in the biological process of metabolizing
Biological
organic matter in water.
Oxygen Demand
Higher the BOD higher is the organic content/pollution
The BOD is therefore a reliable gauge of the organic

pollution of a body of water.

• The higher value of BOD indicates low DO content of
water.
• Since BOD is limited to biodegradable materials, it is
not a reliable method of measuring water pollution.
COD is a method of estimating how much oxygen
would be depleted from a body of receiving water as a
Chemical result of bacterial action.
Oxygen Demand It indicates both Organic and inorganic content in the
water and hence more reliable
COD is always greater than BOD
Soil pollution is defined as the buildup in soils of
persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts,
Soil Pollution radioactive materials, or disease-causing agents,
which have adverse effects on plant growth and animal
health.
The word noise is defined as, "a loud, unpleasant or
unwanted sound that causes discomfort to ears”.
Noise pollution may be defined as, "The unwanted sound
Noise pollution dumped into the atmosphere leading to health hazards”.
Decibel is a unit used to measure the intensity of a sound
or the power level of an electrical signal by comparing it
with a given level on a logarithmic scale
Radioactive Pollution is defined as the increase in the
natural radiation levels in the environment that pose a
serious threat to humans and other life forms.
Radioactive
Radioactive contamination is the deposition of or
Pollution
presence of radioactive substances on surfaces or within
solids, liquids or gases (including the human
body), where their presence is unintended or undesirable
Radioactive substances are atoms that decay naturally.
Radioactive
They can give off alpha particles, beta particles and
Substances
gamma radiation.
Solid waste refers to all non-liquid wastes that is
Solid waste including Solid as well as semi-solid wastes, but
excluding Human and Animal excreta
• E-WASTE is discarded electronic appliances such
as mobile phones, computers, and televisions.
E-waste • India is the “fifth largest electronic waste producer in
the world”; approximately 2 million tons of e-waste are
generated annually
Bio-medical • According to Bio-medical Waste (Management and

waste Handling) Rules of India "Any waste which is

generated during the diagnosis, treatment or
immunization of human beings or animals or in
research activities pertaining thereto or in the
production or testing of biologicals.
• It includes waste from residential, civil, and
commercial construction and demolition activities,
Construction such as fill material (e.g. soil), asphalt, bricks and
and demolition timber. C&D waste excludes construction waste
waste which is included in the municipal waste stream.
C&D waste does not generally include waste from the
commercial and industrial waste stream.
• The movement of chemical in the upper layers of soil
Leaching into lower layers or into groundwater by being
dissolved in water
• The principle that producers of pollution should in
Polluter Pays
some way compensate others for the effects of their
Principle (PPP)
pollution.
• The principle of shared responsibility by all sectors
involved in the manufacture, distribution, use and
Product
disposal of products for the consequences of these
stewardship
activities; manufacturing responsibility extending to
the entire life of the product.
Pollutant Sources Effects

Ozone is formed when Creates health problems.
Ozone – Found in
nitrogen oxides and volatile Asthma attacks. Leads to
troposphere and
organic compounds mix in premature
stratosphere
sunlight. death
Carbon monoxide Released when engines burn
It makes hard for the body
– cannot be seen Fossil fuels. Furnaces and
to get oxygen
or smelt heaters at home
Comes from power plants
Nitrogen dioxide and cars. It is formed when Gives people cough and
– reddish brown nitrogen in air reacts can make them feel short
gas with oxygen at very high of breath
temperature
Affects people with
Sulphur di oxide – From burning of coal or oil. asthma or emphysema.
corrosive gas. From factories that make Irritation in eyes, nose
Rotten egg smell chemicals, paper or fuel and throat. Damage to
buildings

High amounts of lead to

lowering of IQ.
Lead - blue-grey Lead paints. Lead in old
Kidney problem, heart
metal. Very toxic pipes
attack and strokes
Vehicle brake systems; Associated with
Petrol and diesel engine exhaust; pulmonary,
Magnetite particles
Microwave stoves; power plants; cardiovascular and
Telephone lines neurodegeneration.
Plastic particle water
Microbeads are manufactured
pollution
solid plastic particles of less than
A variety of wildlife
one millimeter in their largest
mistake microbeads for
dimension.
their food source.
They are most frequently made of
Microbeads This ingestion of plastics
polyethylene.
introduces the potential
They are used in exfoliating
for toxicity not only to
personal care products,
these animals but to
toothpastes and in biomedical
other species higher in
and health-science research.
the food chain.
Particulate matter
Road dust, sea spray and Asthma attacks,
– solid or liquid
construction respiratory problem
matter
Green house Methane
Climate change Damage
gases – stay for Nitrous oxide from industrial
to ecosystem
long time sources and decaying plants

10. Waste Management Techniques
It is controlled high temperature oxidation

(burning/thermal treatment) of primarily organic
Incineration
compounds that produce thermal energy, CO2 and
water.
solid is converted in to liquid state and liquid is
Pyrolysis
converted in to gas.
The material to be treated is directly converted in to
Gasification SynGas (synthetic gas) which has hydrogen and
carbon dioxide as its components.
It is a site for the disposal of waste materials.
Land fill • Landfill is the oldest and most common form of waste
disposal
• It is a strategy to add all of the environmental costs
Extended producer
associated with a product throughout the product life
responsibility
cycle to the market price of that product.
• It is the process of using living organisms to degrade
the environmental contaminants into less toxic forms
• Monitored indirectly by measuring Oxidation Reduction
potential or redox in soil and groundwater
• Biopiles- Hybrid of landfarming and composting

• Landfarming- Contaminated soil is excavated and
Bioremediation
spread over a prepared bed and periodically tilled until
pollutants are degraded
• Bioreactors- processing of contaminated solid
material or water through an engineered containment
system
• Composting- microorganisms like fungi and bacteria
are used to degrade organic waste into humus
• Bioventing- is a process stimulating the natural
biodegradation of contaminants in the soil with the
supply of oxygen or air to the existing soil bacteria
• Biosparging- Injection of air under pressure below the
water table to increase ground water oxygen

concentrations and enhance rate of degradation.

• Bioaugmentation- Microorganisms are imported to a
contaminated site to enhance degradation process.
Phytoremediation- Use of plants to remove

Genetic contaminants from soil and water.
Engineering Mycoremediation- Fungi are used
Approaches Mycofiltration- use of fungal mycelia to get toxic
waste and Microorganisms from water in soil

11. Environmental Issues
•The ozone hole is not technically a “hole” where no

ozone is present, but is actually a region of
exceptionally depleted ozone in the stratosphere over
the Antarctic region.
Ozone Hole
• It happens at the beginning of Southern Hemisphere
spring (August–October).
• 220 Dobson Units is the boundary of the region
representing ozone loss.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
(CFC):: The use of CFC’s is one of the
main reasons for the depletion of the layer. They are
usually used as a coolant in refrigerators and air
conditioners used in cars etc. It is also used as an
industrial solvent, foam products and as hospital
Ozone- Depleting
sterilization equipment.
Substances (ODSS)
• Methyl chloroform: Finds its applications usually
in industries for chemical processing etc.
• Carbon tetrachloride: Normally used as a solvent.
• Bromine-containing halons and methyl bromide
• HCFCs
In 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone
Layer was convened
• It an international agreement in which United
Nations members recognized the fundamental
importance of preventing damage to the stratospheric
ozone layer.
Vienna
Convention

The Montreal Protocol is a most effective international

environmental treaty to phase out the Ozone
Depleting Substances (ODSs) from the atmosphere.
• The Protocol was signed by 197 parties in 1987 to
control the use of ozone- depleting substances,
mainly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
• came into force in 1989
Montreal Protocol • Montreal Protocol deals with the development of
replacement of substances, firstly
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and then HFCs,
in a number of industrial sectors.
• It has successfully curbed the 98% production of
chlorofluorocarbons and other ODSs and
significantly contributed to the repair of the ozone
hole.
• Kigali agreement is an amendment to Montreal
Protocol.
• As per the agreement, the countries are expected to
reduce the manufacture and use of
Kigali Agreement
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by roughly 80-85% from
their respective baselines, till 2045.
• This phase down is expected to arrest the global
average temperature rise up to 0.5  C by 2100.
 It is the changes in the chemical makeup of all the
waters in the oceans, as well as its temperature,
resulting from excess carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. The changes involve the lowering of
the pH of the water.
 Ph factor: Measures the acidity or basicity levels in
liquids.
Ocean
Acidification

Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is

unusually acidic, meaning that it possesses elevated levels of
hydrogen ions (low pH).
Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere
to produce acids.
pH in general is less than 5.6 Fig: Acid Rain
Acid Rain

12. Climate Change and Global Warming
Means a change of climate which is attributed directly or

Climate indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the
Change global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate
variability over comparable periods.
It is an average increase in the temperature of the
atmosphere near the Earth’s surface and in the
Global
troposphere, which can contribute to changes in global
Warming
climate patterns. It caused both due to natural and man-
made reasons.
The insulating effect of atmospheric greenhouse gases
(e.g., water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) that
Greenhouse
keeps the Earth's temperature about 60 °F (16 °C)
Effect
warmer than it would be otherwise cf. enhanced greenhouse
effect.
Any gas that contributes to the greenhouse effect; gaseous
constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and from
human activity, that absorb and re-emit infrared radiation.
Greenhouse Water vapor (H2O) is the most abundant greenhouse gas.
Gases Greenhouse gases are a natural part of the atmosphere
and include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (), nitrous
oxide, ozone (O3), hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons
and sulfur hexafluoride.
Global Warming Potential (GWP) describes the impact of
Global each gas on global warming. It is the measure of total
Warming energy that a gas can absorb over 100 years of time.
Potential Larger the GWP, higher is the warming caused by that gas.
(GWP) CO2 with GWP of 1 serves as the baseline for other GWP
values.
GWP
Gas Lifetime (Years)
(100 Years)
Carbon
1 100
Dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4) 21 12
Nitrous Oxide
310 120
(N2O)
Hydro-Fluoro
140-11700 1-270
Carbon (HFCs)
Perfluoro
6500-9200 800-50000
Carbons

(PFCs)
Sulfur
Hexafluoride 23900 3200
(SF6)
The trillions of cubic feet of methane hydrates contained in
the ocean's floor are in geologically unstable areas.
Methane One wrong move and an undersea landslide in the muddy
hydrate sediment containing the methane hydrates could send
massive amounts of a particularly potent greenhouse gas
(Methane) to the ocean's surface and into the atmosphere.
The ratio of light from the Sun that is reflected by the
Earth's surface, to the light received by it. Unreflected light
is converted to infrared radiation (heat), which causes
atmospheric warming (see "radiative forcing"). Thus,
surfaces with a high albedo, like snow and ice, generally
Albedo
contribute to cooling, whereas surfaces with a low albedo,
like forests, generally contribute to warming. Changes in
land use
that significantly alter the characteristics of land surfaces
can alter the albedo.
In the context of the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory,
these are greenhouse gases emitted from fuel production
Fugitive itself including, processing, transmission, storage and
Emissions distribution processes, and including emissions from oil
and natural gas exploration, venting, and flaring, as well as
the mining of black coal.
Green Purchasing goods and services that minimise impacts on
Purchasing the environment and that are socially just.
It is a fund established within the framework of the
UNFCCC
Green The objective of the Green Climate Fund is to "support
climate Fund projects, programmes, policies and other activities in
developing country Parties using thematic funding
windows".
Growth beyond an area’s carrying capacity; ecological
deficit occurs when human consumption and waste
production exceed the capacity of the Earth to create new
Overshoot
resources and absorb waste. During overshoot, natural
capital is being liquidated to support current use so the
Earth's ability to support future life declines.

It is the artificial enrichment of the atmosphere of

greenhouses with carbon dioxide, an essential nutrient for
Carbon
plants and vegetables.
fertilization
Causes an increased rate of photosynthesis while limiting
leaf transpiration in plants.
Clean Development Mechanism is an arrangement under
the Kyoto Protocol allowing industrialised countries with a
Clean
greenhouse gas reduction commitment (called Annex 1
Development
countries) to invest in projects that reduce emissions in
Mechanism
developing countries as an alternative to more expensive
emission reductions in their own countries.
GACSA is an inclusive, voluntary and action-oriented multi-
Global alliance stakeholder platform on Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA).
for Climate It aims to tackle three main objectives: sustainably increasing
smart agricultural productivity and incomes; adapting and building
agriculture resilience to climate change; and reducing and/or removing
greenhouse gas emissions, where possible.
An urban heat island (UHI) is an urban area or
metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its
Urban Heat surrounding rural areas due to human activities. The
Island (UHI) temperature difference is usually larger at night than
during the day, and is
most apparent when winds are weak.

13. Carbon Related Terminologies
Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing carbon

dioxide (CO2) gas in the atmosphere. It is also the process of
capturing CO2 from new and existing power plants and
factories before they are released into the atmosphere.
Once the CO2 gas has been contained it is placed into long-
Carbon
term storage. Carbon sequestration aims to eliminate
Sequestration
harmful human introduced carbon from our atmosphere by
disrupting the carbon cycle. It is also to prevent
catastrophic climate changes in this and the next century.
A carbon sink is anything that absorbs more carbon than
Carbon Sink
it releases as carbon dioxide.
1. A carbon credit is a tradeable certificate
representing the right to emit one tonne of CO2
equivalent.
2. An organisation can earn carbon credit if it produces
one tonne less of CO2 equivalent than the standard
level of carbon emission allowed for its activities.
3. Green Carbon: It is the carbon removed by
Carbon photosynthesis and stored in the plants and soil of
Credit natural ecosystems.
4. Blue Carbon: Refers to coastal, aquatic and marine
carbon sinks held by the indicative vegetation, marine
organism and sediments.
1. Carbon offsetting means compensating for the carbon-
dioxide pollution one is causing by preventing the
same amount of pollution from happening somewhere
else.
2. More precisely, one carbon offset means compensating
for emitting one tonne of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the
atmosphere by preventing a tonne of CO2 from entering
the atmosphere elsewhere on Earth (for example, by
investing in renewable energy) or by removing a tonne
Carbon of CO2 that's already up there (by supporting
Offsetting something like tree planting-since trees pull CO2 from
the air when they grow).
3. Under the Kyoto Protocol (the main global piece of
legislation charged with tackling climate change),
governments are allowed to help one another to reduce

their collective emissions through something called the

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The basic
idea is that industrialized nations pay developing
nations (or help them in other ways) to make an overall
reduction in global emissions on their behalf.
1. Carbon tax is a form of pollution tax. It levies a fee on
the production, distribution or use of fossil fuels based
on how much carbon their combustion emits.
2. The government sets a price per ton on carbon, and
then translates it into a tax on electricity, natural gas
Carbon Tax or oil. Because the tax makes using dirty fuels more
expensive, it encourages utilities, businesses and
individuals to reduce consumption and increase energy
efficiency.
● Aims at modifying and cooling Earth’s environment
through a variety of engineering technologies.
● It’s a group of hypothetical technologies that could,
in theory, counteract temperature rise by reflecting
Geo-
more sunlight away from the Earth’s surface.
engineering
● From sending a mirror into space to spraying aerosols
in the stratosphere, the range ofproposed techniques all
come with unique technical, ethical and political
challenges.
Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of
carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems.
This is a derivative of Karl Marx's concept of metabolic rift. In
practical terms, increased commodity production demands
that greater levels of carbon dioxide (or CO2) be emitted
Carbon Rift
into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption.
Theory
Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the
natural carbon cycle and that this "rift" has adverse effects
on nearly every aspect of life.
The unit used to measure the impacts of releasing (or avoiding
the release of) the seven different greenhouse gases; it is
Carbon obtained by multiplying the mass of the greenhouse gas by its
equivalent (C- global warming potential. For example, this would be 21 for
e) methane and 310 for nitrous oxide.
Obtained by multiplying the CO2-e by the factor 12/44.
A measure of the carbon emissions that are emitted over
Carbon
the full life cycle of a product or service and usually
footprint
expressed as grams of CO2-e.

Carbon Use of product labels that display greenhouse emissions

labelling associated with goods
Activities where net carbon inputs and outputs are the same.
For example, assuming a constant amount of vegetation on
Carbon the planet, burning wood will add carbon to the
Neutral atmosphere in the short term but this carbon will cycle
back into new plant growth.
The Common Carbon Metric is the calculation used to define
measurement, reporting, and verification for GHG emissions
Common
associated with the operation of buildings types of particular climate
Carbon Metric
regions. It does not include value-based interpretation of the
measurements such as weightings or benchmarking.
The social cost of carbon is an estimate of the economic costs, or
damages, of emitting one additional ton of carbon dioxide into the
Social cost of atmosphere, and thus the benefits of reducing emissions. The social
Carbon cost of carbon is used to help policy makers determine whether the
costs and benefits of a proposed policy to curb climate change are
justified.
Carbon accounting or greenhouse gas accounting refers to processes
used to measure how much carbon dioxide equivalents an
Carbon
organization emits.
accounting
It is used by states, corporations, and individuals to create the
carbon credit commodity traded on carbon markets.
The Greenhouse Gas Protocol provides accounting and reporting
standards, sector guidance, calculation tools, and training for
Greenhouse
businesses and government.
Gas Protocol
It establishes a comprehensive, global, standardized framework for
(GHGP)
measuring and managing emissions from private and public sector
operations, value chains, products, cities, and policies.
It is a global partnership of governments, businesses, civil society,
Forest Carbon and Indigenous Peoples focused on reducing emissions from
Partnership deforestation and forest degradation, forest carbon stock
Facility (FCPF) conservation, the sustainable management of forests, and the
enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries.


Environment Terminologies

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Environment Terminologies

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RRP 2022 - Environment Terminologies Ready Reckoner

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RRP 2022– ENVIRONMENT

Sl. No. Topic Page No.

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1. Environment and Ecology

Environment is the Physical surrounding in which

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Organism is an individual living being that has the

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Abiotic components are the inorganic and non-

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Carnivores which feed on primary consumers e.g.

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2. Ecosystem and Related Concepts

Based on light penetration and plant distribution

Zones of Ocean 1) Photic Zone

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The depth of this zone depends on the

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They are located very close to land, and often

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At present, there are two sites from India under

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Evolution is the change which gives rise to new

An ecotone is a zone of junction or a transition

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Sometimes the number of species and the

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these form the basis for the other services.

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1. Energy Flow – Food Chain, Food Web, Biotic

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3. Functions of Ecosystem Energy Flow

The flow of energy from producers to the top level

According to this law, only 10% of energy entering

Law Mf 10% Energy

Trophic level is the position that an organism

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Heterotrophs (or consumers) get organic molecules

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This type of food chain starts from dead organic

Multiple interlinked food chains make a food web.

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Also, food availability and preferences of food of the

Differences between Food Chain and Food Web

Ecological productivity refers to the primary fixation of

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Pyramid of Numbers for a Grassland Ecosystem is upright.

For example: Tree ecosystem

• It is always upright for any type of Ecosystem because

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• The individual in each trophic level is weighed instead

• It refers to how pollutants enter a food chain

Bio- • It is increase in concentration of the pollutants from

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• Bioconcentration occurs within a trophic level

• It is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that uses algae

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• The continuous cycle of matter through the Earth’s

The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which