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New Directions in German Studies
Vol. 23
Series Editor:
IMKE MEYER
Director, School of Literatures, Cultural Studies and Linguistics, and
Professor of Germanic Studies, University of Illinois at Chicago
Editorial Board:
KATHERINE ARENS
Professor of Germanic Studies, University of Texas at Austin
ROSWITHA BURWICK
Distinguished Chair of Modern Foreign Languages Emerita,
Scripps College
RICHARD ELDRIDGE
Charles and Harriett Cox McDowell Professor of Philosophy,
Swarthmore College
ERIKA FISCHER-LICHTE
Professor Emerita of Theater Studies, Freie Universität Berlin
CATRIONA MACLEOD
Edmund J. and Louise W. Kahn Term Professor in the Humanities
and Professor of German, University of Pennsylvania
STEPHAN SCHINDLER
Professor of German and Chair,
University of South Florida
HEIDI SCHLIPPHACKE
Associate Professor of Germanic Studies,
University of Illinois at Chicago
ULRICH SCHÖNHERR
Professor of German and Comparative Literature,
Haverford College
JAMES A. SCHULTZ
Professor of German Emeritus, University of California,
Los Angeles
SILKE-MARIA WEINECK
Professor of German and Chair of Comparative Literature,
University of Michigan
DAVID WELLBERY
LeRoy T. and Margaret Deffenbaugh Carlson University Professor,
University of Chicago
SABINE WILKE
Joff Hanauer Distinguished Professor for Western Civilization and
Professor of German, University of Washington
JOHN ZILCOSKY
Professor of German and Comparative Literature, University of Toronto
Volumes in the series:
Vol. 10. The Poet as Phenomenologist: Rilke and the New Poems
by Luke Fischer
Vol. 14. Thomas Mann and Shakespeare: Something Rich and Strange
edited by Tobias Döring and Ewan Fernie
Vol. 17. Figures of Natality: Reading the Political in the Age of Goethe
by Joseph D. O’Neil
Vol. 22. Sissi’s World: The Empress Elisabeth in Memory and Myth
edited by Maura E. Hametz and Heidi Schlipphacke
Edited by
Edgar Landgraf, Gabriel Trop,
and Leif Weatherby
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Contents
Notes on Contributors ix
Bibliography 309
Index 329
Notes on Contributors
1 Recent research has gravitated toward such claims. Karl Steel, for example,
notes the “fissures” of the human already in the Middle Ages and claims, “Post-
humanism does not follow humanism; rather, it is inherent in its own claims.”
Karl Steel, “Medieval,” in The Cambridge Companion to Literature and the Posthu-
man, ed. Bruce Clarke and Manuela Rossini (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2017), 3.
2 See Stefan Herbrechter, Posthumanism: A Critical Analysis (London: Bloomsbury,
2013).
2 Posthumanism in the Age of Humanism
hand, and cognition, fantasy and human intention on the other. As they
develop revolutionary scientific tools and concepts that come to define
our modern understanding of physiology, they also are aware of the
philosophical implications of their scientific work, and of the limits of
philosophical modes of inquiry for science. Jeffrey Kirkwood’s “Vertig-
inous Systems of the Soul ” examines eighteenth-century inquiries into
vertigo and dizziness as a point of convergence between philosophical
and emerging physiological discourses. For researchers such as Mar-
cus Herz (a deeply conflicted disciple of Kant), dizziness suggested a
union between the physiological and the representational functions of
the psyche, while simultaneously demonstrating their independence.
In “Brain Matters in the German Enlightenment: Animal Cognition
and Species Difference in Herder, Soemmerring, and Gall,” Patrick
Fortmann turns to the Viennese physician and anatomist, Franz Joseph
Gall, the inventor of what is now known as phrenology (but which he
called “organology”). Instead of a strict boundary between species, Gall
envisioned a continuum based on brain structure. Assuming special-
ized, yet largely autonomous, organs in the brain, manifesting them-
selves in cognitive faculties, early phrenology opened the possibility
for both a new understanding of species as a category and a radically
revised conception of species cognition.
Kant—posthumanism’s favorite bogeyman—plays a crucial role for
these scientists. Unlike some of our contemporary posthumanists, how-
ever, the researchers of the early nineteenth century did not run away
from the Kantian heritage, but rather saw themselves as exploring and
implementing its consequences through different, i.e., scientific, means.
Christian Emden’s “Agency without Humans: Normativity and Path
Dependence in the Nineteenth-Century Life Sciences” looks at a broad
range of experimental and theoretical innovations in German cell the-
ory and embryology to argue that what we can witness in the period
between the 1790s and 1880s is the emergence of the problem of bio-
logical agency, that is, a kind of agency that lacks the intentional stance
attributed to human agency.
Edgar Landgraf’s “Embodied Phantasy: Johannes Müller and the
Nineteenth-Century Neurophysiological Foundations of Critical Post-
humanism” examines how Johannes Müller, one of the most important
nineteenth-century physiologists (and the teacher of such prominent
students as Hermann von Helmholtz, Emil du Bois-Reymond, Ernst
Haeckel, Theodor Schwann, Wilhelm Wundt, Rudolf Virchow), con-
fronts with the eyes of the experimental scientist the material border
(what he identifies as Sehsinnsubstanz, “visual sensory substance”)
between body and mind. His analysis of phantasmatic phenomena
reveals a seemingly paradoxical relationship of simultaneous depend-
ence and independence of the psychological from the physiological
Introduction 7
9 See, for example, Levi Bryant, Graham Harman, and Nick Srnicek, eds., The
Speculative Turn: Continental Materialism and Realism (Melbourne: re.press, 2011)
or Timothy Morton, Hyperobjects: Philosophy and Ecology after the End of the World
(Cambridg, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013).
10 See Quentin Meillassoux, After Finitude: An Essay on the Necessity of Contingency,
trans. Ray Brassier (London: Bloomsbury, 2010).
Introduction 9
of the human, but shows the human to result from practical contexts of
interaction. Humanity thus becomes defined as a form of acting in the
world rather than as a “substance.” Hogue’s “Positing the Robotic Self:
From Fichte to Ex Machina” locates the first articulation of such a model
in Fichte’s transcendental idealism. Because consciousness for Fichte
emerges from action in the world, any being that acts or is “summoned”
to freedom in relation to others is endowed with agency. Fichte’s tran-
scendental idealism is thereby revealed to be an important resource for
posthuman thought; if robots can act in this manner, they become “arti-
ficial” humans.
Christian P. Weber’s article gives an important counter-perspec-
tive by turning to the work of Johann Wolfgang Goethe. In contrast to
some of the other contributions to this volume, Weber’s essay construes
Goethe as a resolute humanist, albeit one who already in the drama
Faust anticipates the dangers of a posthuman future in which the
human would become a sheer result of systemic manipulation. Weber
shows how Mephistopheles becomes the agent of a destructive virtu-
alization of experience: his goal is to achieve a “negative creation” by
overtaking the creative impulses of the human (in this case, Faust) and
directing them toward phantasmatic virtual realities in which agency
itself becomes impossible. Weber argues that Goethe’s Faust entertains
the possibility of such a posthuman future—we may already be in the
midst of realizing this problematic future—or a future in which the
human is just as constrained as it was in premodern modes of thought
that sought to ensure the frictionless order of a totalizing system.
Jocelyn Holland, in “Beyond Death: Posthuman Perspectives in
Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland’s Macrobiotics,” examines how, already at
the end of the eighteenth century, the German physician raises issues
that come to dominate contemporary discussions of the posthuman.
In particular, the question of artificial life is important in Hufeland’s
project; indeed, as Holland shows, for Hufeland, life is irreducible to
pure organic materiality, but refers to the way in which matter becomes
representational. There is thus an artificiality at the heart of the natural,
and life can only be “extended” because it belongs not simply to nature
(physis), but is also at the same time an art (techne). The invocation of a
lexicon that stems from the arts suggests that art itself, as a practice, has
not been sufficiently acknowledged in posthuman accounts to concep-
tualize life after or beyond the individual human self.
Gabriel Trop, in “The Indifference of the Inorganic,” takes up Hol-
land’s challenge to draw upon art to rethink life from a posthuman
perspective. Trop draws attention to the emergence of “indifference”
in the discourse of naturephilosophy (Naturphilosophie), where indiffer-
ence refers to a paradoxical operation in which a difference no longer
“makes” a difference, and yet, still appears as a difference. He argues
Introduction 11
11 David Wellbery, “Foreword,” in Discourse Networks 1800 /1900, ed. Friedrich Kit-
tler, trans. Michael Metteer, with Chris Cullens (Stanford: Stanford University
Press, 1990), viii.
12 Giacomo Leopardi, “Dialogue between Fashion and Death,” in Essays and Dia-
logues of Giacomo Leopardi, trans. Charles Edwardes (Boston: J. R. Osgood & Co.,
1882), 22–3.
12 Posthumanism in the Age of Humanism
13 Claire Colebrook, Death of the PostHuman: Essays on Extinction, vol. 1 (Ann Arbor,
MI: Open Humanities Press, 2014), 229.
14 Grusin, “Introduction,” xxvii.
Introduction 13
On sait que Charles XII, pour avoir trop poussé vers le sud avec
une partie de son armée, perdit liaison avec les réserves qu’on lui
amenait, de sorte que ses troupes affaiblies et démoralisées furent
défaites près de Poltava, dans l’été de 1709. Il s’enfuit sur le
territoire turc, avec Mazeppa et quelques autres chefs. Un petit
nombre de cosaques les suivit et les Zaporogues de la Sitche
transportèrent leur résidence en pays tartare, non loin de
l’embouchure du Dniéper.
Charles s’installa à Bender et s’attacha à entraîner la Turquie
dans une nouvelle guerre contre la Moscovie ; ce à quoi il réussit.
Pendant ce temps Mazeppa mourut et les chefs cosaques
élurent à sa place le chancelier Orlyk. A cette occasion on élabora
une charte constitutionnelle fort intéressante. Son objet était de
mettre un frein aux tendances autocratiques des hetmans, qui
avaient commencé à se faire jour sous la protection de Moscou (ils
avaient adopté la formule : sic volo, sic jubeo, comme le dit le
document). La charte déterminait les formes de la représentation
législative cosaque, les assemblées périodiques des députés de
l’armée, les dépenses du trésor, etc.
Sûr de l’aide de Charles et de la Turquie et ayant à sa disposition
les forces Zaporogues, Orlyk, avec ses cosaques, se mit en devoir
d’arracher l’Ukraine aux griffes du tzar. Charles et le Khan jurèrent
de ne point faire la paix jusqu’à ce que son indépendance soit
assurée. La Turquie à son tour entra en guerre, en automne 1710. Il
sembla que les vœux des ukrainiens allaient se réaliser.
Parce qu’elle avait prêté ses forces à Charles et à Orlyk, Pierre
marcha en 1711 contre la Turquie. Il comptait sur l’appui du voïvode
de Moldavie, sur l’insurrection des chrétiens des Balkans et retomba
ainsi dans la même erreur que Charles.
Ayant traversé le Pruth, à la tête d’une armée insuffisante, il se
trouva cerné par des forces turques bien supérieures et fut forcé de
demander la paix. Charles et Orlyk purent maintenant espérer qu’ils
forceraient le tzar à renoncer à toutes ses prétentions sur l’Ukraine.
Mais Pierre trouva moyen d’acheter le Grand Vizir et le traité fut
rédigé de telle sorte que chacun pouvait l’interpréter à sa guise.
Charles, Orlyk et le sultan insistèrent pour que la Moscovie évacuât
l’Ukraine ; Pierre, sorti de ce mauvais pas, ne voulut rien entendre.
La guerre renouvelée n’aboutit pas à un meilleur résultat, car le
tzar persuada au sultan, au moyen d’arguments sonnants, d’adopter
son interprétation du traité, c’est-à-dire qu’il n’avait renoncé qu’à la
rive droite du Dniéper. Là-dessus, la Pologne, alliée de la Moscovie,
releva ses prétentions sur ce pays et les efforts d’Orlyk et des
cosaques de la Sitche pour s’en emparer restèrent vains. D’accord
avec la Pologne, la Moscovie, de 1711 à 1714, procéda à
l’évacuation de ces contrées où les cosaques s’étaient mis
volontairement sous le gouvernement de Mazeppa. Les troupes
moscovites, en se retirant, chassèrent la population ukrainienne au
delà du fleuve et ne laissèrent aux autorités polonaises que des
espaces dévastés.
Encore longtemps après que Charles fut rentré en Suède, Orlyk
parcourut les cours occidentales pour en obtenir du secours, mais
sans y réussir.
Les cosaques zaporogues demandèrent l’autorisation de
retourner dans leur pays, mais la Moscovie hésita longtemps à la
leur accorder in corpore, de crainte de rompre ses relations avec la
Turquie. Ce ne fut qu’en 1734, alors que tout faisait prévoir une
guerre avec la Porte, que le ban fut levé.
XXVII.
Dommages causés à la vie
ukrainienne par Pierre le Grand.