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 ADVANCES IN
NUMERICAL HEAT TRANSFER
Volume 5
 Series in Computational and Physical Processes
in Mechanics and Thermal Sciences

Series Editors
W. J. Minkowycz
Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
University of Illinois at Chicago
Chicago, Illinois

E. M. Sparrow
Mechanical Engineering
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota

Advances in Numerical Heat Transfer, Volume 5, edited by W. J. Minkowycz,

E. M. Sparrow, J. P. Abraham, and J. M. Gorman
Advances in Numerical Heat Transfer, Volume 4, edited by W. J. Minkowycz,
E. M. Sparrow, and J. P. Abraham
Advances in Numerical Heat Transfer, Volume 3, edited by W. J. Minkowycz
and E. M. Sparrow
Advances in Numerical Heat Transfer, Volume 2, edited by W. J. Minkowycz
and E. M. Sparrow
Advances in Numerical Heat Transfer, Volume 1, edited by W. J. Minkowycz
 ADVANCES IN
NUMERICAL HEAT TRANSFER
Volume 5

NUMERICAL
SIMULATION OF
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Edited by
W. J. Minkowycz
Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
University of Illinois at Chicago
Chicago, Illinois
E. M. Sparrow
Mechanical Engineering
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota
J. P. Abraham
School of Engineering
University of St. Thomas
St. Paul, Minnesota
J. M. Gorman
Mechanical Engineering
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota
CRC Press
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Contents
Preface���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������vii
Editors�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ix
Contributors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xi

Chapter 1 Heat Exchangers and Their Fan/Blower Partners Modeled as

a Single Interacting System by Numerical Simulation.........................1
E. M. Sparrow, J. M. Gorman, J. P. Abraham,
and W. J. Minkowycz

Chapter 2 On Computational Heat Transfer Procedures for Heat

Exchangers in Single-Phase Flow Operation...................................... 59
Bengt Sundén

Chapter 3 Utilization of Numerical Methods and Experiments for the

Design and Tests of Gasketed Plate Heat Exchangers........................99
Selin Aradag, Sadik Kakac, and Ece Özkaya

Chapter 4 Numerical Methods for Micro Heat Exchangers.............................. 131

Bengt Sundén, Zan Wu, and Mohammad Faghri

Chapter 5 Review of Advances in Heat Pipe Analysis and Numerical

Simulation......................................................................................... 173
Amir Faghri and Theodore L. Bergman

Index....................................................................................................................... 213

v
Preface
Heat exchanger design is closely linked to the nature of the participating fluid flows.
In turn, the nature of the flow is strongly affected by the characteristics of the
fluid mover that delivers the flow. There is substantial evidence that the ­pressure–
flow characteristics of a fluid mover are affected by the flow resistance of the heat
exchanger, so that the manufacturer-supplied fan or blower curves are, at best,
approximate. This state of affairs serves to motivate the work reported in Chapter 1,
which advocates treating the fluid mover and the heat exchanger as a single system.
The chapter applies this approach to several real-world heat exchanger situations and
demonstrates the errors that occur when the system concept is not utilized.
In Chapter 2, various computational approaches for the analysis of transport phe-
nomena are briefly summarized and recent works are cited. Use of computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) methods for complex fluid flow and heat transfer situations are
described for important engineering applications, including plate heat ­exchangers,
radiators, and heat recovery units. The results reveal that the CFD approach can
reveal important physical processes as well as provide satisfactory results when
compared with corresponding experiments. Neural network configurations are intro-
duced along with a case study illustrating the validation of the network based on
experimentally measured databases for Nusselt number and friction factor for three
kinds of heat exchangers. A generic algorithm for thermal design and optimization
of a compact heat exchanger is described. This generic algorithm can provide good
auto-search and optimization capabilities in the thermal design of heat exchangers
without the use of a trial-and-error process.
Chapter 3 primarily focuses on numerical studies performed to analyze a plate
heat exchanger composed of specific types of plates and the experimental ­validation
of the numerical predictions. Different turbulent models, mainly k-ε, RNG k-ε,
EARSM k-ε, k-ω, and SST k-ω, are used for the simulations and validations. The
effects of several geometrical properties on exchanger performance are investigated
numerically with the help of the validated models. The geometrical parameters
include channel height, wave amplitude, and distribution channel layout. New plate
designs with improved thermal and hydraulic performance are obtained.
Chapter 4 presents a state-of-the-art overview of numerical methods for single-
phase and two-phase flows in microchannel heat exchangers. Micro heat exchangers
are characterized by at least one of the participating fluids being confined in channels
or tubes with typical dimensions of less than 1 mm. Governing equations are con-
veyed for both these types of flow, with and without phase change. Characteristics
of multiphase modeling approaches (i.e., Eulerian–Eulerian, Eulerian–Lagrangian,
and direct numerical simulation) are compared. The advantages and disadvantages
of several continuum methods for interface evolution (e.g., volume of fluid, level set,
phase field, front tracking, and moving mesh) are discussed along with the meso-
scopic lattice Boltzmann method. Methods to deal with the mass nonconservation in
the level set method are provided.

vii
viii Preface

In Chapter 5, an overview of the analysis and numerical simulations of various

types of heat pipes under a variety of operating conditions is presented. The signifi-
cant and rapid progression of heat pipe technology is examined from the perspective
of state-of-the-art modeling and the full simulation that has become possible in the
last few decades. Simulations can accurately predict the thermal performance of
heat pipes under various operating conditions, including steady-state, continuum
transient, and frozen start-up solutions, despite the associated complex multiphase
and multi­domain transport phenomena. Steady-state and transient heat pipe simula-
tions involve conjugate heat transfer involving the wall, wick, and vapor, although
pulsating and loop heat pipes require more fundamental research efforts to explain
the physical phenomena of these devices. Furthermore, simulation of the liquid–
vapor interface requires consideration of the multiphase phenomena within various
wick structures and will provide future understanding and prediction of the heat
transport limitation in heat pipes.
Editors
W. J. Minkowycz is the James P. Hartnett professor of mechanical engineering at
the University of Illinois at Chicago. He joined the faculty at UIC in 1966. His pri-
mary research interests lie in the numerical modeling of fluid flow and heat transfer
problems. He has performed seminal research in several branches of heat transfer
and has published more than 175 papers in archival journals, in addition to winning
numerous awards for his excellence in teaching, research, and service to the heat
transfer community. Professor Minkowycz is also editor-in-chief of the International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Numerical Heat Transfer, and International
Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer.

E. M. Sparrow is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and a pro-

fessor of mechanical engineering at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Minnesota. He has worked on heat transfer problems for more than 60 years, start-
ing at the Raytheon Company and continuing at the National Advisory Committee
for Aeronautics Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory before coming to the University
of Minnesota. He has published more than 700 peer-reviewed articles in the field of
engineering and has directed more than 100 doctoral theses to completion. His cur-
rent interests include industrial applications and real-world problems in addition to
numerical heat transfer and fluid flow. He is a member of the National Academy of
Engineering.

J. P. Abraham is a professor of mechanical engineering at the University of

St. Thomas in St. Paul, Minnesota. His research activities extend broadly over sev-
eral facets of heat transfer, climatology, fluid flow, biomedical engineering, and
renewable energy. In addition to his work in heat transfer, he is also actively engaged
with climatology and biomedical engineering. Currently, he has about 230 journal
publications, and numerous conference presentations, book chapters, and patents. He
is an established spokesman for scientists and engineers who are concerned about
the long-term effects of climate change on sustainability.

J. M. Gorman is a research associate at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,

Minnesota. His research encompasses all facets of mechanical engineering, includ-
ing thermodynamics, heat transfer, fluid mechanics, and structural mechanics. Other
research areas include alternative energy, traditional and nontraditional porous medi-
ums, biomedical devices, water treatment, and other industrial applications. His
teaching is focused on modeling and numerical simulation of engineering problems.
He has published about 40 papers in archival journals.

ix
Contributors
J. P. Abraham
School of Engineering
University of St. Thomas
St. Paul, Minnesota
Selin Aradag
Department of Mechanical Engineering
TOBB University of Economics and
Technology
Ankara, Turkey
Theodore L. Bergman
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas
Amir Faghri
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Connecticut
Storrs, Connecticut
Mohammad Faghri
Mechanical, Industrial and Systems
Engineering
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rhode Island
J. M. Gorman
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota
W. J. Minkowycz
Department of Mechanical and
Industrial Engineering
University of Illinois at Chicago
Chicago, Illinois
Ece Özkaya
Department of Mechanical Engineering
TOBB University of Economics and
Technology
Ankara, Turkey
E. M. Sparrow
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Bengt Sundén
Division of Heat Transfer
Department of Energy Sciences
Lund University
Lund, Sweden
Zan Wu
Division of Heat Transfer
Department of Energy Sciences
Lund University
Lund, Sweden

Sadik Kakac
Department of Mechanical Engineering
TOBB University of Economics and
Technology
Ankara, Turkey

xi
 1 Heat Exchangers and
Their Fan/Blower
Partners Modeled as a
Single Interacting System
by Numerical Simulation
E. M. Sparrow, J. M. Gorman,
J. P. Abraham, and W. J. Minkowycz

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................2
1.2 Fan/Blower Fluid Flow Characteristics.............................................................3
1.3 Fan/Blower Curves and Application to Design................................................. 7
1.4 Fan with Rotating Blades: Array of Flat-Parallel Fins.................................... 11
1.4.1 Physical Situation................................................................................. 11
1.4.2 Governing Equations........................................................................... 13
1.4.3 Numerical Simulation Rotational Issues............................................. 14
1.4.4 Fan/Blower-Curve-Based Analysis..................................................... 15
1.4.5 Heat Transfer Results and Discussion................................................. 15
1.4.6 Fluid Flow Results and Discussion...................................................... 17
1.4.7 Retrospective View of the Flat-Fin Array Results.............................. 19
1.5 Fan with Rotating Blades: Application to a DNA Thermocycling Device........... 19
1.5.1 Physical Situation.................................................................................20
1.5.2 Governing Equations........................................................................... 21
1.5.3 Heat Transfer Results and Discussion................................................. 22
1.5.4 Fluid Flow Results and Discussion...................................................... 27
1.5.5 Retrospective View of the DNA Sampling Device Simulations......... 29
1.6 Fan with Rotating Blades: Pin-Fin Heat Sink................................................. 29
1.6.1 Physical Situation................................................................................. 29
1.6.2 Fan/Blower-Curve-Based Analysis..................................................... 31
1.6.3 Heat Transfer Results and Discussion................................................. 32
1.6.4 Fluid Flow Results and Discussion...................................................... 35
1.6.5 Retrospective View of the Pin-Fin Heat Sink Investigation................40

1
2 Numerical Simulation of Heat Exchangers

1.7 Fan with Rotating Blades: Air Blown into Pipe Inlet......................................40
1.7.1 Physical Situation and Solution Strategy.............................................40
1.7.2 Heat Transfer Results and Discussion................................................. 42
1.7.3 Fluid Flow Results and Discussion...................................................... 45
1.7.4 Retrospective View of the Investigation of Rotating Fan Flow
Delivered to a Pipe Inlet...................................................................... 47
1.8 Concluding Remarks....................................................................................... 48
References................................................................................................................. 48

ABSTRACT: Heat exchangers usually involve two or more fluids having

different temperatures. The performance of heat exchangers depends criti-
cally on the nature of the participating fluid flows. Over the years of tradi-
tional heat exchanger design, the most accounted feature of the fluid flow
has been its magnitude. This is because design procedures for heat exchang-
ers have been closely connected to fan/blower/pump curves in which the
magnitude of the delivered flow is linked to the pressure rise. However,
those characteristic curves do not take into account swirl, eddies, backflow,
cross-sectional nonuniformities, and unusually high turbulence, almost all
of which are embedded in actual fluid flows delivered to heat exchangers.
The focus of this chapter is to quantitatively demonstrate the necessity of
taking into account all of the characteristic features of the fluid flow that is
delivered to the heat exchanger. This is accomplished by treating the fan/
blower/pump and the heat exchanger as a single interactive system. In such a
treatment, it is mandatory that fan rotation is fully considered to ensure that
all rotation-based flow characteristics are included. The composite system,
consisting of the fluid mover and the heat exchanger, is solved by numerical
simulation. The fluid flows produced by this approach are a more true repre-
sentation of reality.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The goal of this chapter is to present evidence of the importance of taking into
account the realistic interactions between a fluid mover and the heat exchanger,
which is the recipient of the fluid flow. The underlying motivation for this work is
the development of a heat transfer design methodology that is more accurate and
more realistic than what is the present norm. In particular, it will be shown that
the design of a heat transfer device based solely on the magnitude specification of
the ­delivered fluid flow is insufficient because other characteristics of the flow are
neglected. Depending on the nature of the fluid mover, those characteristics may
include swirl, eddies, backflow, cross-sectional nonuniformities, and unusually high
turbulence. The result of neglecting these factors is a design that, if implemented,
may be far less efficient than what was predicted.
The foregoing discussion suggests that an improved heat-exchanger design meth-
odology should include the realities of the delivered fluid flow. To ensure that these
realities are properly characterized, the actual flow delivered by the fluid mover
must be determined. In that regard, it is tempting to use the fan/blower/pump curve
Heat Exchangers and Their Fan/Blower Partners 3

provided by the manufacturer of the fluid mover. The flaw in doing so is that such
curves are determined after all the complexities that are normally embedded in the
fan/blower output have been eliminated (i.e., the actual flow has been sanitized).
Therefore, the use of fan/blower/pump curves as input to a heat transfer analysis does
not necessarily lead to a good design.
In this presentation, a new methodology for heat exchanger design will be set
forth followed by a succession of specific problems to illustrate its use. Ample com-
parisons are included to provide an indication of the accuracy improvements that can
be achieved by the use of this methodology. The need to treat heat exchangers and
their fluid flow providers as a single system has received very little recognition in the
published literature [1–3].

1.2 FAN/BLOWER FLUID FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

The two types of fans that generally are encountered in connection with heat
exchangers are axial and centrifugal. These fans have characteristics that are spe-
cific unto themselves so that it is advantageous to treat them separately. For the
applications that motivated the present chapter, thermal management of electric
equipment, axial fans appear to be more useful. Consequently, the focus will be
directed here toward axial fans and their applications. A typical likeness of an
axial fan is shown in Figure 1.1. The fan consists of a square frame or housing,
blades attached to a rotating hub, and supports for the hub and its attached mov-
ing components.
The nature of the flow provided by a fan may depend on the nature of the resis-
tance into which the discharge of the fan is blown. For illustrative purposes, the
flow discharging from an axial fan into free air will be displayed by means of vector
diagrams. The first pair of such diagrams is displayed on a longitudinal plane that
includes the axis of the fan. In Figure 1.2a, the vectors have been normalized to
have a common length. Such vectors give a picture of the directions of fluid flow.
The vectors shown in Figure 1.2b have lengths that are directly proportional to the
magnitude of the velocity.
The most interesting feature of Figure 1.2a is
that the fan discharge is by no means confined to
the downstream direction. On the contrary, there is
a pronounced region of backflow extending down-
stream from the exit face of the fan within which a
backflow prevails. This behavior can be attributed
to the presence of a tornado-like rotation of the fluid
that is driven by the rotating hub. The low pressure
zone created by the tornadic motion sucks down-
stream-situated fluid forward.
Figure 1.2b shows that the highest flow rates
are concentrated in the narrow vein of forward-
flowing fluid that is discharged from the fan and
FIGURE 1.1 Photograph of a in the back-flowing fluid that is situated just down-
typical small axial fan. stream of the hub of the fan. Further insights into
4 Numerical Simulation of Heat Exchangers

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 1.2 Vector diagrams displayed on a longitudinal plane that includes the axis of
rotation: (a) normalized vectors and (b) unnormalized vectors.

the nature of the fan-produced flow are provided by vector diagrams, each of
which are displayed in a selected cross section. The considered cross sections are
x/D = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, where x is the axial coordinate originating from the
downstream face of the fan, and D is the outer diameter of the annular opening
of the fan. In each cross section, both normalized and unnormalized vectors are
Heat Exchangers and Their Fan/Blower Partners 5

presented side-by-side to provide unambiguous information about fluid flow direc-

tion and magnitude. The first figure in this sequence of cross sections is Figure 1.3,
which corresponds to x/D = 0 (the fan exit cross section). The left- and right-hand
parts of the figure correspond to normalized and unnormalized vectors. The nor-
malized vectors display a general inflow of air from the surroundings toward the
fan housing, whereas the flow direction within the fan proper is irregular. From the
unnormalized vectors, it can be seen that the magnitude of the inflow is very small
compared to the flow within the fan.
The next cross section to be visited is x/D = 1. A comparison of Figures 1.3
and 1.4 shows that the direction of the flow in the surroundings is hardly changed
except in the near neighborhood of the fan, where a slight fluid outflow direction
is seen. The magnitudes of the in-fan velocities are somewhat increased between
x/D = 0 and 1. If focus is advanced to Figure 1.5, which corresponds to x/D = 2,
it is seen that a coherent fluid rotation both within the fan and in its surroundings

Normalized Unnormalized

FIGURE 1.3 Flow field directions and velocity magnitudes at x/D = 0.

Normalized Unnormalized

FIGURE 1.4 Flow field directions and velocity magnitudes at x/D = 1.

6 Numerical Simulation of Heat Exchangers

Normalized Unnormalized

FIGURE 1.5 Flow field directions and velocity magnitudes at x/D = 2.

Normalized Unnormalized

FIGURE 1.6 Flow field and velocity magnitudes at x/D = 3.

has now taken hold. On the other hand, the magnitude of the in-fan and near-fan
fluid velocities has diminished slightly.
Figure 1.6, x/D = 3, shows further development and enlargement of the zone of
coherent rotation of the fluid but with decreasing magnitude of the in-fan and near-
fan fluid velocities.
The last two figures in this set, Figures 1.7 and 1.8, for x/D = 4 and 5, respec-
tively, are virtually identical to each other. The zone of coherent rotation has
stabilized, and the magnitude of the velocities appears to have reached an
asymptote.
Although Figures 1.3 through 1.8 display the metamorphosis of a complex veloc-
ity field, the true complexities really are not able to be seen by means of vector
velocity displays. For example, the fact that the flow is unsteady is not documented
in the presented figures. Of greater significance is the heightened turbulence, which
also is not seen.
Heat Exchangers and Their Fan/Blower Partners 7

Normalized Unnormalized

FIGURE 1.7 Flow field directions and velocity magnitudes at x/D = 4.

Normalized Unnormalized

FIGURE 1.8 Flow field directions and velocity magnitudes at x/D = 5.

1.3 FAN/BLOWER CURVES AND APPLICATION TO DESIGN

The features that have been displayed in the preceding section, along with other
complex features, have been sanitized prior to the determination of blower curves.
Therefore, as noted earlier, the use of a blower curve does not represent the true
nature of the flow delivered by an axial fan. Notwithstanding this, it is relevant to
display how a fan/blower curve can be used as a design tool, albeit with a margin of
error for the reasons just discussed.
Figure 1.9 displays fan/blower curves for two small axial fans. In general, these
curves fit the general trend whereby the highest pressure rise due to the fan occurs
at the lowest delivered flow rate. However, it is interesting to observe the very dif-
ferent shapes of the exhibited curves. Both curves display a saddle but of a very dif-
ferent form. The curve for Fan 2 is distinguished by a lengthy plateau that extends
over half the magnitude range of the delivered flow. The sharp decrease of pressure
8 Numerical Simulation of Heat Exchangers

160

140

120
Pressure rise (Pa)

100
Fan 2
80

60

40 Fan 1

20

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Volumetric flow (m3/min)

FIGURE 1.9 Operating characteristics of two axial fans (1 and 2).

Air flow
Louvered fins

Tube

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.10 (a) Schematic view and (b) photograph of a louvered-fin heat exchanger.

rise occurs at large flow rates for Fan 2, whereas that sharp decrease occurs for low
flow rates for Fan 1.
These fans will be used to demonstrate the relative performance of a heat
exchanger equipped with flat fins and with louvered fins [4]. In general, there
has been considerable interest in the use of louvered fins as witnessed by the
extensive published ­literature. For the convenience of readers, the culled litera-
ture has been organized into two categories: numerical [5–13] and experimental
[14–20]. Figure 1.10 shows both schematic and photographic views of a louvered-
fin heat exchanger. The fluid flow, pressure drop, and transfer characteristics of
this heat exchanger will be presented when either Fan 1 or Fan 2 is used to supply
Heat Exchangers and Their Fan/Blower Partners 9

the airflow. Results for this same heat exchanger, but having flat fins, will also be
presented for purposes of comparison.
There are preparatory steps that must be executed in order to enable a fan/blower
curve to be utilized. Once implemented, those steps will yield the system curve.
The system curve displays the pressure drop experienced by fluid passing through
the system as a function of the rate of fluid flow. In order to obtain a system curve,
a calculation method must be adopted. Although an estimate of the system curve
can be obtained by using literature information, it is more accurate to use numerical
simulations, as was done by Nguyen et al. [4]. Figure 1.11 shows the blower curves
already displayed in Figure 1.9 plus the corresponding system curves.
Of particular relevance is the intersection of the system curve and the fan/blower
curve. For Fan 1, the intersection in the case of the louvered fins is at a lower pressure
and a lower flow rate than is the corresponding interaction with the curve for Fan 2.
The discretization of the governing differential equations and the numerical sim-
ulations was carried out using ANSYS CFX 15.0 software. Increasing the number
of nodes from 14.7 to 19.6 million gave rise to variations of the heat transfer rate no
greater than 0.25%. The Shear Stress Transport (SST) turbulence model was uti-
lized for all of the investigated cases, and duplicate laminar-flow simulations were
performed for the flat-fin case. Because the SST turbulence model reduces to lami-
nar flow in situations where the flow is truly laminar, the flat-fin results obtained by
use of the SST turbulence model and the laminar model were identical.
Table 1.1 displays the key outcomes of Nguyen et al. [4]. Listed there are the
rates of heat transfer, the pressure drops, and the Reynolds numbers. The heat trans-
fer rates correspond to a temperature difference of 30°C between the incoming air

160
Louvered fins

140
Flat fins
120
Pressure rise (Pa)

100
Fan 2
80

60

40 Fan 1

20

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Volumetric flow (m3/min)

FIGURE 1.11 Intersections of the system curves for the louvered-fin heat exchanger and the
flat-fin heat exchanger with the fan/blower curves for Fans 1 and 2.
10 Numerical Simulation of Heat Exchangers

TABLE 1.1
Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Results for Louvered-Fin and
Flat-Fin Heat Exchangers for Fans 1 and 2 (for a Temperature
Difference of 30°C)
Variable Fan 1 Fan 2
Flat Louvered Flat Louvered
Heat transfer per fin (W) ∆T = 30°C 0.98 0.87 1.2 0.95
Pressure drop (Pa) 65.7 91.9 108.5 111.5
Reynolds number (ρUDh/μ) 443 483 523 805

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 1.12 Flow field information for the louvered-fin situation with (a) normalized vec-
tors showing the flow direction and (b) unnormalized vectors showing the velocity magnitudes.

and the fin base. Examination of the table reveals some unexpected outcomes. For
one thing, the heat transfer rates for the so-called enhanced (louvered) surfaces are
lower than those for the un-enhanced (flat) surfaces. In particular, this diminished
heat transfer is more pronounced in the case of Fan 2 then for Fan 1. On the other
hand, the pressure drop penalty due to the louvered fins is greatest in the case of
Fan 1. The main message of Table 1.1 is that the use of enhanced surfaces does not
necessarily increase the rate of heat transfer.
It is of interest to augment the information conveyed in Table 1.1 by vector dia-
grams that convey some insights into the nature of the flow field, and Figure 1.12
has been prepared for this purpose [4]. Figure 1.12a displays normalized vectors,
Heat Exchangers and Their Fan/Blower Partners 11

whereas Figure 1.12b shows velocity magnitudes by means of unnormalized vectors.

It can be seen from Figure 1.12a that recirculation zones exist in the inter-louvered
spaces. Figure 1.12b shows that most of the flow bypasses those spaces. The poor per-
formance of the louvered-fin heat exchanger may be attributed to the latter outcome.
A conclusion that follows from the results of this study is that enhancement (or
disenhancement) depends as much on which fluid mover serves a heat exchanger as
it does on the geometry of the exchanger in question.
The purpose of the foregoing part of the chapter is to quantify the current best
practice for heat exchanger design. The insufficiency of this practice is that it omits
a number of key features of the fluid flow that are delivered by the fluid mover that
supplies the heat exchanger. In the remaining sections of the chapter, this omission
will be remedied by modeling the actual rotation of the fluid-supply fan.

1.4 FAN WITH ROTATING BLADES: ARRAY OF

FLAT-PARALLEL FINS
A favorite textbook heat transfer topic is the array of flat-parallel fins. The textbook
treatment is highly introductory so that the bottom line of the treatment is a single
fin. Because it is uncommon to encounter any practical heat transfer application in
which there is only a single fin, the lessons learned from the typical textbook expo-
sition are not sufficient for design. The approach to be set forth here is an in-depth
treatment that would qualify as a design tool. In particular, the fan in question is
treated in its full rotational activity so that all of the complexity in the delivered flow
is maintained. To provide perspective on the impact of these complexities, the same
problem is solved using the fan/blower curve as the description of the delivered flow.
Although it appears that the literature does not have references that relate directly
to the model and the numerical solutions that are to be set forth here, it may still be
useful to cite some publications that relate to the general problem of an array of par-
allel plain fins. There is substantial literature related to straight-parallel fins, which
may be classified as: numerical [21–55], experimental [56–69], and jointly numerical
and experimental [70–72].

1.4.1 Physical Situation

The physical situation to be dealt with is pictured schematically in Figure 1.13, which
displays an array of flat-parallel fins. Air is delivered to the array by a succession of
axial fans. Although fin arrays of the type exhibited in Figure 1.13 are often seen in
standard heat transfer textbooks, they are shown without the fans in place.
The fin array is adiabatically shrouded from above to avoid the escape of the
coolant airflow. Heat is conveyed to the fin array by means of the base surface with
which the fins are integral. The fans are sized such that each fan is responsible for a
particular cluster of fins. Adjacent fans do interact with each other, a situation that
must be taken into account in any high-fidelity model. Such a model is displayed in
Figure 1.14. The vertical faces of the outboard fins and of the upstream and down-
stream extensions of the solution domain were taken to be adiabatic.
12 Numerical Simulation of Heat Exchangers

Shroud

Array of
axial fans

Fins

Base

FIGURE 1.13 An array of flat, parallel fins that is shrouded above with an adiabatic surface.

FIGURE 1.14 Diagram of the solution domain used for the numerical simulations.

For the simulation model of the problem defined in Figure 1.14, coolant air is
drawn from the upstream space delineated in the figure. The coolant has a uniform
incoming temperature. The fin base also has a specified uniform temperature differ-
ent from that of the coolant. The rate of fluid flow provided by the fan is autoregulated
by the capabilities of the fan and the resistance of the fin array. Therefore, for a given
fan’s revolutions per minute (RPM), there is a unique magnitude of the fan-provided
fluid flow. That fluid flow magnitude gives rise to the turbulent regime. Because the
magnitude of the fluid flow is not known beforehand, it cannot be specified. In this
Heat Exchangers and Their Fan/Blower Partners 13

light, the boundary conditions for the velocity solution are chosen to be very weak
ones so that the flow can evolve naturally.

1.4.2 Governing Equations

The conservation equations that govern the fluid flow and heat transfer include
momentum, mass, and energy. In light of the fact that turbulent flow is being con-
sidered, the basic Navier–Stokes equations are replaced by the Reynolds-averaged
Navier–Stokes equations, which for unsteady, constant-property, three-dimensional
flow, are

∂u j  ∂u j  ∂p ∂  ∂u
ρ + ρ  ui
 ∂ xi 
=− + (µ + µ turb ) j  i = 1,2,3 and j = 1,2,3 (1.1)
∂t ∂ x j ∂ xi  ∂ xi

and, for mass conservation,

∂ui
=0 (1.2)
∂ xi

The quantity µ turb is called the eddy viscosity. It is, in fact, a fictitious quantity
because it is not a property of the fluid. Many models have been formulated to enable
the evaluation of µ turb . In the present application, where attention has to be given
to the swirl produced by the rotating fan blades, the sought-for turbulence model
must havecredentials for being capable of dealing with the swirl. In Engdar and
Klingmann’s study [73], a number of turbulence models were evaluated with respect
to experimental data for a situation in which swirl dominated. It was found that
results predicted by the use of the SST turbulence model were in best agreement
with the experimental data. Other comparisons that have supported the use of the
SST model have been reported [74–76]. Those outcomes encouraged the use of the
SST model for the situation of interest here. There are two turbulence parameters
that are used in the SST model: the turbulence kinetic energy κ and turbulent eddy
frequency ω.
The governing differential equations for these quantities are

∂(ρκ ) ∂(ρui κ ) ∂  µ  ∂κ 
+ = Pκ − β1ρκω +  µ + turb  (1.3)
∂t ∂ xi 
∂ xi   σ κ  ∂ xi 

∂(ρω ) ∂(ρui ω ) ∂  µ  ∂ω 
+ = AρS 2 − β 2 eρω 2 + µ + turb 
∂t ∂ xi ∂ xi  σ ω  ∂ xi 
(1.4)
1 ∂κ ∂ω
+ 2ρ(1 − F1 )
σ ω 2 ω ∂ xi ∂ xi
14 Numerical Simulation of Heat Exchangers

Once κ and ω have been determined from the solution of the foregoing equations,
the eddy viscosity μturb is obtained from

αρκ (1.5)
µ turb =
max(αω , SF2 )

The First Law of Thermodynamics supplemented by the Fourier law of heat con-
duction is

∂T ∂( ui T ) ∂  ∂T 
ρc p + ρc p = ( k + k turb )  (1.6)
∂t ∂ xi ∂ xi  ∂ xi 

in which the quantity kturb is used to quantify the contribution of turbulence to the
transfer of heat. This quantity, in common with μturb, is not a true property of the fluid.
To obtain numerical values for kturb, use is made of the turbulent Prandtl number Prturb.

c p µ turb
Prturb = = 0.85 (1.7)
k turb

where the numerical value 0.85 is based on comparisons of predicted heat transfer
coefficients with those of experiments conducted by Churchill [77] and Kays [78].

1.4.3 Numerical Simulation Rotational Issues

The rotating domain (a relatively small meshed volume surrounding the rotating
components of the nondeforming fan blades and hub) uses rotating frames of refer-
ence at a specified angular velocity ω and includes both Coriolis force and centrifu-
gal momentum terms, in addition to a rotating frame energy equation.
The additional momentum source terms are

Srotation = −ρω × ( ω × r ) − 2ρω × uθ,i (1.8)

where the first term is the centrifugal term, and the second term represents the
Coriolis forces. In the equation, r is the position vector, and uθ,i is the rotating frame
velocity.
The energy equation is modified for rotation to become

∂I ∂( u I ) ∂  ∂T 
ρ +ρ i = ( k + k turb )  (1.9)
∂t ∂ xi ∂ xi  ∂ xi 

where I is rothalpy and is defined as

ui2 ( ωR )2
I = hstatic + − (1.10)
2 2
Heat Exchangers and Their Fan/Blower Partners 15

1.4.4 Fan/Blower-Curve-Based Analysis

In preparation for certain forthcoming comparisons, a simplified analysis based on
the fan/blower curve for the fan in question will now be described. This analysis
suppresses all of the complexities that accompany the flow delivered by the rotat-
ing fan to the interfin flow passages. The fan/blower curve for the fan in question
(Sofasco Model d2510) is conveyed in Figure 1.15. Also appearing in that figure
is the system curve corresponding to a typical flow passage in the fin array. The
intersection of the fan/blower curve and the system curve provides the operating
point for this model.
In this model, which avoids the realities of the rotating fan, each of the interfin
flow passages behaves identically, with regard to both fluid flow and heat transfer,
to any other flow passage in the fin array. Therefore, it is only necessary to solve for
these processes as they occur in a single passage. The information provided by the
fan/blower curve was used as input in Equations 1.1–1.7.

1.4.5 Heat Transfer Results and Discussion

The first results to be presented are those that relate to the overall rate of heat trans-
fer for the entire fin array. Of particular relevance is the difference between the
results based on the rotating fan model and those of the fan/blower-curve-based
model. Another case for which results were obtained is the situation in which the fins
have an infinite thermal conductivity that enables them to be isothermal. Table 1.2
conveys information about the overall heat transfer rates for the array as a whole.

6
Pressure (mmH2O)

5
Fan curve
4
System curve
3

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

Volumetric flow rate (m3/min)

FIGURE 1.15 Fan/blower curve for Sofasco Model d2510 and the system curve correspond-
ing to flow passing through a single passage of the fin array.
16 Numerical Simulation of Heat Exchangers

TABLE 1.2
Overall Heat Transfer Results for the Entire Fin Array Contrasting
Rotating-Fan–Delivered Air with Uniform Blower-Curve–Based Delivered
Airflow: (Tbase – Tair,in) = 25°C
Heat Transfer (W)
Rotating fan, aluminum fins Blower curve, aluminum fins Blower curve, isothermal fins
4.98 9.59 15.1

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0
Qfin, i /Qfin, ave

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Fin number

FIGURE 1.16 Ratio of the per-fin heat transfer rates to the average per-fin heat transfer rate.

The comparison between the rotating fan and fan/blower curve models reveals that
the latter drastically overestimates the rate of heat transfer, with the outcome

Qblower curve / Qrotating fan = 1.93 (1.11)

The size of this ratio needs explanation. It is believed that the relatively low value
of Q for the rotating fan case can be attributed to the very high pressure drop and
correspondingly diminished flow rate for that case.
Further study of Table 1.2 shows that the use of perfectly conducting fins does
have a significant effect on the rate of heat transfer. In particular, the table shows that
the isothermal fins transfer about 60% more heat than do aluminum fins.
Next, focus is shifted to per-fin heat transfer results, and this information is con-
veyed in Figure 1.16. This figure shows a bar graph in which each bar corresponds
to a specific fin. The height of each bar displays the ratio of the heat transfer rate at
the fin in question compared with the heat transfer rate averaged over all the fins.
It should be noted that the outboard fins (1 and 26) are adiabatic at their outfacing
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 A Sanitary Drinking Tube

To make this tube, procure a piece of ³⁄₄-in. gauge glass, about 10

in. long, and bend it by heating the glass with a blowtorch 2¹⁄₂ in.
from one end, as shown. If this is done in a place where no air will
strike the glass while it is heated and the tube is then allowed to cool
slowly, it will not crack. It is used by putting the short end under the
faucet and drawing on it as on a pipe.
 A Comb Cleaner

The Twisted Wires Form an Excellent Device for Cleaning a Comb

A very handy device for cleaning combs can be made from a piece
of spring sheet brass, 4¹⁄₂ in. long and about 3 in. wide. Notches are
cut in the ends of the brass with a hacksaw, making the projections
as wide as the saw cut. The brass is then bent into shape with a
special clamp made for the purpose, which consists of three pieces
of wood, two being cut to form a curved slot, then fastened to the
third piece. The brass is sprung into the slot, and then fine wire is
stretched between the ends in the notches. The wire should be very
fine and two strands twisted together and run through the notches.
 Concealing the House Key
The time-honored custom of concealing the house key under the
door mat, or in the letter box, when the family has not enough keys
to go around, is so well known that an unauthorized person seeking
to enter the house would look in these places first of all.

A simple and effective hiding place for the key can be quickly and
easily made with the aid of an auger and two pieces of tin. Pick out
an obscure section of the porch railing, and in the edge of this bore a
³⁄₄-in. hole, about ¹⁄₄ in. deeper than the length of the key. Make a
piece of tin into a cylinder, the same length as the key, so that the
latter will slide easily into the hole. At one end of this cylinder solder
a 1-in. disk of tin, which will make it appear as in the illustration.
If the key is placed in the cylinder and the latter pushed into the
hole until it is flush with the surface, it will scarcely be noticed by
anyone not in the secret, and by painting it the same color as the
railing it will become still more inconspicuous.—Contributed by Frank
L. Matter, Portland, Ore.
 A Mysterious Watch

A very interesting experiment may be made with the ordinary

dollar watch in illustrating the law of the pendulum. A pendulum 39.1
in. long will make 60 one-way swings per minute, the number of
swings varying inversely as the square root of the length. By actual
count it was found that the balance wheel of the watch in question
made 240 one-way swings per minute, which is just 4 times as fast
as the 39-in. pendulum. Therefore, according to the foregoing law, a
pendulum ¹⁄₁₆ as long, or about 2¹⁄₂ in., would swing in unison with
the wheel of the watch. The question then arises as to what would
happen if the watch itself were suspended so as to swing as a
pendulum of the latter length. The experiment was made as
illustrated, with the result that the watch keeps on swinging
continuously. The swing amounts to about ³⁄₈ in., and appears so
vigorous that it is almost incomprehensible that the small spring in a
watch should be able to maintain so much weight in continuous
motion for 24 hours.
 Bait Casting for
Game Fish
by Stillman Taylor

There are many enjoyable phases of the fisher’s art, but bait casting
from the free reel probably has a wider appeal than any other
branch of angling. The pleasure of handling a short bait-casting rod
is in itself a good sport, even when casting done in the back yard is
made for distance and accuracy only. Get two or three enthusiastic
casters together, and you may have an interesting little tournament,
held on a vacant lot, on the lake, or on the greensward of a city park.
There is plenty of action in casting from the reel, and it is its variety
that has made angling of this type so universally popular. True,
considerable practice is required before the caster is able to shoot
an accurate plug far off, but the knack may be gained after
reasonable application. The handling of the short rod differs from all
other angling methods—it is an active sport rather than a
contemplative recreation—and when the fun of handling a good outfit
is combined with the sport of coaxing out a black bass, shooting a
wooden minnow among the lily pads for pickerel, or casting the bait
for those pirates of our fresh-water lakes, the wall-eyed pike and the
muskellunge, the angler gets a taste of fishing—plus.

The Outfit and Its Selection

A good firearm is necessary to the good marksman and a well-

made, nicely balanced rod, to which is clamped a smooth-running
reel, is the essential equipment of an able angler. Bait casting is, of
course, more a matter of skill than of outfit, but that is no reason why
the angler should be handicapped by poor tackle, although large
expenditure is not necessary in obtaining a satisfactory outfit. The
casting rod may be from 5 to 6 ft. long. Where the caster regards
length of cast as the important factor, the 5-ft. length will probably
give the best satisfaction. However, the superiority of one over the
other in this regard is rather to be found in the elasticity and quality
of the rod than its length. The skill of the caster is, moreover, the
ruling factor. The 5¹⁄₂-ft. rod is better than the 5-ft. length for fishing
purposes, and the 6-ft. rod is more resilient than the 5¹⁄₂-ft. tip. If the
greatest range is not of more importance than the landing of the fish,
the longer rod will prove the most pleasant to handle.
The split-bamboo rod has many friends, and a well-made rod of
this material is a thoroughly satisfactory casting tool. A fine-quality
casting rod of split bamboo costs from $10 to $25. A fairly good rod
may be bought for $2 or a trifle less, and a smooth-running reel for
another $2, while a line for it will bring the total up to about $5. An
outfit of this kind purchased with discrimination, while not embodying
everything that a critical angler would desire, will cast a long and
accurate line and stand up under the strain of handling our heaviest
game fish. The one-piece rod is classed by many anglers as the
ideal casting rod. The two-piece rod is handier to pack and is more
generally used.
The chief fault in bait-casting rods is the stiff action of the tip
section. For tournament casting, a fairly stiff rod is desirable. The
same requirement holds good for muskellunge and other heavy
fishing. A flexible rod affords more pleasure in playing black bass
and other active “gamey” fish. However, the best way to test out a
rod is by casting with it.

A Serviceable Reel Costing $4, a High-Grade Reel Costing $13.50, and a Fine
Tournament Casting Reel Costing $26, are Shown from Left to Right. The
Center One Has a Level-Winding Device and a Thumb-Click Drag on the
Rims of the Plates. The Tournament Casting Reel Has a Cork Arbor and
Jeweled Bearings

The steel casting rod is well liked by some casters, but only a
high-quality steel rod is worthy of consideration. It is generally not
classed as the equal of a well-made solid-wood or split-bamboo rod,
for casting. The better-grade steel rod is springy and flexible, and for
this reason is a good rod for casting for black bass. Still, most
anglers have a steel rod in their outfits, but it is not as generally used
at tournaments as the time-tried wooden rod.
The guide is an important detail of a casting rod. Inexpensive rods
are usually provided with large metal guides, while the better rods
are fitted with agate guides, or with agate tip and hand guides. A
guide, ¹⁄₂ in. in diameter, at the butt of the rod is large enough and
will handle the line smoothly.
The single grip is sometimes preferred by casters, but the
additional grip placed above the reel is desirable if much fishing is
done. Solid-cork hand grasps are most satisfactory, being less
slippery when wet and less tiring to the hand than handles made of
other materials. If the lower grip is properly shaped with a forward
edge, the forefinger will find a firm grip upon it, and the finger hook
will not be needed. However, some anglers prefer to use the hook,
and if the rod is not so fitted, a detachable hook may be fastened to
it. A reel band that locks securely is desirable, and all the better
grades of casting rods are so fitted.
 The quadruple reel is the logical choice of the bait caster, the
spool turning four times to one turn of the handle. As the work
demanded of a bait-casting reel is different and more exacting than
that of the click reel used in fly casting, its design is radically
different. The best type of click reel is of large spool diameter and
narrow between plates, while the typical casting reel is its direct
opposite—being long-barreled, with plates of comparatively small
diameter. For tournament casting the finest outfit will naturally be
selected, but for practical work it is unnecessary to pay $25 for a
finely wrought reel. Three typical reels are shown in the illustration.
The one at the left holds 80 yd. of line, can be easily taken apart for
cleaning, and costs $4. In the center is a level-winding reel with
thumb click and adjustable drag placed on the rims of the plates. It
holds 60 yd. of line, and costs $13.50. At the right is a very high-
grade reel for tournament casting. It has a cork arbor, jeweled
bearings holds 60 yd. of line, and costs $26.
Any of the better grades of braided silk are suitable for the bait-
casting line. The average price for a dependable line is about $1 for
50 yd. A small size line is best, and sizes G and E are preferred. A
brown and green, or other dark-colored, line is preferable for fishing.
The black and white, all white and other light-colored, lines are
satisfactory for tournament use. After a day’s fishing the line should
be unreeled and looped around the back of a chair in loose coils to
dry, or loosely wound upon a drying reel.
For practice and tournament casting one of the standard ¹⁄₄ and
¹⁄₂-oz. loaded wooden or metal plugs may be used. The popularity of
bait casting from the reel has brought forth a large variety of artificial
baits. These wooden and enameled lures are used by anglers
because they bring the catches.
The wooden minnows, and other forms of artificial bait, may be
roughly classed in three divisions: the surface lures for use on top of
the water; the diving and under-water baits; and the weedless
varieties, which are usually of the surface type. No bait caster’s outfit
is complete unless it includes one bait of each class, and to meet
fully the different and varying conditions of weather, season, and
water, it is a good plan to select one of each type in light and
medium-dark colors. A variety of typical baits are shown in the page
plate at A, B, C, etc. Many of the baits are provided with one or more
eyes for attaching the line, thus enabling the caster to spin his bait at
different depths. All of the wooden-body baits will float, and only dive
under the surface when reeled in; the quicker they are retrieved the
deeper they spin. While many of these baits have been designed
especially to entice the black bass, practically all of them are good
for pickerel and general fresh-water casting, particularly the minnow
baits.
The other items which complete the bait caster’s outfit are the
landing net and tackle box. The net should be well made, with a steel
hoop 13 in. or larger in diameter, and should have a handle about 3
ft. long. The folding type of net is the most convenient, and is
provided with a separate handle. The tackle box may be of sheet
metal or leather, with partitions for holding reels, baits, and the
angling “what not.” A convenient and serviceable landing net costs
$1 or more, and a tackle box will cost about as much.

Suggestions on Making the Cast

Although much practice is required before the caster can take his
place in a tournament, “getting the hang” of handling the short rod
and free-running reel comes quickly. As soon as the simple
principles are understood, length and accuracy will come only
through practice. Bait casting is easier than fly casting and the angler
need concern himself only with the length and accuracy of his cast,
since delicacy does not enter into this phase of fishing. The coarser
sweet-water fish, like black bass and pickerel, are not frightened
when the bait hits the water with a splash—indeed, the splash of the
bait attracts them.
Two methods of casts are used by bait casters, the overhead and
the underhand or side cast. The overhead cast is used largely by the
practical angler, as well as by those who take part in tournament
contests, because the bait is projected a longer distance and may be
more accurately placed. If the novice will thumb the line, as shown in
Fig. 1, with thumb bearing directly on the cross rod of the reel with
the ball of the thumb resting lightly on the line, one or two trials will
show the correct manner of spooling. The line is retrieved as shown
in Fig. 2, care being taken to form correct habits from the start. To
make the cast, reel in the bait until it is some 6 in. from the tip,
release the click or drag, and press the ball of the thumb firmly upon
the spooled line. Carry the rod over the shoulder until it is horizontal
or nearly so, as in Fig. 3, and then bring it smartly forward, checking
it quickly when it reaches an angle of some 45°, as shown in Fig. 4.
This projects the bait forward in a straight line. When the rod is
brought forward the tension of the thumb on the spool is released so
that the spool will revolve freely, but enough pressure must be
communicated by the thumb to prevent the reel from spinning faster
than the line is unreeled from the spool, otherwise backlash will
occur. The use of the whole arm and the weight of the body,
combined with the elasticity of the pliant rod, enables the caster to
cover a surprisingly long distance after a little practice. A distance of
150 ft. is not difficult to attain, but for fishing, a well-placed cast of 60
or 75 ft. is long enough to reach promising stretches of water.
 The Method of Thumbing the
A Line is Shown in Figure 1, and
the Correct form in Retrieving
the Line, in Figure 2. The
Overhead Cast is Illustrated in
Fig. 3 Figures 3 and 4, and the
B Underhand or Side Cast in
Figures 5 and 6
C
D
Fig. 4 Fig. 1
E
Fig. 2 Fig. 5
F
Typical Baits:
A, Under-Water Minnow; G
B, Wabbler Spoon;
C, Bass;
D, Fluted Wabbler;
E, Weedless; H Fig. 6
F, Diving;
G, Combination Color, Taste,
and Smell;
H, Spoon and Minnow Bass; I
I, Surface

The underhand or side cast is somewhat easier to master, and is

made much in the same way as the overhead cast, only the rod is
swung horizontally to the rear, the tip on a level with the angler’s
chest, as shown in Fig. 5. Bring the rod forward smartly in the
direction it is desired to shoot the bait, check the rod when about
horizontal, partly releasing the pressure of the thumb, just enough to
allow the spool to revolve freely, and check the line as the bait hits
the water. Figure 5 shows the beginning of the side cast and Fig. 6
the cast completed. This cast is useful when fishing from a shore
overhung with trees, and with practice the bait may be projected a
long distance.
 The chief factor of skill in bait casting from the reel lies in
controlling the line, and the thumb must be trained to do this through
practice. Some casters turn the reel sideways with the handle
downward while making the cast, but the majority keep the reel level
and cast with it in the same position as when reeling in. Thumbing
the line is easiest done when the spool is well filled, and if the
casting line is not long enough to do this, sufficient common line
should be first wound on to fill it.
The successful bait caster is one who possesses an intimate
knowledge of the fish he casts for, and while a lengthy exposition is
not to form a part of this article, reference to the fish commonly
sought by the caster will not be amiss. The fish generally of interest
to the bait caster are small and large-mouth black bass, pike,
muskellunge, and pickerel. The small-mouth black bass is classed
as the finest game fish, ounce for ounce, by many casters. The
muskellunge, often confused with the Great Lakes or English pike, is
more limited in range than the pike, being found in the Great Lakes
region and the waters of the St. Lawrence River.
Since the habits and general characteristics of the large-mouth
bass are much the same as its near relative, the small-mouth, the
following hints apply to both. When wading, it is well to cast
downstream. Cast in the shallows, near the weeds and snags, and
close to stumps. As little noise should be made as possible.
For early-spring casting, bass are likely to be found in the shallows
and sheltered places during the day, because the water is cool at
this season. The pickerel will also be found in the warmer and
shallower waters. The most successful baits at this time are the
diving minnows, and other under-water lures. As the warmer days of
late spring and early summer appear, the bass swim out into deeper
and cooler water, while the pickerel remain close to the lily pads. The
wooden minnows are excellent baits to use at this season. When the
weeds are very thick, one of the several kinds of weedless baits may
be used.
The early-morning and late-afternoon hours are the best for
midsummer casting, and the shallow places are the good spots to
work over. If there are any brooks or streams emptying into the lake
or pond, do not neglect to work this stretch well at the mouth. When
the sun is low, the white or light-colored surface baits may be
substituted for the medium-dark colored diving varieties, and for
casting after dark, a luminous or moonlight bait will often give good
results. During the fall months fishing conditions are similar to
casting in the spring, but the deep water is then the warmest, and
the under-water or diving baits are usually the best.
To catch bass, the angler must cast his bait where the fish are
feeding, and he will find it an advantage to match natural conditions,
so far as possible, in selecting his baits. For casting on bright days in
clear waters, the red, white and red, white, or green minnows are
good lures, as are also the silverplated spoon baits. Cast well ahead
of the boat, and reel in very slowly to keep the plug spinning well
below the surface. On cloudy days and in muddy waters, after a
heavy rain, for example, use red and yellow baits and goldplated or
burnished-copper spoons. The best all-around bait—equally good for
bass and pickerel—is one of the green-backed minnows, but no one
bait can be expected to meet all conditions, hence the caster should
have a fair assortment of baits.
A stiff casting rod with plenty of backbone is essential for
muskellunge. The angler is out after big game and must be prepared
for the sport. A hard, braided silk line, size E, and 3-0 or 4-0 hooks,
snelled and swiveled, are the best. Any of the wooden baits suitable
for pickerel—the minnows especially—are good for muskellunge. A
man to handle the oars is a handy companion, and after casting the
bait just outside the weed bed, make for deep water as soon as a
fish is hooked. The fish will be seen and felt quickly enough, and
when it breaks water and leaps in the air, give it a little slack line
quickly, otherwise the strain will snap the leader. A twisted, bronzed
trace is the best to use between line and bait, and this need not be
longer than a foot—6 in. is enough. When the fish is brought
alongside, shoot him through the head with a revolver which is
probably the most satisfactory manner of making an easy landing.
A Cat-Proof Bird Table
 Our bird table is a source of great enjoyment, particularly since the
birds feel secure from cats or other enemies because of the
construction of this ornament in our garden. The sketch shows the
arrangement of the table braced at the top of a 6-ft. post. Shrubbery
surrounds the table and a light evergreen climber clings to the post,
yet does not give the cats a good foothold.
Experience has taught us that birds in general prefer bread
crumbs to other varieties of food, and they are also fond of cracked
wheat. The linnets like oranges particularly. We cut an orange in two
and place the halves on the table. It is amusing to see the birds
balance on one side of the orange while they peck at the fruit. Soon
the orange peel is almost entirely emptied. We provide a small basin
of fresh water on the table, and the birds use it as a drinking cup as
well as a bathtub.—F. H. Sweet, Waynesboro, Va.