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Poultry and
pig nutrition
Challenges of the 21st century
edited by:
Wouter H. Hendriks
Martin W.A. Verstegen
László Babinszky
Wageningen Academic
P u b l i s h e r s
Poultry and pig nutrition
Poultry and
pig nutrition
Challenges of the 21st century
edited by:
Wouter H. Hendriks,
Martin W.A. Verstegen and
László Babinszky
Wageningen Academic
P u b l i s h e r s
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Table of contents
List of abbreviations 11
Foreword 15
1. Challenges in the 21st century in pig and poultry nutrition and the
future of animal nutrition 17
L. Babinszky, M.W.A. Verstegen and W.H. Hendriks
Summary points 17
1.1 Introduction 18
1.2 Challenges in the 21st century 18
1.3 Future perspectives in animal nutrition 25
1.4 Conclusions 34
References 35
2. New facets to an understanding of dietary nutrient utilisation 39

P.J. Moughan
Summary points 39
2.1 Introduction 40
2.2 Th
e efficiency of utilisation of dietary protein 40
2.3 Unabsorbed and damaged lysine 43
2.4 Gut endogenous amino acid losses 44
2.5 Inevitable amino acid catabolism 45
2.6 Preferential catabolism of amino acids 45
2.7 New insights 46
2.8 S ome examples of a planned application of the new approaches 52
2.9 Future perspectives 55
References 55
3. Feed intake and regulation 59

N. Everaert, E. Decuypere and J. Buyse
Summary points 59
3.1 Introduction 60
3.2 Th
e hypothalamus as central integrator of input signals 60
3.3 Input signals from the digestive system 64
3.4 Input signals from adipose tissue: leptin 66
3.5 Peculiarities in pigs 68
3.6 Peculiarities in poultry 70
Poultry and pig nutrition 5

Table of contents
3.7. Conclusions 72
References 72
4. Gut nutrition and health in pigs and poultry 77

J.R. Pluske and J. Zentek
Summary points 77
4.1 Introduction 78
4.2 Is there a unifying definition of ‘gut health’? 79
4.3 Underlying biological mechanisms associated with a healthy
gastrointestinal tract 80
4.4 The gastrointestinal tract microbiome 82
4.5 Gastrointestinal tract barrier function 87
4.6 Interaction between the mucosal immune system and the
gastrointestinal tract 93
4.7 Oxidative stress in pigs and poultry: impacts on ‘gut health’ 94
References 96
5. Animal nutrition and immunity in pigs and poultry 105

M. Bouwens and H.F.J. Savelkoul
Summary points 105
5.1 Introduction 106
5.2 Immunity 107
5.3 Immunomodulation by feed components 110
5.4 Dietary immunomodulation in pigs 112
5.5 Dietary immunomodulation in poultry 115
References 121
6. Nutritional modulation to improve health and welfare 129

K.E. Bach Knudsen
Summary points 129
6.2 Feed composition with special emphasis on carbohydrates 130
6.3 Modulation of the digestion and absorption processes by dietary
means 133
6.4 Modulation of microbial community and microbial end-products 140
6.5 Modulation of carbohydrate derived absorption products 143
6.6 Conclusions 148
References 149
6 Poultry and pig nutrition

Table of contents
7. Nutrigenomics and its perspective in nutrition 159

M. Vailati-Riboni, K. Shahzad, A.A. Elolimy, D.N. Coleman and J.J. Loor
Summary points 159
7.2 Methodology overview 161
7.3 Nutrigenomics in practice 165
7.4 Offspring programming – the epigenetic role of diets 172
7.5 Gut microbiota in pigs and poultry 174
References 176
8. The adverse effects of heat stress on the antioxidant status and

performance of pigs and poultry and reducing these effects with
nutritional tools 187
L. Babinszky, M. Horváth, J. Remenyik and M.W.A Verstegen
Summary points 187
8.2 Impact of heat stress on the antioxidant system of animals 189
8.3 Impact of heat stress on energy metabolism in pig and poultry 196
8.4 Impact of heat stress on pigs and poultry production and
elimination of adverse effects by nutrition tools 198
8.5 Conclusions 202
References 203
9. Using non-invasive synchrotron-based analytical techniques in animal

nutrition: a novel approach 209
P. Yu, D. Christensen, L. Miller, H. Nakatsuji, R.T. Zijlstra, H. Zhang, Y.C. Lee,
Y. Ikemoto and B.R. Wood
Summary points 209
9.2 Working principles of a synchrotron 213
9.3 Synchrotron-based analytical techniques 214
9.4 Functions of synchrotron-based analytical techniques 215
9.5 Application of synchrotron-based analytical techniques as
non-invasive techniques in animal nutrition 216
9.6 Summary and conclusions 222
Acknowledgments 224
References 224

Table of contents
10. Biotechnology in the feed industry and animal nutrition: harnessing

microbes to provide natural solutions 229
P. Spring, J. Taylor-Pickard, K.A. Jacques and J.M. Hower
Summary points 229
10.2 Enzymes 230
10.3 Probiotics 232
10.4 Yeast and yeast products 233
10.5 Organic trace minerals 235
10.6 Microalgae 236
10.7 Conclusion 237
References 238
11. Co-products in swine nutrition and feed formulation 245

R.T. Zijlstra and E. Beltranena
Summary points 245
11.2 Feed formulation and risk management 246
11.3 Co-products 248
References 256
12. Mycotoxins in the feed and animal products 263

S. Madhysatha and R.R. Marquardt
Summary points 263
12.2 Mycotoxins in feed ingredients 264
12.3 Mycotoxicoses of animals 266
12.4 Mycotoxins in animal products 269
12.5 Mycotoxin control 270
References 274
13. Novel protein sources in animal nutrition: considerations and examples 279
M.M. van Krimpen and W.H. Hendriks
Summary points 279
13.2 How to meet the increasing feed protein demand? 280
13.3 Nutritional value of some novel protein sources 285
13.4 The importance of free amino acids for novel protein sources 294
13.5 Conclusions 297
References 298

Table of contents
14. Future of animal nutrition: the role of life cycle assessment 307
C.E. van Middelaar, H.H.E. van Zanten and I.J.M. de Boer
Summary points 307
14.2 LCA methodology 308
14.3 The role of LCA in animal nutrition 311
14.4 Conclusions 313
References 313
15. Nutrition and environmental sustainability 315

J.Y. Dourmad, F. Garcia-Launay, B. Méda, M. Lessire and A. Narcy
Summary points 315
15.2 Improvement of efficiency of use of protein 317
15.3 Improvement of efficiency of use of minerals 321
15.4 Effect of feeding on ammonia emissions from manure 326
15.5 Effect of feed composition on direct emissions of greenhouse gas 329
15.6 Effect of feed composition on odours 331
15.7 Conclusion 332
References 333
16. The role of nutrient utilisation models in precision animal management 341
C.F.M. de Lange† and L. Huber
Summary points 341
16.2 Evolution of nutrient utilisation models 343
16.3 Modelling interactions between animals and their environment 349
16.4 Modelling dynamics of nutrient absorption and utilisation 354
16.5 Modelling animal product quality 355
References 361
17. Future technologies in pigs & poultry nutrition 369

A.F.B. van der Poel and J.L.M. Marchal
Summary points 369
17.2 Base-line technologies 372
17.3 Shifts in technologies and mechanisms 382
References 392

Table of contents
18. Precision livestock feeding, principle and practice 397

C. Pomar, J. van Milgen and A. Remus
Summary points 397
18.2 The basic concepts of precision livestock feeding 400
18.3 The implementation of precision livestock feeding principles in
growing and finishing pig production systems 405
18.4 PLF and precision livestock feeding systems used in practice 408
18.5 Factors that can influence the successful application of precision
livestock feeding systems on farms 410
Acknowledgements 412
References 412

List of abbreviations
AA amino acid
ADG average daily gain
AFB1 aflatoxin B1
AGP antibiotic growth promoters
AgRP Agouti-related peptide
AHR aryl hydrocarbon receptor
ALCA attributional LCA
AMC antimicrobial compounds
ANF anti-nutritional factors
BALT bronchus/lower airways-associated lymphoid tissues
BSF black soldier fly
CART cocaine and amphetamine-related transcript
CCK cholecystokinin
CCR C-C chemokine receptor
CH4 methane
CLA cluster analysis
CLCA consequential LCA
CP crude protein
CRH corticotropin-releasing hormone
CrPic chromium picolinate
DCs dendritic cells
DDGS dried distillers grains with solubles
DE digestible energy
DGGE denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis
DHA dehydroascorbate (Chapter 8)
DHA docosahexaenoic acid (Chapter 10)
DHAR dehydroascorbate-reductase
DM dry matter
DMN dorsomedial nucleus
DON deoxynivalenol
DP degree of polymerisation
DVE absorbed protein supply
ENS enteric nervous system
ETEC enterotoxigenic E. coli
EU European Union
FB1 fumonisin B1
FC fermentable carbohydrates
FCR feed conversion ratio
FTU phytase units

FUM fumonisins
GALT GIT-associated lymphoid tissues
GENALT urogenital tract-associated lymphoid tissues
GHRH growth hormone-releasing hormone
GI gastrointestinal
GIT gastro-intestinal tract
GMOs genetically modified organisms
GPx glutathione peroxidase
GR glutathione-reductase
GSH glutathione
GSSG oxidised glutathione
HACCP hazard analysis critical control point
HS heat stress
HSF heat shock factors
HSP heat-shock protein
IL interleukin
IPEC intestinal porcine jejunum epithelial cells
LCA life cycle assessment
LHA lateral nucleus
LPS lipopolysaccharide
m/z mass to charge ratio
mAb monoclonal antibody
MCF methane conversion factor
MALT mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues
MCH melanin-concentrating hormone
MDHA mono-(de) hydro-ascorbate-radical
MOR µ-opioid receptor
MOS mannan oligosaccharides
MP metabolisable protein
α-MSH α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone
N2O nitrous oxide
NADH nicotinamide-adenine-dinucleotide
NADPH nicotinamide-adenine-dinucleotide-phosphate
NALT nasal cavity-associated lymphoid tissues
NARC arcuate nucleus
NDC non-digestible carbohydrates
NE net energy
NH3 ammonia
NIR near infrared reflectance spectroscopy
NPY neuropeptide Y
NSP non-starch polysaccharides
NTS nucleus tractus solitarius
OEB degraded protein balance

OM organic matter
OTA ochratoxin A
PCA principal component analysis
PCR polymerase chain reaction
PLF Precision livestock farming
POMC proopiomelanocortin
PUFA polyunsaturated fatty acids
PVN paraventricular
ROS reactive oxygen species
RS resistant starch
SBM soybean meal
SCFA short chain fatty acids
SD-33 syndyphalin
SR-IMS synchrotron radiation-based infrared microspectroscopy
T-2 T-2 toxin
TBARS thiobarbituric acid reacting substances
TDP total digestible protein
TJ tight junctions
TLR Toll-like receptor
TN thermoneutral
Tregs regulatory T cells
TRH thyrotropin-releasing hormone
ZEA zearalenone
ZFE zebrafish embryos

Foreword
More pork and poultry meat is consumed globally than any other meat from terrestrial
animals. On average, these two meat sources make up almost three-quarters of the
total annual meat consumption. In addition, highly nutritious eggs provide the
consumer with a versatile, tasty and affordable source of animal protein. World egg
production has also dramatically increased during the past two decades and this
trend is expected to continue, especially in developing countries. According to recent
forecasts, the global human population will grow to nine billion by 2050 and 60%
more food must be produced to meet the demand. It is estimated that the production
of intensively reared animals (pigs and poultry) will at least need to be doubled to
meet this increasing demand for animal derived foods. In this changing environment,
the production systems must embrace established as well as potential advances in
technology and innovations. Given the limited availability of global resources and
the need to reduce pressure on the environment, the key challenge in the 21st century
will be the sustainability of food and feed production systems. It is inevitable that
future nutritional strategies will continually evolve to meet these challenges and, in
this context, the publication of this book is a timely and valuable contribution.
‘Poultry and pig nutrition – challenges of the 21st century’ is focused on an array of
emerging technology trends, which are multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary, with
the aim of facing up to the complex problems and challenges we currently need to
address. Containing contributions from world leading authorities in the field of non-
ruminant nutrition, the 18 chapters in this book provide comprehensive summary on
novel solutions to the issues faced in the nutrition of pigs and poultry.
In the past, animal nutrition research focused primarily on refining the nutritional
needs of farm animals with respect to energy, protein and minerals. In recent decades,
researchers have become cognizant of the many complexities relating to nutrition,
especially the roles of physiology, microbiology, genetics and immunology to better
interpret the science of animal nutrition. This realisation is opening up new and
important possibilities. It is of vital importance that the global animal industry fully
recognises the opportunities and initiate appropriate frameworks. The primary
aim of the book is to bring together such new areas of science that are expected
to revolutionise animal nutrition during the coming decades and an overview of
potential stratagems is well summarised in Chapter 1. A range of relevant subject
areas is covered and includes ‘Physiological processes driving amino acid utilisation’
(Chapter 2), ‘Regulation of feed intake’ (Chapter 3), ‘Intestinal health management

in the post-antibiotic era’ (Chapter 4), ‘Development and functioning of immunity’
(Chapter 5), ‘Potential manipulation of intestinal microbiota by carbohydrates’
(Chapter 6), ‘Application of omics technologies’ (Chapter 7), ‘Alleviation of heat stress
on animal productivity’ (Chapter 8), ‘Future of non-invasive bioanalytical techniques’
(Chapter 9), ‘Role of biotechnological tools’ (Chapter 10), ‘Co-products’ (Chapter 11),
‘Implications of mycotoxin contamination on animal productivity and feed security’
(Chapter 12), ‘Novel alternative protein sources’ (Chapter 13), ‘Life cycle assessment of
the pig and poultry sectors’ (Chapter 14), ‘Nutrition and environmental sustainability’
(Chapter 15), ‘Nutrient utilisation models’ (Chapter 16), ‘Feed processing technology’
(Chapter 17) and ‘Precision animal farming’ (Chapter 18). The discussion on all the
above innovative approaches is carefully balanced and combined with established
understanding of classical animal nutrition.
Our overriding conclusion is that this is a necessary and essential reference book
providing a look into future technologies in the nutrition of pigs and poultry. The
extensive bibliography, with up to date citations, is provided after each chapter for
readers requiring further information on the areas covered. This book will be of
immense value to researchers, nutritionists, university teachers and students of pig
and poultry nutrition. Those involved in the commercial industry will find it highly
valuable because of the wealth of information provided and the many insights shared
by the various authors.
L.A. den Hartog

Department of Animal Nutrition,
Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands;
and Nutreco R&D, Amersfoort, the Netherlands
V. Ravindran
Monogastric Research Centre,
Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand

1
Challenges in the 21st century

in pig and poultry nutrition and
the future of animal nutrition
L. Babinszky1*, M.W.A. Verstegen2 and W.H. Hendriks2,3
1University of Debrecen, Department of Feed and Food Biotechnology,
Böszörményi út 138, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; 2Wageningen University &
Research, Animal Nutrition Group, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen,
the Netherlands; 3Utrecht University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL Utrecht, the Netherlands; babinszky@agr.unideb.hu
Summary points
• 21st century animal nutrition faces a number of challenges including animal
welfare, environmental pollution minimisation, use of novel ingredients, use of
ingredients not suitable for human consumption and more.
• New area of science are paramount for animal nutrition to meet these challenges
such as molecular biology, nutrigenomics, molecular genetics, information
technology.
• Precision animal nutrition will gain in importance as well as the validation of
alternative feed ingredients and the increased use of food waste and co-products.
• There is an increasing need for better cooperation between medical and agricultural
sciences on the basis of professional logic, as well as cooperation in R&DI programs
and education.
Keywords: pig and poultry nutrition, 21st century challenges, future animal nutrition
Wouter H. Hendriks, Martin W.A. Verstegen and László Babinszky (eds.) Poultry and pig nutrition
DOI 10.3920/978-90-8686-884-1_1, © Wageningen Academic Publishers 2019 17
L. Babinszky et al.
1.1 Introduction
The predicted increase in the human population and standards of living in developing
countries by 2050are expected to create a high demand for animal-derived protein
(Boland et al., 2013). In many OECD countries, overconsumption of food has been
increasing over the past 40 years. Currently, one in every 2 persons in these countries
is overweight or obese with America having the highest obesity rate (38.2%) and Japan
the lowest (3.7%) (OECD, 2017). Nearly 50% of deaths in the Europe Union are due
to cardiovascular diseases, while 30% are caused by tumour diseases (Eurostat, 2018).
It is without a doubt that nutrition is one of the key risk factors of these illnesses.
By changing adverse nutritional habits and by consuming foods and food products
which better conform to nutritional requirements, life expectancy of a larger number
of people can be increased. In addition to the problems arising from lifestyle, eating
habits and eating culture, food related allergies, the overreaction of the organism
to certain foods or their ingredients, are increasing (Branum and Lukacs, 2009).
Food intolerance – which also belongs to this range of problems – occurs when the
abnormal symptoms caused by a food do not have an immunological origin. As a
result of this oversensitivity, those affected often require special foods besides nutrition
alternatives. As such, the challenge of 21st century animal agriculture is to sustainably
produce foods and food products of animal origin in the proper quantity and quality
which is safe to eat and can be traced within the production chain.
In order for the agricultural sector to be able to provide proper quantities of safe
food materials to the food industry, there is an increasing need for better cooperation
between medical and agricultural sciences on the basis of professional logic, as well
as cooperation in R&DI programs and education. In addition to agricultural and
medical science, nutrition biologists, genetic experts and other professionals dealing
with nourishment will have important roles in the future. The food production chain
approach and collaboration between various scientific disciplines should be instilled
in current education programmes to develop young professionals, in order to produce
high quality foods and improve human health. Efforts to such cooperation can already
be observed e.g. in the USA, Canada, some EU-countries and in New-Zealand.
The present chapter focusses on the challenges in pig and poultry nutrition in the 21st
century and provides a perspective of animal nutrition in the next decades.
1.2 Challenges in the 21st century

The agricultural and food production sectors of many countries have to face major
challenges in the 21st century.

1. Challenges in the 21st century in pig and poultry nutrition and the future of animal nutrition
As depicted in Figure 1.1, these challenges include:

• Meeting the food demand of a rapidly growing world population. Currently, the
human population is nearly 7.5 billion (Figure 1.2) but by the year 2050 the United
Nations (2011) predict that there will be more than 9.0 billion people. In addition,
living standards are also increasing.
• The increasing demand for high quality and safe food. FAO (2009) estimates the
world will have to produce approximately 60-70% more food in the next 35 years.
This organisation also predicts that animal protein production will increase at least
three-times and meat production will double by 2050.
• Decreasing potential agricultural land area due to industrialisation, the building
of new motorways, new city construction programs, urbanisation and natural soil
erosion.
• Climate change, and its effects on animal production and elimination of these
effects by genetic, nutritional and/or technical innovations (Pullar, 2011).
• Declining fresh water resources.
• Increasing severity of environmental load-related problems.
In addition, aspects such as animal welfare, food-feed-fuel competition and self-

sufficiency level are additional challenges facing countries. It is also a known fact
that the quality of food of animal origin is greatly determined by the nutrition of
animals. Feeds in pig and poultry production systems can make up 50-80% of the
costs of production and unutilised dietary components are a major contributor to
pollution. As such, animal nutrition has a key role to play in solving many of the
above-mentioned challenges. In 2017, nearly 1032 million tons of compound feed for
farm animals was produced world-wide (Figure 1.2).
Growing global Growing demand

for high quality and Loss of arable land
human populations
safety foodstuffs
Animal agriculture Climate change

Environmental
pollution
? Declining freshwater
resources
Figure 1.1. Main challenges in 21st century animal agriculture.

L. Babinszky et al.
7.2
6.8
7
6.3 6.3 6.4 6.4
6.1 6.2
World population
6 5.6
(billion)
5.3
4.9
5 4.5
4.1
1,032
1000
Compound feed production
(million metric tons)
800 700
614 626
604 612
590 591 597
600 537
440
400 370
290
200
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2011 2017
Figure 1.2. World population and compound feed production from 1975 to 2017 (based on
Alltech, 2018; Gilbert, 2004; Gill, 2006; United Nations, 2011).
Today it is clear that the quality of the mixed feed can have a determinant effect on the
quality of foods of animal origin. In addition, in many countries production animals
are still fed diets containing ingredients with an uncertain origin, undermining feed
safety and, therefore, food safety and health. It is obvious that livestock nutrition has
a major responsibility for food production, not only in terms of quality and quantity
of food but also safety and health. Livestock nutrition, therefore, can be considered
to face the following important tasks in the 21st century (Babinszky and Halas, 2009):
• More active participation in animal production to supply safe food in sufficient
quantities, in accordance with the requirements of society (Koerkamp et al., 2007).
• Further improve the efficiency of animal nutrition (biological efficiency,
technological efficiency and economic efficiency).
• Wider use of various co-products as well as further reduction of human edible
ingredients in animal nutrition.
• Rethink the interrelation between animal nutrition, animal husbandry and
environmental protection. The latter entails that good quality and safe food of
animal origin should be produced using technologies which contribute to the
increased sustainability of the system, i.e. environmental-friendly nutrition
systems which lead to a reduction in nitrogen and phosphorus output.

Based on the above it can be stated, that the key issue will be to produce sustainable
food via sustainable feed (and feeding) with year by year decreasing resources and
with the need to reduce environmental pollution (Cortly, 2014). Already in 1996,
Vavra wrote that if the rate of resource exploitation continues in the future, it will lead
to a depleted earth. Most scientists agree that current production systems in animal
agriculture are generally non-sustainable.
Sustainability of agriculture has been defined by many researchers but a uniform

definition for it is still lacking (White, 2013). The most common definition used is:
‘development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs’ (World Commission on Environment
and Development, 1987), but there are many more definitions and interpretations.
Rather than seeking or proposing another definition, White (2013) depicted
sustainability as a Wordle derived from common elements in over 100 previously-
published definitions. Sustainability is also often viewed to encompasses three pillars
(Elkington, 1997). First, the planet (environment): in order for something to be
sustainable, it must be environmentally viable. Second, people (social): sustainability
must be socially viable, in relation to food affordability and changes that would
directly impact the human population. Third, profit (economy): if something is not
economically profitable, it is non-viable in the long run and will have detrimental
effects on future generations. With the other words, this so called ‘triple-bottom-
line approach’ includes three factors: environmental stewardship, social responsibility
and economic viability (Capper, 2013). It should be noted that sustainability does
not necessarily imply organic agriculture, although some components of this system
might be needed to establish sustainable farming system (Tedeschi et al., 2017).
In order to increase the efficiency of animal products, it is especially important to

introduce the latest scientific findings into practice as quickly as possible. This means
that the so-called innovation time (the time span between product idea and the actual
production) has to be reduced as much as possible. However, the question is whether
we can respond to the challenges of the 21st century with our classic animal nutrition
knowledge. Probably not, and this is why it is important to involve new areas of
nutrition (e.g. -omics, big data) but also new technologies (e.g. artificial intelligence,
genetic fortune telling) into the innovation activities. Inter- and transdisciplinary
research is needed into the mechanisms for achieving improved welfare standards
within very different social and economic contexts (Buller et al., 2018). In other
words, to provide the right answers to new challenges, a more holistic approach is
required involving state of the art technologies.
Babinszky and Halas (2009) presented other areas of natural science and/or technical
science that are required besides classic animal nutrition knowledge in order to be able
to adequately respond to the current challenges. Figure 1.3 summarises the envisaged
relationship between natural, nutritional science and other related disciplines.

L. Babinszky et al.
Natural sciences Technological sciences
Biology/ Chemistry Technological Informatics

Physiology Microbiology Immunology Mathematics
genetics biochemistry science computer science
Nutritional
physiology
Nutritional
microbiology
Traditional animal nutrition
Nutrition -
immunology
Molecular
nutrition
Feed analysis
Feed and feeding

technology
Mathematical
modeling
Precision nutrition
Figure 1.3. Relationship among traditional animal nutrition, natural and technological
sciences (Babinszky and Halas, 2009). With permission of Taylor & Francis.
Precision animal nutrition applies the research findings of ‘classical’ nutrition as well as
related areas to animal nutrition in order to meet the unique nutritional requirements
of a specific group of animals kept under specific conditions with maximum accuracy.
According to Nääs (2001), precision nutrition consists of meeting the nutrient
requirements of animals as accurately as possible in the interest of safe, high-quality
and efficient production, in addition to ensuring the lowest possible load on the
environment. This concept is also in agreement with the principle of sustainability.
Important areas of science which are currently being developed and are likely to make
a direct impact on the nutrition of production animals in the near future are:
Molecular nutrition. This relatively new interdisciplinary research area has emerged
from advances in molecular biology and requirements for explaining the organism’s
responses to nutrients at a molecular level including gene expression, signal
transduction, and covalent modifications of proteins (Yan, 2015). The molecular
biological methods developed in the last 20 years and new technologies made it
possible to gain a better understanding of these biological processes. This knowledge
will have great importance in the near future not only in the field of human nutrition,

but also in animal nutrition science. Among others, molecular nutrition examines
how nutrients (glucose, fatty acids, amino-acids, vitamins, etc.) affect the signal
transmission between cells and gene expression. Due to biochemical processes,
micronutrients affect the information flow in cells and, thereby, they influence gene
activity or suppression.
Nutritional immunology. Since the early ninety eighties, this has been a very intensively
studied area of nutrition. Nutritional immunology investigates the role (mostly to
improve) of dietary components (e.g. amino-acids, fatty acids, macro-, micro- and
trace minerals, vitamins, etc.) and their interactions with other environmental
factors and genes in the cellular and humoral immune responses of farm animals.
The development of the so-called ‘new type’ growth promoters also belongs to
this research/development field, as the use of these products results in enhanced
performance through the improvement of the immune status of animals.
Nutritional microbiology (e.g. microbiological processes in the intestinal tract and

the effect of these processes on animal production). This research area deals not only
with the microbiological status of the feed ingredients or compound feeds but also
with the impact of the diet on composition of the microbiome and moreover, with the
relationships between various physiological processes and diseases in the animal body
and the changing of the composition of microbiome. Based on the recent scientific
findings it is evident that an optimally functioning gastrointestinal tract is of import to
the overall metabolism, physiology, disease status and performance of pigs of all stages
of growth and development (Pluske et al., 2018). With the banning of the in-feed use
of antibiotics in more and more countries, new methods for maintaining intestinal
health and a commensal bacterial community is of the utmost importance. The recent
finding that the microbiota affect the immune system of the gut as well as the systemic
immune responses including lungs (Keely et al., 2012; Molley et al., 2012) opens new
possibilities to improve the immune response to respiratory diseases.
Mathematical modelling of growth and production. One of the most important

preconditions for economical production of high quality animal products (meat) is the
prediction of the growth of animals, the determination of the nutrient requirements
of the expected growth and – based on these – the provision of the necessary amount
and quality of feed/nutrients. Mathematical modelling of the growth and nutrient
requirements of animals has long been studied since the 1970s. In recent years,
however, this area of science has develop in a spectacular way only as a result of the
rapid development of information technology, the extended knowledge of physiology
and the improvement of the accuracy of various animal testing methods. In a model,
the biological processes of animals are described by mathematical equation systems
that are built on the knowledge of genetics, biochemistry, physiological processes and
environmental effects. The majority of the models used today are mechanistic, able to

L. Babinszky et al.
predict the nutrient requirements of animals and estimate the production level which
can be reached under given husbandry, feeding and management conditions.
Development of new in vitro techniques (e.g. in order to determine the digestibility of

proteins, carbohydrates and other nutrients). Generally, in vitro methods are not a
complete substitute for in vivo examinations. However, they can be of great help for
feed analysis laboratories, where it is not possible to perform animal experiments,
or for crop breeding institutions in scientific research projects if the large number
of samples makes it necessary to perform a so-called preliminary selection before in
vivo examinations. The significance of in vitro techniques will greatly increase in the
future, because of new animal ethics laws that will provide less opportunity for in
vivo examinations. It is usually referred to as the advantage of in vitro examinations
that they are relatively cheap and quick, they do not call for the infrastructure needed
for animal tests, the necessary number of replications can usually be increased more
easily than in the case of in vivo experiments and it is possible to gain relatively large
amounts of data even from a small quantity of investigated sample. However, the main
disadvantage is that they are not always as accurate as animal tests and merely provide
a ranking rather than an absolute value.
Development of environment preserving feeding technologies (e.g. feeding technologies to

reduce N, P, Cu, Zn and methane emissions). Nutrients and other components in feeds
not retained by the animal will be lost to the environment. In terms of environmental
burden, two of the most critical polluting elements are nitrogen and phosphorus.
Also copper and zinc as well as methane emissions are causing concerns. As such, in
developing environment-friendly breeding and feeding technologies, the emission
of primarily these elements needs to be reduced. In addition, more attention has to
be paid to the reduction of unnecessarily high microelement emissions. Among our
industrial farm animals, the highest nitrogen and phosphorus pollution is generated
by the pig and poultry sectors. This can be traced back to the digestive characteristics
of these two species, an inappropriate crude protein and amino acid supply, and the
housing (keeping) technology as well as deficiencies in manure management. For
copper and zinc, dietary oversupply and low bioavailability are important reasons for
high concentrations in manure.
The large emission of P can be significantly reduced by means of expressing

requirements in digestible P-content, further specifying the values of nutrient
requirement, rational selection of feed ingredients and improving the digestibility of
native P-content through phytase-enzyme addition. For example, in the case of pigs of
different ages, the level of N emission can be significantly reduced by a more accurate
specification of amino acid requirements, introduction and dissemination of modern
protein evaluation systems (ileal digestible protein content of the diets) and the so-
called ideal protein concept. There are further possibilities for reduction of N emission
by improvement of amino acid digestibility of diet components, the further use of first

limiting, industrially produced amino acids and characterisation of bioavailability of

dietary amino acids. These potentially available feeding tools can enable a 20-25%
reduction in both N and P emission without decline in animal performance.
Precision animal (pig and poultry) nutrition, which is an integral part of precision
livestock farming, contains several biological elements. Some of these are:
• Diet formulation should be based on available nutrients.
• Application of disposal cost for nutrients in diet formulation to find economical
optimum for their inclusion, rather than nutritional optimum only (Van Kempen
and Van Heugten, 2001). The consideration of nutrient disposal cost in diet
formulation are especially actual nowadays, because large amounts of by-products
are produced in the bio- fuels industry (Hadrich et al., 2008). The term cost of
disposal is used to describe the incremental expense that can be directly attributed
to the disposal of an asset, contract, or cash-generating entity which can be
regarded as a future liability.
• Application of phase feeding and split-sex feeding.
• Using mathematical modelling to predict animal performance.
• Reducing the harmful effect of heat-stress with different nutritional tools.
• Base nutrient and energy supply on genetic potential of livestock.
• Improve immune and health status of animals by macro- and micronutrient supply.
• Use industry and agriculture origin co-products based on actual nutrients and
energy contents.
• Reduction of N, P, Cu, Zn and methane excretion by different nutritional tools.
Besides up-to-date nutritional knowledge, precision animal nutrition also requires the
application of individual feeding based on computers and transponders. Observing
the trends of today, it can be concluded that in future of animal feeding, the concept of
sustainable precision livestock farming will become more and more important (Den
Hartog and Sijtsma, 2011).
1.3 Future perspectives in animal nutrition

Many of the natural and technical sciences as well as interdisciplinary sciences such
as animal nutrition, are developing rapidly. Nowadays it is not an easy task to predict
the future of a given area of science. The demand by society on animal products and
the way they are produced is likely to further increase in importance in the future,
effectuated through increasing constraints on production systems by more stringent
regulations. Public health issues will become increasingly important, such as concerns
associated with the use of antibiotics, residues in food and diseases. New diseases
have emerged, such as avian influenza H5N1, which have caused considerable global
concern regarding the potential for a change in host species and emerging global
pandemics (Thornton, 2010). Environmental issues related to animal production such

L. Babinszky et al.
as methane mitigation, mineral pollution and ammonia emissions are also likely to
increase. Stricter animal welfare concerns in many developed countries are likely to
decrease production efficiency while the wide-scale use of human-edible ingredients
in animal diets will re-ignite the food-feed-fuel competition debate in light of the
future global protein shortage.
Animal nutrition science and its co-disciplines are based on biology, chemistry,
biochemistry, microbiology, molecular biology, physiology, toxicology, immunology,
molecular genetics, information technology, mathematics, physics, various areas
of technical sciences, etc., as well as the development of the different examination
methods (e.g. surgical techniques) applied during animal experiments. The past two
decades has seen an unprecedented advancement in many of these areas of science.
The advancement in genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics will
continue and provide hitherto unknown opportunities to further fine tune the supply
of nutrients through the diet and the demand of the animal for nutrients to grow or
produce.
Today, it is self-evident that there is an increasing demand on behalf of societies for

high quality, safe and transparently produced food products. However, in the case of
foods of animal origin, this demand can only be fulfilled if modern animal nutrition
knowledge is applied together with the latest findings of its co-disciplines. As a matter
of course, this holistic approach to the problem requires strong teamwork, as even
a highly skilled and constantly learning professional could face difficulties when
exploring and expertly applying all new findings of a certain area of science.
Besides the demand for increasingly welfare friendly production systems, it is also an
important and rightful expectation of society for animal experiments to fully comply
with the actual ethical codes, legal stipulations and animal protection laws. Also these
societal demands are expected to grow in the future and animal experiments and
various examination methods can only be performed and applied in compliance with
the increasingly strict prescriptions. The latter will have serious financial implications,
which also need to be covered by society.
Based on the relevant literature data, information presented on various conferences

and our own international observations, we present the main directions of changes
using this non-exhaustive list of examples. We classified tendencies into two main
groups: the next 5-10 years and subsequent decades.
1.3.1 Prognosis of the near future (the next 5-10 years)

This group includes the research areas and examination methods whose importance
is most likely going to significantly increase in the near future, although they are
important even today. Such research areas and examination methods include:

Research on alternative feed ingredients
Using new feed energy and protein sources is mainly aimed at the partial or total
replacement of maize and soy. There can be several reasons for this shift, with the main
goal being the fact that both feed ingredients are important in human nutrition or as
food ingredients for humans. In many cases, feed ingredients are sold as a commodity
to both the food and feed industry. The main priority is to supply the human population
with high quality and safe foods. Several ingredients are not intended, less suitable or
very unsuitable for human consumption. For example, genetically modified energy
and protein sources of vegetable origin are banned in many countries. It could be a
further argument for replacement that the actual stock exchange rate of these feed
ingredients are not determined or not entirely determined solely by the demand
in agriculture (livestock management), but also the industry (e.g. food industry,
medicine industry, etc.) that generates more profit. On the contrary, this fact results
in an increasing feed ingredient price (e.g. in the case of soy and maize), which may
significantly increase the specific costs of producing food of animal origin, thereby
deteriorating the market position of meat, egg and milk producers, among others.
In the case of protein sources of vegetable origin, further intensive research is expected
in order to reduce or eliminate the harmful impact of anti-nutritive factors by means
of crop breeding and/or various feed technology or management procedures, thereby
improving the biological efficiency of animal nutrition and the production of high
quality feed ingredients (Huisman and Tolman, 2010).
The novel protein sources (e.g. insects, algae, microalgae, seaweed, duckweed) are
expected to enter the European feed and food market as partial replacement for
conventional protein source or due to their potential beneficial effects above the
nutrient content they contain (see Chapter 13, Van Krimpen and Hendriks, 2019).
However, it should be emphasised that food safety aspects of these new protein
sources are not well‐known (Van der Spiegel et al., 2013; Chapter 13, Van Krimpen
and Hendriks, 2019). More systematic and thorough studies are needed to determine
not only the digestible/available amino acid profile of these novel protein sources but
also any adverse effects on animal and human health (e.g. possible viral infections),
or any other detrimental effect on the consumer.
Determining nutrient requirement values more accurately
Meeting the nutrient requirements of production animals as accurately as possible

based on examining the interactions between macro- and micronutrients remains
a key issue for the coming years for the purpose of further improving efficiency of
production. This topic also involves the effort to make the nutrient requirements of
animals with high genetic capacity (e.g. so called ‘improved pigs’), more accurate,
i.e. to examine the correlations between genetics and animal nutrition (Close, 1994).

L. Babinszky et al.
Currently the genetic potential of many pig breeds used in production systems are
approximately 3-5 years ahead of the nutrient requirement estimates used for feed
formulation as a result of continuous genetic improvement efforts and the difficult
and time-consuming nature of determining nutrient requirements (Knap, personal
communication).
Developing new alternatives for antibiotic growth promoters
The development of the alternatives for the effects commonly observed with the use of
in-feed antibiotic growth promoters (Den Hartog et al., 2015; Vallat et al., 2005) is an
ongoing effort. It is also a topical question whether antibiotics can be phased out totally
(Leeson, 2012). According to some, it is possible to effectively use other alternative
products instead of antibiotics in the production of pork and poultry meat (Den
Hartog et al., 2015). It is a just expectation on behalf of both the profession and society
to obtain accurate knowledge of the exact mode(s) of action of such alternatives, as
well as to reveal any possible risks. It is probable that further pro- and prebiotic-based
products will be developed, but it is also possible that the key to the solution will be
the use of the so-called combined or multifunctional feed additives (a mixture of
symbiotic, antioxidants, immunomodulators, various vegetable extracts and new type
toxin binders). However, it must be noted that one of the indispensable requirements
of the safe use of supplement/additive is the accurate chemical identification of the
active substance(s) (Christaki et al., 2012), otherwise it is not possible to expertly
use these additives or even to properly adjust the desired concentration of the active
substance.
Reduction or total elimination of mycotoxins
Although mycotoxins and the protection against them is already an intensively

researched area, it can be stated that it is not going to change in the coming years
and decades. New findings in this important field will be greatly dependent on the
development of new analytical methods, as well as their implementation in practical
analytics and on how soon the obtained biological, biochemical, physiological and
immunology research findings will be applied in animal nutrition. Technological
advances and breeding for resistant varieties (Lehoczki-Krsjak et al., 2010) are likely
to contribute to reduced mycotoxin content of future feeds.
Increased use of co-products in animal nutrition
According to the relevant prognoses, the amount of agricultural, industrial and other
co-products used in animal nutrition is going to increase in the coming years, mostly
for economic and environmental reasons as well as the food-feed-fuel discussion.
The proper and safe use of co-products is possible only if their chemical composition,
digestible and/or usable nutrient content and energy content are known and if the

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(which was the southern limit assigned to Pennsylvania, by her
charter,) was gained by Mr. Penn, as far as the northern boundary of
Maryland extended westward, in consequence of a compromise
entered into by him and Lord Baltimore; whereby the latter obtained
some advantage on his part in return. From the western extremity of
this northern boundary of Maryland, the line between Pennsylvania
and Virginia was continued, westward, in the same parallel of
latitude, (instead of these coming back to the 40th deg. of N. lat.) by
virtue of an agreement between these two states; the former, in
consideration of that privilege, relinquishing her right to run her
western boundary line parallel to the meandrings of the river
Delaware.
216. “Principem Philosophorum,” in the original:—Such was the

appellation (Principes Philosophorum) by which Cicero honours
Pythagoras, Democritus, Plato, Xenocrates, Zeno, Cleanthes,
Diogenes the Stoic; men, among others, whose usefulness (he
observes) old age might diminish, but not destroy.
217. Mr. Boyle was the seventh son of Richard, the first earl of
Cork, in Ireland, and first earl of Burlington, in England; and was
born at Lismore in Ireland, the 26th of January, 1627. This eminent
philosopher and sincere Christian established, by his will, in the year
1691, a perpetual fund, equivalent to about two hundred and twenty-
two dollars per annum, for instituting a course of eight sermons or
lectures, to be delivered annually; designed to prove the truth of
Christianity, generally, without engaging in any of the controversies
subsisting among its professors: And to this establishment,
denominated Boyle’s Lectures, the world are indebted for many able
and elaborate defences both of natural and revealed religion. In
addition to several extensive benefactions, for charitable and
religious purposes, of this great and excellent man, besides his
donation to the College of William-and-Mary (which, according to Mr.
Jefferson, was “considerable” in its amount,) he gave, in his lifetime,
a sum equivalent to thirteen hundred and thirty-three dollars, towards
propagating the Christian Religion in America. So great was his
veneration for the name of God, that he never pronounced it without
a discernible pause: he was steady in his secret addresses to the
throne of heaven: and, amidst all his enquiries into nature, his chief
design seemed to be that of continually elevating his own mind, and
the minds of others, by contemplating the Glory, the Wisdom, and
the Goodness of God. Were this illustrious man to be considered in
no other point of view, than that of a benefactor to America, his
memory would be entitled to respect in this country: but his virtues,
his talents, and the services he has rendered to mankind in general,
will for ever endear his name to the good and wise of all nations. He
died the 30th of December, in the year 1691.
218. The author of a poem, entitled, ‘The Dying Negro,’ has

introduced these lines into that poem:[218a]
“Oft have I seen them, at the break of day,

“Rous’d by the lash, go forth their cheerless way.”
No man ever held the slave-trade, and the condition of the hapless
people who are the objects of that nefarious traffic, in greater
abhorrence, than the benevolent Rittenhouse: a passage in his
Oration, fully evinces his sentiments on this subject.
In addition to this highly respectable testimony against Negro

Slavery, let it be remembered, that one of the last acts, of a public
nature, in which our philosopher’s predecessor[218b] was concerned,
was to sanction with his name the Memorial presented to the
government of the United States, on the subject of the Slave-Trade,
by “The Pennsylvania Society for promoting the Abolition of Slavery,
and the relief of free Negroes, unlawfully held in Bondage;” of which
Society, that distinguished man was the President.
218a. It was written by Mr. Day, the friend of Mr. Darwin.
218b. Dr. Franklin.
219. Mr. Ellicott being a commissioner for Virginia, his powers

would have ceased, as soon as the boundary-line between that state
and Pennsylvania had reached the river Ohio. The object, therefore,
was to enable him to complete it, to its western extremity.
220. The following report of the progress of their work was made
by the commissioners, to the government of Pennsylvania, between
three and four weeks before Mr. Rittenhouse set out on his return to
Philadelphia: it is entered on the journal of the general assembly of
that state, under the date of Nov. 2, 1785.
“We the subscribers, commissioners, appointed by the states of

Pennsylvania and Virginia, to ascertain the boundary between the
said states, do certify, that we have carried on a meridian line from
the south-west corner of Pennsylvania, northward, to the river Ohio;
and marked it, by cutting a wide vista over all the principal hills
intersected by the said line, and by falling or deadening a line of
trees, generally, through all the lower grounds. And we have likewise
placed stones, marked on the east side, P. and on the west side, V.
on most of the principal hills, and where the line strikes the Ohio;
which stones are accurately placed in the true meridian, bounding
the states as aforesaid.”
“Witness our hands and seals, this 23d day of August, 1785.
(Signed,) David Rittenhouse, Andrew Porter, Pennsylvania;
Andrew Ellicott, Joseph Nevill; Virginia.”
221. Mr. Rittenhouse had probably a reference to the expected

completion of this line, perhaps to the whole business, generally,
when, in a letter to Mr. Ellicott, of the 31st of Jan. 1786, he says; “I
shall be able, some time hence, to write to you more fully about the
boundary lines.”
222. Mr. Rittenhouse, being then treasurer of the state, alludes to

those incessant demands on the treasury for money, which, by
reason of the financial embarrassments of the government, at that
period, could not be always punctually paid. The activity, and the
very intelligent mind of Mrs. Rittenhouse, both prompted and
enabled her to relieve her husband from much of the perplexity,
which at that time attended the duties of state-treasurer. Indeed, it
was owing to the great attention of that excellent woman to some of
the more important transactions of the office, and her capability to
manage and superintend the current business of that department of
the public affairs, in the absence of her husband from home, or when
incapacitated by bodily indisposition from personally attending, that
the government was enabled to avail itself, in several instances, of
the talents and services of Mr. Rittenhouse, in matters of high
importance to the community, which required the aid of his abilities.
On such occasions, he ever found Mrs. Rittenhouse a competent, as
well as a most faithful assistant, in the business of the treasury.
223. So he then used to call his nephew, the present Professor

Barton.
224. Mr. A. was a worthy and pleasant man: but, he was an old
bachelor.
225. Now the flourishing borough of Pittsburgh, situated at the

confluence of the rivers Allegany and Monongahela, which form, by
their junction, the commencement of the great river Ohio.
This place, which is distant about thirty-five miles, eastward, from

the western boundary-line of Pennsylvania, was the site of a fort,
formerly erected by the French, which they called Fort Du Quesne;
but on its reduction by the English, it was named by them Fort-Pitt;
and by this name the place is still recognized by many people.
226. By an agreement, entered into, on the 18th of May, 1773,

between commissioners appointed by the legislatures of New-York
and Massachusetts, respectively, for the settlement of a partition-line
of jurisdiction between those (then) provinces, on the eastern part of
New-York, and from the southern to the northern boundaries of
Massachusetts, (then called Massachusett’s Bay;) in compliance
with the king’s recommendations, which had been previously
signified to sir Henry Moore, and Francis Barnard, Esq. the then
governors of those provinces. The commissioners, on the part of
New-York, were John Watts, Robert R. Livingston, and William
Nicoll, Esq’rs. and on that of Massachusetts, William Brattle, Joseph
Hawley, and John Hancock, Esq’rs. These gentlemen met, in
pursuance of their appointment, at Hartford in the (then) province of
Connecticut, where, after divers conferences, they concluded on the
following line, as the one which should, at all times thereafter, be the
line of jurisdiction between Massachusetts and New-York,
wheresoever the latter, on its eastern boundary, should adjoin on the
former: that is to say, beginning at a place fixed upon by the two
governments of New-York and Connecticut, about the year 1731, for
the north-western corner of a tract of land commonly called the
Oblong, or Equivalent Land; and running from that corner, north, 21°
10′ 30″ east (as the needle then pointed,) to the northern line of
Massachusetts. This agreement was ratified by the governors of
Massachusetts and New-York, on the same day; and commissioners
were accordingly appointed by both provinces, before the revolution,
to run the line thus defined. It was, in part, then effected; but those
commissioners not having been able to proceed, by reason of an
eventual disagreement between them, this line was finally run out,
surveyed, ascertained and marked, by the commissioners appointed
by congress, whom the two governments concerned had
empowered to make such appointment.
227. In the beginning of the same year, Mr. Rittenhouse was

elected one of the twelve Counsellors of the American Philosophical
Society; an office in that institution, created by the incorporating act
of the 15th of March, 1780.
228. There was some unaccountable mismanagement in the

whole of this business, on the part of the society. Mr. Mayer’s letter is
published entire, in the original Latin: but the translation ends,
abruptly, in the middle of a paragraph. When Mr. Rittenhouse was
directed by the society to answer that letter, he requested the writer
of these memoirs to furnish him with an English translation of it, for
the purpose of comparing with it one which he had himself
attempted. That translation (which, by Mr. Rittenhouse’s desire, was
made to conform pretty closely to the original,) is inserted in the
Appendix, entire, together with the hitherto unpublished answer.
229. Charles Theodore, Duke of Bavaria, who is denominated by
Lalande, “an illustrious patron of the sciences.”
It is about fifty years since this prince built an observatory near the
gardens of Schwetzingen, two leagues from the city of Manheim;
and there Father Christian Mayer pursued his astronomical labours
for several years. But about the year 1772, the same prince erected
another and a more magnificent edifice (of 108 Rhenish feet in
height,) at Manheim, for the same purpose: where Father Mayer
made numerous and highly estimable observations; as may be
collected from his work, entitled, De novis in Cælo Siderio
Phænomenis. Lalande places this observatory in N. Lat. 49° 29′ 15″.
230. Among those who have observed, since Dr. Herschel’s

discovery of the Georgium Sidus, new phænomena in the heavens,
may be ranked the following:
M. Piazzi, a Sicilian astronomer, who, on the 1st of January, 1801,

discovered a small planet revolving round the sun, between the
orbits of Jupiter and Mars, named Ceres: Dr. Olbers, of Bremen,
who, on the 28th of March in the following year, discovered another
small planet, to which he gave the name of Pallas, which revolves
round the sun nearly at the same distance, and in the same time, as
Ceres; and afterwards, viz. on the 29th of March, another planet,
which he called Vesta; similar to the others, both in its position and
magnitude: and
Mr. Harding, of Lilienthal, who, between these two last mentioned

periods, viz. on the 1st of September, 1804, discovered a fourth
planet (but the third in the order of time,) also small, to which he
gave the name of Juno; resembling Pallas in a great excentricity of
its orbit, and the inclination of this to the ecliptic, and placed at nearly
the same distance from the sun.
The Georgium Sidus was not discovered until about fifteen years
before Dr. Rittenhouse’s death; and the first discovered of the four
last mentioned planets was not known in America, for almost five
years after that event.
231. “There is perhaps no individual of the present age,” (says the
writer of the article “Astronomy,” in the New Edinburgh
Encyclopædia, now publishing under the direction of Dr. Brewster,)
“to whom practical astronomy owes deeper and more lasting
obligations, than to Mr. Edward Troughton. The great improvements
which he has made upon astronomical instruments, and the extreme
accuracy with which he divides them, have rendered his name
celebrated in every part of Europe, and have inspired the practical
astronomer with a confidence in his observations, which he had
hitherto been unaccustomed to feel. There is scarcely an
observatory of any consequence, either in this country” (Great-
Britain,) “or the continent, that does not contain some of Mr.
Troughton’s instruments; and there are few series of observations, in
which they have not been used. The admirable observations of Mr.
Pond, on the declinations of the principal stars, were made with an
azimuth circle of Mr. Troughton’s construction. The mural circle,
which Mr. Groombridge of Blackheath uses, in his numerous and
accurate observations, was made by the same artist. The splendid
mural circle, of 6 feet 2 inches radius, which Mr. Troughton is at
present preparing for the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, will cost
700l.” (equivalent, in money of the United States, to $311111/100,)
“and will be one of the most magnificent and accurate instruments
that has ever been erected.”
232. The Nautical Almanack.
233. In this interval, that is to say, towards the close of the year
1788, Dr. Rittenhouse’s eldest daughter was married to the late
Jonathan Dickinson Sergeant, Esq. of Philadelphia.
234. A few days after this date (about the 20th of August,) the
writer of these memoirs was nominated by the president to the
senate, and by their advice and consent thereto was appointed, to
be one of the judges of the western territory (now the state of Ohio,
&c.): the other judges, nominated and appointed with him, were
Samuel Holden Parsons and John Cleves Symmes, Esquires. Major-
General Arthur St. Clair, who may, in some respects, be considered
as a modern Bellisarius, was at the same time appointed, in like
manner, to be governor of that territory.[234a] The writer declined the
honour intended for him by this appointment, which was unsolicited
on his part: he resigned it in a day or two after.
The promptitude with which this mark of president Washington’s

approbation of the person recommended to him by Mr. Rittenhouse,
was bestowed, is an evidence of the respect in which the president
held that gentleman’s recommendation; and it is the more so, as Mr.
Rittenhouse’s letter was the only one addressed to the president on
that occasion.
234a. For many interesting particulars concerning the sufferings and ill-
requited services of this respectable veteran—of a man who once filled the chair of
congress, and uniformly possessed the friendship and confidence of Washington,
see his Narrative, lately published.
235. According to Dr. Ramsay, “the depreciation began at different

periods in different states; but, in general, about the middle of the
year 1777, and progressively increased for three or four years.” In
the first four or five months of 1780, it depreciated to 50 or 60 for
one. “Its circulation,” continues Dr. Ramsay, “was afterwards partial;
but, where it passed, it soon depreciated to 150 for one. In some few
parts, it continued in circulation for the first four or five months of
1781; but in this latter period, many would not take it at any rate, and
they who did, received it at a depreciation of several hundreds for
one.”
Hist. Am. Revol.
In October, 1779, it was resolved by congress, that no further sum

in this paper-money should be issued, on any account whatever,
than would, when added to the sum then in circulation, amount to
200 millions of dollars. In their circular letter of the 13th of September
preceding, addressed to their constituents, congress asserted the
practicability of redeeming all the continental bills at par, with gold
and silver; and rejected, with indignation, the supposition that the
states would ever tarnish their credit by violating public faith. “These
strong declarations in favour of the paper-currency,” says Dr.
Ramsay, “deceived many to repose confidence in it, to their utter
ruin.” In addition to the amount of many millions of dollars, in paper-
emissions of the several states, congress, soon after, actually
continued to issue their own paper, until it amounted in the whole to
the enormous sum of 200 millions of dollars! That which was of little
value before, now became of less, and soon afterwards good for
nothing. The inevitable consequence was, that thousands of
meritorious citizens were entirely ruined, and others greatly injured in
their property.
236. The judiciary is the only department of government, in a

republic, the officers of which ought (conformably to the principles of
that form of government) to be permanent in their stations. Judges,
in order to secure their independence, and thereby enable them to
administer justice faithfully and impartially, should hold their offices
quamdiu se bené gesserint: and, should they violate the condition of
this tenure, the constitution should provide, as that of Pennsylvania,
in conformity to those of the union as well as her sister states, does,
that they should no longer continue in office. Thus, this branch of the
government would have formed the only safe and effectual check,
against such unconstitutional attempts as might be made upon the
chartered rights of individuals or the public, by either the legislative
or executive power. But, unfortunately, the dependent nature of the
judiciary, under the constitution of 1776, rendered it incompetent to
that end. Hence, as was noticed by the writer of these memoirs on a
former occasion,[236a] “the framers of the first constitution of the state
of Pennsylvania discovered the indispensable necessity of providing
some tribunal for preserving the constitution entire. They accordingly
instituted a periodical body, in the nature of a judicial inquest, and
styled the council of censors; whose duty it was, “to enquire whether
the constitution had been preserved inviolate in every part; and
whether the legislative and executive branches of government had
performed their duty, as guardians of the people, or exercised other
or greater powers, than they were entitled to by the constitution.”
“This censorial tribunal was, however, ill calculated to answer the
purposes of its institution. It was, itself, a temporary body, appointed
immediately by the people. In the alternation, and casual
ascendency, of different parties in the country, a contingency
inseparable from the nature of a popular government, the council of
sensors became the representatives of the passions, the prejudices,
the political interests, of whatever party might happen to be the
predominant one at the moment of their election. If this should prove
to be the same party with that which had borne the sway, during the
seven years immediately preceding their election, they would be
disposed to sanction the proceedings of that party: otherwise, they
would be likely to censure and pronounce unconstitutional, the
official measures of an adverse party, without just cause, impelled
thereto by a spirit of party-hostility.
“Under a government thus constituted, all would be uncertain and

insecure. From the deficiency of one stationary and independent
department in its administration, the rights of the people and the best
interests of the state would, eventually, become the sport of opposite
and contending parties; these rights and interests would be
sacrificed at the shrine of some desperate and unprincipled faction;
the constitution itself, destitute of any steady disinterested support
against their machinations, would be overthrown: till, finally, the
people, having no longer any rallying point of security for their
persons or property, would be driven from anarchy and
licentiousness into the arms of despotism.
“It is further worthy of remark, that the council of censors was an

inefficient and a nugatory tribunal, in one most important particular:
Numerous unconstitutional acts of the legislature might have been
carried into effect, and have had their complete operation, attended
by the most unjust and ruinous consequences, before they could be
even pronounced unconstitutional.”
236a. In a pamphlet, entitled “The Constitutionalist; addressed to men of all
parties in the United States”—published in Philadelphia, in the year 1804.
237. In September, 1772.

238. Unless, perhaps, in that of King’s College (now Columbia
College,) in New-York.
239. Dr. Morse observes, that, before the American war, the
College of New-Jersey was furnished with a philosophical apparatus,
valued at more than thirteen hundred dollars; “which, except the
elegant Orrery constructed by Mr. Rittenhouse,” says the Doctor,
“was almost entirely destroyed by the British army, in the late war; as
was also the library, which now” (this was in 1789) “consists of
between two and three thousand volumes.”
With a view to the obtaining, with greater certainty, information

respecting the condition &c. of the Orrery in Princeton College, the
writer of these memoirs addressed a letter on the subject, to his
worthy and much respected friend, the Rev. Samuel Stanhope
Smith, D. D. then president of that institution:[239a] To that letter the
learned president promptly returned the following answer:
Princeton, May 3d, 1812.
“Dear Sir,
“I just redeem a moment, before the closing of the mail, to inform

you, that Dr. Rittenhouse’s Orrery cost at first 300l. Pennsylvania
currency. It was his own moderate price, and immediately paid him
by Dr. Witherspoon,[239b] on behalf of the College.
“The Orrery was very much injured during the revolutionary war:
but has been since partly repaired by a gentleman in your city,[239c]
who formerly worked with Dr. Rittenhouse, and under his direction, in
its fabrication. The injuries which it received were comparatively
small, by the British soldiery. A guard was set to protect it: and the
officers were said to be contemplating its removal to England; this, at
least, was the general report and opinion. The principal injury was
produced by our own militia, when the college was appropriated as a
barrack for them. Many of the wheels were seen to be taken off, as
handsome curiosities. This, however, was no more than was to be
expected from a number of ignorant men, so imperfectly disciplined
as, at that time, they were.”
“I am, dear Sir,

Your friend and very humble serv’t.
Samuel S. Smith.”
239a. The Rev. Ashbel Green, D. D. of Philadelphia, has since been

appointed to the Presidentship of the College at Princeton, on the resignation of
Dr. Smith.
239b. The President of the College.
239c. Mr. Henry Voight.
240. It was in the autumn of this year that the second (and
youngest surviving) daughter of Dr. Rittenhouse was married to the
late Nicholas Baker Waters, M. D. of Philadelphia.
241. A very eloquent and interesting Oration on this occasion,

being an eulogium on Dr. Franklin, was delivered on the 1st of
March, 1791, before the American Philosophical Society and
agreeably to their appointment, by the Rev. William Smith, D. D. then
one of the vice-presidents of the society; for which the orator
received their unanimous thanks.
In a note addressed to the public by Dr. Smith, and prefixed to this

eulogium in the first volume of his works, the Doctor acknowledges
the assistance derived by him, in its composition, “from the friendly
communications of some of his learned colleagues, among the
officers of the American Philosophical Society:” viz. David
Rittenhouse, Esq. LL.D. President of the Society; Thomas Jefferson,
Esq. LL.D. one of the Vice-Presidents; Jonathan Williams, Esq. one
of the Secretaries; and Benjamin Rush, M. D. one of the Council. To
Dr. Rittenhouse, he makes his acknowledgements, “for sundry
papers, which have been digested into the account of Dr. Franklin’s
Electrical and Philosophical Discoveries;” which occupy six or seven
pages of the printed eulogium.
Dr. Rittenhouse was well acquainted with the principles of
Electricity; at least, so far as they appear to be hitherto understood. It
is believed that, pretty early in life, he acquired a knowledge of this
branch of science; which he occasionally cultivated afterwards. A
letter written by Dr. Franklin to Mr. Landriani, on the utility of electric
conductors, will serve to shew, that “our astronomer” (as Franklin
styled him) had employed the instrumentality of his “telescope,” in
observing some of the effects of lightning. This letter, which is dated
“Philadelphia, Oct. 14, 1787”, is in these words:
“I have received, sir, your excellent dissertation on the utility of

electric conductors which you have had the goodness to send me,
and I have read it with much pleasure. I beg leave to return you my
sincere thanks for it.
“I found, on my return to this country, that the number of

conductors was much increased, the utility of them having been
demonstrated by several experiments, which shewed their efficacy in
preserving buildings from lightning. Among other examples, my own
house one day received a severe shock from lightning: the
neighbours perceived it, and immediately hastened to give
assistance, in case it should be on fire; but it sustained no damage:
they found only the family much frightened by the violence of the
explosion.
“Last year, when I was making some addition to the building, it

was necessary to take down the conductor: I found, upon
examination, that its copper-point, which was nine inches in length
and about one third of an inch in diameter in the thickest part, had
been almost entirely melted, and very little of it remained fixed to the
iron rod. This invention, therefore, has been of some utility to the
inventor; and to this advantage is added, the pleasure of having
been useful to others.
“Mr. Rittenhauss,[241a] our astronomer, has informed me, that

having observed with his excellent telescope several conductors
which were within his view, he perceived that the points of a certain
number of them had been in like manner melted. There is no
instance where a house furnished with a complete conductor has
suffered any considerable damage; and those even which had none
have been very little injured, since conductors have become
common in the city.”
241a. So written by Dr. Franklin.
242. The body of Dr. Franklin was interred in the cemetery

belonging to Christ-Church in Philadelphia, under a plain marble
tomb-stone, inscribed with only his name, the time of his decease,
and his age. But the following epitaph on himself was written by him,
many years before his death. As it contains a pretty allusion, typically
expressed, to his belief in the Immortality of the Soul, it may not be
deemed superfluous to add, on the present occasion, the testimony
of this philosopher in concurrence with Rittenhouse’s, on that
subject. If the doctrine had needed any further verification than
before established it, the suffrages of two such men as Franklin
and Rittenhouse could scarcely fail to remove the doubts of the
most sceptical. This epitaph is copied from Stuber’s Continuation of
the Life of Franklin.
The Body
of
Benjamin Franklin, Printer,
(Like the Cover of an old Book,
It’s Contents torn out,
And stript of its Lettering and Gilding,)
Lies here, food for worms;
Yet the Work itself shall not be lost,
For it will (as he believed) appear once more,
In a new
And more beautiful Edition,
Corrected and amended
by
The Author.
XX
243. Benjamin Rush, M. D.
244. Of those gentlemen who were among Dr. Rittenhouse’s more

particular acquaintances, and with whom he maintained the closest
friendship, few, if any, visited him more frequently than the late
Francis Hopkinson, Esq.
Mr. Hopkinson was a man of genius, taste and learning. He

possessed an exuberance of refined and genuine wit, rarely to be
met with; and his vein for satire, which was always applied to useful
ends, was almost unrivalled. His knowledge of music was correct
and extensive, both in the theory and practice of that art; and he had
also a critical acquaintance with painting, as well as a good
judgment, in relation to the fine arts in general. These qualifications
and attainments, united with a vivacious temper, a knowledge of
mankind, and a love of virtue, rendered him a pleasing companion:
but the more solid acquirements in literature and science, of which,
also, he possessed a very considerable share, made his society not
less interesting than agreeable. No one set an higher value on Dr.
Rittenhouse’s talents and virtues, than this gentleman; their esteem
was mutual; and a constant and intimate friendship long subsisted
between them.
Mr. Hopkinson held an appointment in the Loan-office of

Pennsylvania, for some years. He afterwards succeeded George
Ross, Esq. in the office of Judge of the Admiralty, for that state. In
this station he continued until the year 1790; when President
Washington, by whom he had the honour to be much esteemed,
conferred on him the place of Judge of the District Court of the
United States, for Pennsylvania: which important office he held
during the remainder of his life. A collection of Judge Hopkinson’s
writings, on various subjects, was made after his death, and
published in the year 1792, in three octavo volumes; constituting a
curious and entertaining miscellaneous work. He died on the 8th of
May, 1791, in the fifty-third year of his age, and somewhat more than
five years before his venerated friend, Rittenhouse.
Mr. Hopkinson was one of the executors of Dr. Franklin’s Will; but
he survived the Doctor little more than a year.
245. Belonging to the Library Company of Philadelphia, and to the

American Philosophical Society.
246. The papers, referred to by Mr. Jefferson, were “Observations

on the probabilities of the Duration of Human Life, and the progress
of Population, in the United States of America;” addressed, in the
form of a Letter, to Dr. Rittenhouse, Presid. of the Am. Philos.
Society, and afterwards published in the third volume of the Society’s
Transactions.
247. In a niche, over the entrance into the edifice, is placed a

Statue, in white marble, of Dr. Franklin; presented to the Library
Company by the late William Bingham, Esq. of Philadelphia.
248. The Doctor also made, at different times, valuable donations

to the Society, in Books and some other articles.
249. It is due to the liberality of the general assembly of 1782-3, to

notice in this place, that on the 16th of February, 1783, that
legislative body of Pennsylvania made a grant to the American
Philosophical Society, of four hundred dollars.
250. Part the 1st of the 6th volume was published in the year
1804, and a continuation of that volume, in 1809.
251. At the death of Hevelius, as Lalande remarks, Europe

abounded with men of science, whose various nations disputed the
glory of important discoveries, and of perfecting those which had
been already made. The Academy of Sciences at Paris and the
Royal Society of London produced, above all, as the same learned
writer further observes, that revolution (as he is pleased to term it,)
by the great number of illustrious men and celebrated astronomers,
which they gave to Europe. The Royal Society was instituted in the
year 1660; and it is deserving of notice, that this was the period at
which the English nation was on the eve of a restoration of their
legitimate and orderly government, after the boisterous and unhappy
times of Cromwell and his pretended Commonwealth: The Academy
of Sciences was established in 1666; not long after France had
likewise been distracted by domestic factions; but, when the great
Colbert had restored the finances of the state, and not only
invigorated but improved every department of that powerful
monarchy. Lalande designates this period, as an era distinguished
for the renewal of astronomy, by the establishment of Academies.
Such are the proofs of the usefulness of institutions of this nature.
252. Since the above was written, more satisfactory information

has been obtained on the subject. The agency of information, to
which Dr. Rittenhouse was appointed (together with the Rev. Dr.
Smith and Mr. Findley,) in May, 1791, was unconnected with the
appointment respecting the turnpike road. It appears, that on the
10th of October, 1791, David Rittenhouse, Esq. the Rev. Dr. John
Ewing, and Mr. John Nancarrow, were appointed by Governor Mifflin,
Commissioners to view and mark out a road, from the middle ferry
on Schuylkill to the borough of Lancaster, by courses and distances,
as near to a straight line as the nature of the ground and other
circumstances would admit; and also to view and lay out, in a
general plan, the great road at that time leading from the city of
Philadelphia to the same borough, (and now called the old road:)
with topographical observations thereon, having reference to the
practicability and comparative circumstances necessary to making
turnpikes on the then existing and proposed roads; in which,
expense and materials were to be attended to; together with the
plans of the surveys, in profile, of the said road or roads: agreeably
to a resolution of the general assembly, passed on the 30th of
September, in the same year. Under commissions thus designating
their duties, these gentlemen, assisted by surveyors and the
necessary attendants, proceeded on this service, and established
that great and important public highway, known by the name of the
Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike Road: their compensation for
this service, was consequently drawn from the treasury of
Pennsylvania.
The author was favoured with this information by John Hall, Esq.
who acted as one of the surveyors on the occasion.
253. These particulars, respecting Dr. Rittenhouse’s connection

with the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike-Company, were
obligingly furnished to the Memorialist by Mr. William Govett,
secretary to the board of managers of that company.
254. By the legislative act of the 27th of November, 1779, the

charter granted to the Academy and Charitable School of
Philadelphia, by the Proprietaries, on the 30th of July, 1753, together
with the one granted to the College on the 14th of May, 1755, were
declared void, and David Rittenhouse, Esq. was one of the twenty-
five trustees of the University, then appointed. Twelve of these
twenty-five newly-appointed trustees, were such ex officio. Dr.
Franklin, who was one of them, never qualified under this act; and
some of the others afterwards withdrew.
By the law of the 30th of September, 1791, the old College and the
new University were incorporated: twelve trustees were to be
appointed by each of these institutions, and reported to the governor
before the 1st of December succeeding, which was accordingly
done; and thus the union of the two institutions was happily
completed.
255. Between the years 1762 and 1774, there were collected for
the use of the College, chiefly by the agency and zealous exertions
of the Provost, between fifty and sixty thousand dollars; the much
greater part of which amount was obtained from contributors in
Great-Britain and Ireland.
It is not precisely known to the writer, what is the present condition

of the University of Pennsylvania, with which the original College of
Philadelphia and its appendages are incorporated; but it is believed
to be prosperous: its medical department is, certainly, in a most
flourishing state.
The persons who may be considered as the Founders of the
College, when the original institution was incorporated by the name
of “The Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia,” were
Benjamin Franklin, James Logan, Thomas Lawrence, William Allen,
John Inglis, Tench Francis, William Masters, Lloyd Zachary, Samuel
M‘Call, junior, Joseph Turner, Thomas Leech, William Shippen,
Robert Strettel, Philip Syng, Charles Willing, Phineas Bond, Richard
Peters, Abraham Taylor, Thomas Bond, Thomas Hopkinson, William
Plumsted, Joshua Maddox, Thomas White and William Coleman.
The names of these respectable men, (the meritorious promoters of
that institution which fostered the genius of a Rittenhouse, and with
which his name and talents were associated,) were deemed
deserving of record, as early patrons of learning in Pennsylvania. Of
this College, the Alma Mater of the memorialist, he trusts it will not
be thought presumptuous to speak in the language, and with the
grateful feelings, of one of her Sons,[255a] in an early period of his life:
“Blest Institution! Nurse of Liberty!

My heart, my grateful heart shall burn for thee.
No common pride I boast, no common joy,
That thy instructions did my youth employ:
Tho’ not the first, among thy sons, I prove;
Yet well I feel, I’m not the last in love.
O may’st thou still in wealth and pow’r encrease,
And may thy sacred influence never cease!”
255a. The late Francis Hopkinson, Esq. See his Poem entitled, Science;
inscribed to the Trustees, Provost, Vice-Provost, and Professors of the College of
Philadelphia, A. D. 1762.
256. A lawyer of eminence.
257. Then attorney-general of Pennsylvania.
258. In selecting the twenty-four trustees for the proposed

Academy, as well as in the formation of his plan, Dr. Franklin
consulted, besides the three gentlemen named with him, in the text,
Dr. Phineas Bond, a physician of eminence in Philadelphia and a
worthy character. The trustees, whose names were inserted in the
contributions, and which were subscribed on the 13th of Nov. 1749,
were among the most respectable citizens of Philadelphia. The plan
of the then projected Academy was adapted to “the state of an infant
country;” Dr. Franklin having considered it as only “a foundation, for
posterity to erect (thereon) a seminary of learning more extensive,
and suitable to future circumstances.”
259. He was, afterwards, also professor of astronomy and rhetoric;

and he gave lectures in these branches, in addition to natural
philosophy.
260. The following is an extract from the Salutatory Oration

delivered by Mr. Paul Jackson,[260a] at the first Commencement held
in the College of Philadelphia; when a Master’s degree was
conferred on that gentleman, and on him only.
After making his salutations of respect to the professors generally,

the orator thus addressed the Rev. Mr. (afterwards Dr.) Smith, the
Provost:
“Præcipué, Te, collegii et academiæ hujus Præefecte venerande!

summâ benevolentiâ a nobis observari par est. Tu gressus nostros,
dum subtilioris sapientiæ recessus curiosé indagamus, direxisti. Tu
nobis, mansuetioribus musis operam impendentibus, orationis
simplicis ac perspicuæ regulas, venusta ornamenta ac veneres
accuraté eleganterque explicuisti. Tu, quid sit magnificum tum in
verbis, tum in sententiis, tum in figuris, edocuisti, omnesque
sublimitatis fontes, ipsius Longini majestatem et acumen feliciter
æmulatus, auditoribus tuis admirantibus retexisti. Qui vult fieri
disertus, scripta tua, tanquam præceptorum exempla luculenta,
sæpius versato; animum intendat ad argumenta multifaria, quæ tam
varié, tam numerosé, tam abundanter, tam illuminaté, tum rebus tum
verbis tractasti.”
260a. Mr. Jackson was professor of languages and master of the Latin school,
in the college, until the spring of the year 1758; when he accepted of a captaincy in
the provincial service, in the expedition under general Forbes, against the French

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Poultry and pig nutrition Wageningen

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2. New facets to an understanding of dietary nutrient utilisation 39

3. Feed intake and regulation 59

Poultry and pig nutrition 5

4. Gut nutrition and health in pigs and poultry 77

5. Animal nutrition and immunity in pigs and poultry 105

6. Nutritional modulation to improve health and welfare 129

6 Poultry and pig nutrition

7. Nutrigenomics and its perspective in nutrition 159

8. The adverse effects of heat stress on the antioxidant status and

9. Using non-invasive synchrotron-based analytical techniques in animal

Poultry and pig nutrition 7

10. Biotechnology in the feed industry and animal nutrition: harnessing

11. Co-products in swine nutrition and feed formulation 245

12. Mycotoxins in the feed and animal products 263

8 Poultry and pig nutrition

15. Nutrition and environmental sustainability 315

17. Future technologies in pigs & poultry nutrition 369

Poultry and pig nutrition 9

18. Precision livestock feeding, principle and practice 397

10 Poultry and pig nutrition

Poultry and pig nutrition 11

12 Poultry and pig nutrition

Poultry and pig nutrition 13

Poultry and pig nutrition 15

L.A. den Hartog

16 Poultry and pig nutrition

Challenges in the 21st century

1.2 Challenges in the 21st century

18 Poultry and pig nutrition

As depicted in Figure 1.1, these challenges include:

In addition, aspects such as animal welfare, food-feed-fuel competition and self-

Growing global Growing demand

Animal agriculture Climate change

Figure 1.1. Main challenges in 21st century animal agriculture.

Poultry and pig nutrition 19

20 Poultry and pig nutrition

Sustainability of agriculture has been defined by many researchers but a uniform

In order to increase the efficiency of animal products, it is especially important to

Poultry and pig nutrition 21

Natural sciences Technological sciences

Biology/ Chemistry Technological Informatics

Feed and feeding

22 Poultry and pig nutrition

Nutritional microbiology (e.g. microbiological processes in the intestinal tract and

Mathematical modelling of growth and production. One of the most important

Poultry and pig nutrition 23

Development of new in vitro techniques (e.g. in order to determine the digestibility of

Development of environment preserving feeding technologies (e.g. feeding technologies to

The large emission of P can be significantly reduced by means of expressing

24 Poultry and pig nutrition

limiting, industrially produced amino acids and characterisation of bioavailability of

1.3 Future perspectives in animal nutrition

Poultry and pig nutrition 5

6 Poultry and pig nutrition

8. The adverse effects of heat stress on the antioxidant status and

9. Using non-invasive synchrotron-based analytical techniques in animal

Poultry and pig nutrition 7

10. Biotechnology in the feed industry and animal nutrition: harnessing

8 Poultry and pig nutrition

Poultry and pig nutrition 9

10 Poultry and pig nutrition

Poultry and pig nutrition 11

12 Poultry and pig nutrition

Poultry and pig nutrition 13

Poultry and pig nutrition 15

16 Poultry and pig nutrition

18 Poultry and pig nutrition

Poultry and pig nutrition 19

20 Poultry and pig nutrition

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22 Poultry and pig nutrition

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24 Poultry and pig nutrition

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26 Poultry and pig nutrition

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28 Poultry and pig nutrition