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CONVERSION FACTORS FROM SI TO ENGLISH UNITS
Length: 1m 5 3.281 ft Stress: 1 N>m2 5 20.885 3 1023 lb>ft 2
1 cm 5 3.281 3 1022 ft 1 kN>m2 5 20.885 lb>ft 2
1 mm 5 3.281 3 1023 ft 1 kN>m2 5 0.01044 U.S. ton>ft 2
1m 5 39.37 in. 1 kN>m2 5 20.885 3 1023 kip>ft 2
1 cm 5 0.3937 in. 1 kN>m2 5 0.145 lb>in2
1 mm 5 0.03937 in.
Unit weight: 1 kN>m3 5 6.361 lb>ft 3
Area: 1 m2 5 10.764 ft 2 1 kN>m3 5 0.003682 lb>in3
1 cm2 5 10.764 3 1024 ft 2
1 mm2 5 10.764 3 1026 ft 2 Moment: 1 N#m 5 0.7375 lb-ft
1 m2 5 1550 in2 1 N#m 5 8.851 lb-in.
1 cm2 5 0.155 in2
Energy: 1J 5 0.7375 ft-lb
1 mm2 5 0.155 3 1022 in2
Moment of 1 mm4 5 2.402 3 1026 in4
Volume: 1 m3 5 35.32 ft 3
inertia: 1 m4 5 2.402 3 106 in4
1 cm3 5 35.32 3 1024 ft 3
1 m3 5 61,023.4 in3 Section 1 mm3 5 6.102 3 1025 in3
1 cm3 5 0.061023 in3 modulus: 1 m3 5 6.102 3 104 in3
Force: 1N 5 0.2248 lb Hydraulic 1 m>min 5 3.281 ft>min
1 kN 5 224.8 lb conductivity: 1 cm>min 5 0.03281 ft>min
1 kgf 5 2.2046 lb 1 mm>min 5 0.003281 ft>min
1 kN 5 0.2248 kip 1 m>sec 5 3.281 ft>sec
1 kN 5 0.1124 U.S. ton 1 mm>sec 5 0.03281 ft>sec
1 metric ton 5 2204.6 lb 1 m>min 5 39.37 in.>min
1 N>m 5 0.0685 lb>ft 1 cm>sec 5 0.3937 in.>sec
1 mm>sec 5 0.03937 in.>sec
Coefficient of
consolidation:
1 cm2>sec 5 0.155 in2>sec
1 m2>yr 5 4.915 3 1025 in2>sec
1 cm2>sec 5 1.0764 3 1023 ft 2>sec
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9E SI Edition
Principles of Foundation Engineering
Braja M. Das
Dean Emeritus, California State University
Sacramento, California, USA
Nagaratnam Sivakugan
Associate Professor, College of Science & Engineering
James Cook University, Queensland, Australia
Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017
To Janice, Rohini, Joe, Valerie,
and Elizabeth.
Contents
Preface xv
MindTap Online Course xviii
Preface to the SI Edition xxi
About the Authors xxii
1 Introduction 1
Firma V/shutterstock.com
1.1 Geotechnical Engineering 2

1.2 Foundation Engineering 2
1.3 Soil Exploration 2
1.4 Ground Improvement 3
1.5 Solution Methods 4
1.6 Numerical Modeling 4
1.7 Empiricism 5
1.8 Literature 5
references 6
Part 1 Geotechnical Properties and Soil Exploration 7

2 Geotechnical Properties of Soil 8
2.1 Introduction 9
EcoPrint/Shutterstock.com
2.2 Grain-Size Distribution 9

2.3 Size Limits for Soil 12
2.4 Weight–Volume Relationships 12
2.5 Relative Density 16
2.6 Atterberg Limits 18
2.7 Liquidity Index 19
2.8 Activity 19
2.9 Soil Classification Systems 20
2.10 Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil 27
2.11 Steady-State Seepage 32
2.12 Effective Stress 33
2.13 Consolidation 36
2.14 Calculation of Primary Consolidation Settlement 41
2.15 Time Rate of Consolidation 42
2.16 Range of Coefficient of Consolidation, cv 48
2.17 Degree of Consolidation Under Ramp Loading 49
2.18 Shear Strength 51
2.19 Unconfined Compression Test 56
2.20 Comments on Friction Angle, f9 57
2.21 Correlations for Undrained Shear Strength, cu 60
2.22 Selection of Shear Strength Parameters 60
2.23 Sensitivity 61
v
vi contents
2.24 Summary 62
Problems 62
References 65
3 Natural Soil Deposits and Subsoil Exploration 67
Brendan Howard/Shutterstock.com
3.1 Introduction 68
Natural Soil Deposits 68
3.2 Soil Origin 68
3.3 Residual Soil 69
3.4 Gravity-Transported Soil 70
3.5 Alluvial Deposits 71
3.6 Lacustrine Deposits 73
3.7 Glacial Deposits 74
3.8 Aeolian Soil Deposits 75
3.9 Organic Soil 76
3.10 Some Local Terms for Soil 76
Subsurface Exploration 77
3.11 Purpose of Subsurface Exploration 77
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program 77
3.13 Exploratory Borings in the Field 80
3.14 Procedures for Sampling Soil 83
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling and Standard Penetration Test 83
3.16 Sampling with a Scraper Bucket 92
3.17 Sampling with a Thin-Walled Tube 93
3.18 Sampling with a Piston Sampler 93
3.19 Observation of Water Tables 95
3.20 Vane Shear Test 96
3.21 Cone Penetration Test 100
3.22 Pressuremeter Test (PMT) 108
3.23 Dilatometer Test 111
3.24 Iowa Borehole Shear Test 114
3.25 K0 Stepped-Blade Test 116
3.26 Coring of Rocks 117
3.27 Preparation of Boring Logs 120
3.28 Geophysical Exploration 121
3.29 Subsoil Exploration Report 127
3.30 Summary 128
Problems 129
References 131
4 I nstrumentation and Monitoring in Geotechnical

Engineering 134
Skinfaxi/Shutterstock.com
4.1 Introduction 135

4.2 Need for Instrumentation 135
4.3 Geotechnical Measurements 136
4.4 Geotechnical Instruments 137
4.5 Planning an Instrumentation Program 142
4.6 Typical Instrumentation Projects 143
4.7 Summary 143
References 143
contents vii
Part 2 Soil Improvement 145

5 Soil Improvement and Ground Modification 146
Nicolae Cucurudza/Shutterstock.com
5.2 General Principles of Compaction 147
5.3 Empirical Relationships for Compaction 150
5.4 Field Compaction 154
5.5 Compaction Control for Clay Hydraulic Barriers 156
5.6 Vibroflotation 160
5.7 Blasting 164
5.8 Precompression 165
5.9 Sand Drains 170
5.10 Prefabricated Vertical Drains 179
5.11 Lime Stabilization 184
5.12 Cement Stabilization 187
5.13 Fly-Ash Stabilization 189
5.14 Stone Columns 189
5.15 Sand Compaction Piles 194
5.16 Dynamic Compaction 195
5.17 Jet Grouting 198
5.18 Deep Mixing 199
5.19 Summary 201
Problems 201
References 202
Part 3 Foundation Analysis 205

6 Shallow Foundations: Ultimate
stockthrone.com/Shutterstock.com
Bearing Capacity 206

6.2 General Concept 208
6.3 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory 212
6.4 Factor of Safety 216
6.5 Modification of Bearing Capacity Equations for Water
Table 217
6.6 The General Bearing Capacity Equation 218
6.7 Other Solutions for Bearing Capacity, Shape, and Depth
Factors 225
6.8 Case Studies on Ultimate Bearing Capacity 227
6.9 Effect of Soil Compressibility 231
6.10 Eccentrically Loaded Foundations 235
6.11 Ultimate Bearing Capacity Under Eccentric
Loading—One-Way Eccentricity 236
6.12 Bearing Capacity—Two-Way Eccentricity 242
6.13 A Simple Approach for Bearing Capacity with Two-Way
Eccentricity 249
6.14 Bearing Capacity of a Continuous Foundation Subjected
to Eccentrically Inclined Loading 251
6.15 Plane-Strain Correction of Friction Angle 254
viii contents
6.16 Summary 254

Problems 254
References 256
7 ltimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow

U
Foundations: Special Cases 258
PHATR/Shutterstock.com
7.2 Foundation Supported by a Soil with a Rigid Base at Shallow
Depth 259
7.3 Foundations on Layered Clay 266
7.4 Bearing Capacity of Layered Soil: Stronger Soil Underlain
by Weaker Soil (c9 2 f9 soil) 268
7.5 Bearing Capacity of Layered Soil: Weaker Soil Underlain
by Stronger Soil 275
7.6 Continuous Foundation on Weak Clay with a Granular
Trench 278
7.7 Closely Spaced Foundations—Effect on Ultimate Bearing
Capacity 280
7.8 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Top of a Slope 282
7.9 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on a Slope 285
7.10 Seismic Bearing Capacity and Settlement in Granular
Soil 286
7.11 Foundations on Rock 289
7.12 Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Wedge-Shaped
Foundations 291
7.13 Uplift Capacity of Foundations 293
7.14 Summary 298
Problems 299
References 300
8 Vertical Stress Increase in Soil 302

Bertold Werkmann/Shutterstock.com

8.2 Stress Due to a Concentrated Load 303
8.3 Stress Due to a Circularly Loaded Area 304
8.4 Stress Due to a Line Load 305
8.5 Stress Below a Vertical Strip Load of Finite Width
and Infinite Length 306
8.6 Stress Below a Horizontal Strip Load of Finite Width
and Infinite Length 310
8.7 Stress Below a Rectangular Area 312
8.8 Stress Isobars 317
8.9 Average Vertical Stress Increase Due to a Rectangularly
Loaded Area 318
8.10 A
verage Vertical Stress Increase Below the Center of
a Circularly Loaded Area 323
8.11 Stress Increase Under an Embankment 325
8.12 W
estergaard’s Solution for Vertical Stress Due
to a Point Load 328
8.13 Stress Distribution for Westergaard Material 330
contents ix
8.14 Summary 333

Problems 333
References 335
9 Settlement of Shallow Foundations 336
Rachata Kietsirikul/Shutterstock.com
9.2 Elastic Settlement of Shallow Foundation on Saturated
Clay ( ms 5 0.5) 337
Elastic Settlement in Granular Soil 339
9.3 Settlement Based on the Theory of Elasticity 339
9.4 Improved Equation for Elastic Settlement 350
9.5 Settlement of Sandy Soil: Use of Strain
Influence Factor 354
9.6 Settlement of Foundation on Sand Based
on Standard Penetration Resistance 361
9.7 Settlement Considering Soil Stiffness Variation
with Stress Level 366
9.8 Settlement Based on Pressuremeter Test (PMT) 370
9.9 Settlement Estimation Using the L1 2 L2 Method 375
9.10 Effect of the Rise of Water Table on Elastic Settlement 378
Consolidation Settlement 380
9.11 Primary Consolidation Settlement Relationships 380
9.12 Three-Dimensional Effect on Primary Consolidation
Settlement 382
9.13 Settlement Due to Secondary Consolidation 386
9.14 Field Load Test 388
9.15 Presumptive Bearing Capacity 389
9.16 Tolerable Settlement of Buildings 390
9.17 Summary 392
Problems 392
References 394
10 Mat Foundations 396

Kekyalyaynen/Shutterstock.com
10.2 Combined Footings 397

10.3 Common Types of Mat Foundations 401
10.4 Bearing Capacity of Mat Foundations 403
10.5 Differential Settlement of Mats 406
10.6 Field Settlement Observations for Mat Foundations 407
10.7 Compensated Foundation 407
10.8 Structural Design of Mat Foundations 411
10.9 Summary 424
Problems 425
References 425
Oliver Foerstner/Shutterstock.com
11 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) 427

11.2 Design Philosophy 429
x contents
11.3 Allowable Stress Design (ASD) 431

11.4 Limit State Design (LSD) and Partial Safety
Factors 432
11.5 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) 433
11.6 Summary 436
Problems 436
References 437
12 Pile Foundations 438

12.1
DESIGNFACTS/Shutterstock.com
Introduction 439
12.2 Pile Materials 440
12.3 Continuous Flight Auger (CFA) Piles 450
12.4 Point Bearing and Friction Piles 451
12.5 Installation of Piles 452
12.6 Pile Driving 453
12.7 Load Transfer Mechanism 458
12.8 Equations for Estimating Pile Capacity 461
12.9 Meyerhof’s Method for Estimating Qp 463
12.10 Vesic’s Method for Estimating Qp 466
12.11 Coyle and Castello’s Method for Estimating Qp
in Sand 469
12.12 Correlations for Calculating Qp with SPT and CPT Results
in Granular Soil 473
12.13 Frictional Resistance (Qs) in Sand 474
12.14 Frictional (Skin) Resistance in Clay 480
12.15 Ultimate Capacity of Continuous Flight Auger Pile 485
12.16 Point Bearing Capacity of Piles Resting on Rock 487
12.17 Pile Load Tests 493
12.18 Elastic Settlement of Piles 497
12.19 Laterally Loaded Piles 502
12.20 Pile-Driving Formulas 514
12.21 Pile Capacity for Vibration-Driven Piles 520
12.22 Wave Equation Analysis 521
12.23 Negative Skin Friction 524
Group Piles 528
12.24 Group Efficiency 528
12.25 Ultimate Capacity of Group Piles in Saturated Clay 531
12.26 Elastic Settlement of Group Piles 534
12.27 Consolidation Settlement of Group Piles 536
12.28 Piles in Rock 538
12.29 Summary 539
Problems 539
References 543
13 Drilled-Shaft Foundations 546

CHAIYA/Shutterstock.com

13.2 Types of Drilled Shafts 547
13.3 Construction Procedures 548
13.4 Other Design Considerations 554
contents xi
13.5 Load Transfer Mechanism 555

13.6 Estimation of Load-Bearing Capacity 556
13.7 Load-Bearing Capacity in Granular Soil 558
13.8 Load-Bearing Capacity in Granular Soil Based
on Settlement 561
13.9 Load-Bearing Capacity in Clay 568
13.10 Load-Bearing Capacity in Clay Based on Settlement 570
13.11 Settlement of Drilled Shafts at Working Load 575
13.12 L
ateral Load-Carrying Capacity—Characteristic Load
and Moment Method 576
13.13 Drilled Shafts Extending into Rock 583
13.14 Summary 588
Problems 589
References 590
14 Piled Rafts: An Overview 592

1Roman Makedonsky/Shutterstock.com

14.2 Load-Settlement Plots of Unpiled and Piled Rafts Under
Different Design Conditions 594
14.3 Poulos–Davis–Randolph Simplified Design Method 595
14.4 Case Study: Burj Khalifa Tower in Dubai 600
14.5 Summary 602
Problems 602
References 602
15 Foundations on Difficult Soil 603

CHAIYA/Shutterstock.com
Collapsible Soil 604

15.2 Definition and Types of Collapsible Soil 604
15.3 Physical Parameters for Identification 606
15.4 Procedure for Calculating Collapse Settlement 608
15.5 Foundations in Soil Not Susceptible
to Wetting 609
15.6 Foundations in Soil Susceptible to Wetting 611
Expansive Soil 612
15.7 General Nature of Expansive Soil 612
15.8 Unrestrained Swell Test 615
15.9 Swelling Pressure Test 617
15.10 C
lassification of Expansive Soil on the Basis
of Index Tests 621
15.11 Foundation Considerations for Expansive Soil 624
15.12 Construction on Expansive Soil 626
Sanitary Landfills 630
15.13 General Nature of Sanitary Landfills 630
15.14 Settlement of Sanitary Landfills 631
15.15 Summary 633
Problems 633
References 634
xii contents
Part 4
Lateral Earth Pressure and Earth
Retaining Structures 637
16 Lateral Earth Pressure 638
Operation Shooting/Shutterstock.com
16.2 Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest 640
Active Pressure 644
16.3 Rankine Active Earth Pressure 644
16.4 A Generalized Case for Rankine Active Pressure—Granular
Backfill 649
16.5 Generalized Case for Rankine Seismic Active Earth
Pressure—Granular Backfill 653
16.6 Rankine Active Pressure with Vertical Wall Backface
and Inclined c9 2 f9 Soil Backfill 655
16.7 Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure 658
16.8 Lateral Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge 665
16.9 Active Earth Pressure for Earthquake Conditions—Granular
Backfill 668
16.10 A ctive Earth Pressure for Earthquake Condition (Vertical
Backface of Wall and c9 2 f9 Backfill) 672
Passive Pressure 676
16.11 Rankine Passive Earth Pressure 676
16.12 R
ankine Passive Earth Pressure—Vertical Backface and
Inclined Backfill 679
16.13 Coulomb’s Passive Earth Pressure 681
16.14 C
omments on the Failure Surface Assumption for
Coulomb’s Pressure Calculations 683
16.15 C
aquot and Kerisel Solution for Passive Earth Pressure
(Granular Backfill) 684
16.16 S
olution for Passive Earth Pressure by the Lower Bound
Theorem of Plasticity (Granular Backfill) 686
16.17 Passive Force on Walls with Earthquake Forces 688
16.18 Summary 691
Problems 691
References 693
17 Retaining Walls 694

Jarous/Shutterstock.com
Gravity and Cantilever Walls 697

17.2 Proportioning Retaining Walls 697
17.3 Application of Lateral Earth Pressure Theories
to Design 698
17.4 Stability of Retaining Walls 699
17.5 Check for Overturning 701
17.6 Check for Sliding Along the Base 703
17.7 Check for Bearing Capacity Failure 706
17.8 Construction Joints and Drainage from Backfill 714
contents xiii
17.9 omments on Design of Retaining Walls

C
and a Case Study 717
17.10 G
ravity Retaining-Wall Design for Earthquake
Conditions 720
Mechanically Stabilized Retaining Walls 722
17.11 Soil Reinforcement 723
17.12 Considerations in Soil Reinforcement 723
17.13 General Design Considerations 727
17.14 Retaining Walls with Metallic Strip Reinforcement 728
17.15 S
tep-by-Step-Design Procedure Using Metallic Strip
Reinforcement 734
17.16 Retaining Walls with Geotextile Reinforcement 738
17.17 R
etaining Walls with Geogrid Reinforcement—
General 744
17.18 D
esign Procedure for Geogrid-Reinforced Retaining
Wall 746
17.19 Summary 748
Problems 749
References 750
18 Sheet-Pile Walls 752

Aisyaqilumaranas/Shutterstock.com

18.2 Construction Methods 756
18.3 Cantilever Sheet-Pile Walls 757
18.4 Cantilever Sheet Piling Penetrating Sandy Soil 758
18.5 Special Cases for Cantilever Walls Penetrating a Sandy
Soil 764
18.6 Cantilever Sheet Piling Penetrating Clay 767
18.7 Special Cases for Cantilever Walls Penetrating Clay 772
18.8 Cantilever Sheet Piles Penetrating Sandy Soil—A Simplified
Approach 775
18.9 Anchored Sheet-Pile Walls 779
18.10 F
ree Earth Support Method for Penetration of Sandy
Soil—A Simplified Approach 780
18.11 F
ree Earth Support Method for Penetration of Sandy
Soil—Net Lateral Pressure Method 782
18.12 D
esign Charts for Free Earth Support Method (Penetration
into Sandy Soil) 785
18.13 M
oment Reduction for Anchored Sheet-Pile Walls
Penetrating into Sand 789
18.14 C
omputational Pressure Diagram Method for Penetration
into Sandy Soil 792
18.15 Field Observations for Anchor Sheet-Pile Walls 795
18.16 Free Earth Support Method for Penetration of Clay 797
18.17 Anchors 802
18.18 Holding Capacity of Deadman Anchors 804
18.19 Holding Capacity of Anchor Plates in Sand 804
18.20 H
olding Capacity of Anchor Plates in Clay
(f 5 0 Condition) 811
xiv contents
18.21 Ultimate Resistance of Tiebacks 811

18.22 Summary 812
Problems 812
References 813
19 Braced Cuts 814

Aisyaqilumaranas/Shutterstock.com
19.2 Braced-Cut Analysis Based on General Wedge Theory 817
19.3 Pressure Envelope for Braced-Cut Design 820
19.4 Pressure Envelope for Cuts in Layered Soil 822
19.5 Design of Various Components of a Braced Cut 823
19.6 Case Studies of Braced Cuts 831
19.7 Bottom Heave of a Cut in Clay 835
19.8 Stability of the Bottom of a Cut in Sand 839
19.9 Lateral Yielding of Sheet Piles and Ground
Settlement 843
19.10 Summary 845
Problems 845
References 846
Answers to Problems 847
Index 851
Preface
S
oil mechanics and foundation engineering have developed rapidly during the
last seventy years. Intensive research and observation in the field and the labo-
ratory have refined and improved the science of foundation design. Originally
published in the fall of 1983, Principles of Foundation Engineering is now in the
ninth edition. It is intended primarily for use by undergraduate civil engineering stu-
dents. The use of this text throughout the world has increased greatly over the years.
It has also been translated into several languages. New and improved materials that
have been published in various geotechnical engineering journals and conference
proceedings, consistent with the level of understanding of the intended users, have
been incorporated into each edition of the text.
New to This Edition

Based on the increased developments in the field of geotechnical engineering, the
authors have added three new chapters to this edition. The ninth edition of Principles
of Foundation Engineering contains a total of 19 chapters. Listed here is a summary
of the major revisions from the eighth edition and new additions to this edition.
●●
Numerous new photographs in full color have been included in various chap-
ters as needed.
●●
The Introduction Chapter (Chapter 1) has been entirely revised and expanded
with sections on geotechnical engineering, foundation engineering, soil explo-
ration, ground improvement, solution methods, numerical modeling, empiri-
cism, and literature.
●●
Chapter 2 on Geotechnical Properties of Soil includes new sections on the
range of coefficient of consolidation and selection of shear strength parameters
for design. All of the end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
Chapter 3 on Natural Soil Deposits and Subsoil Exploration has an im-
proved figure on soil behavior type chart based on cone penetration test.
Approximately half of the end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
Chapter 4 on Instrumentation and Monitoring in Geotechnical Engineering
is a new chapter that describes the use of instruments in geotechnical projects,
such as piezometer, earth pressure cell, load cell, inclinometer, settlement
plate, strain gauge, and others.
●●
Soil Improvement (Chapter 5) has some details on typical compaction re-
quirements as well as improved figures in the section of precompression. About
half of the problems at the end of the chapter are new.
●●
Chapter 6 on Shallow Foundations: Ultimate Bearing Capacity has new
sections on a simple approach for bearing capacity with two-way eccentricities,
and plane strain correction of friction angle.
●●
Chapter 7 on Ultimate Bearing Capacity on Shallow Foundation: Special
Cases has a section on ultimate bearing capacity of a wedge-shaped founda-
tion. About half of the end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
Chapter 8 on Vertical Stress Increase in Soil has a new section on stress
below a horizontal strip load of finite width and infinite length. The majority of
the end-of-chapter problems are new.
xv
xvi preface
●●
In Chapter 9 on Settlement of Shallow Foundations, Section 9.3 on settle-
ment based on the theory of elasticity has been thoroughly revised with the
addition of the results of the studies of Poulos and Davis (1974) and Giroud
(1968). In Section 9.6, which discusses the topic of settlement of foundation
on sand based on standard penetration resistance, Terzaghi and Peck’s method
(1967) has been added. Elastic settlement considering soil stiffness variation
with stress level is given in a new section (Section 9.7). Other additions include
settlement estimation using the L1 – L2 method (Section 9.9) (Akbas and
Kulhawy, 2009) and Shahriar et al.’s (2014) method to estimate elastic settlement
in granular soil due to the rise of ground water table (Section 9.10). The section
on tolerable settlement of buildings has been fully revised. More than half of the
end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
In Chapter 10 on Mat Foundations, the reinforcement design portion for the
mats was removed to concentrate more on the geotechnical portion. All end-of-
chapter problems are new.
●●
Chapter 11 on Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) is a new chapter.
It provides the design philosophies of the allowable stress design (ASD) and
load and resistance factor design in a simple way.
●●
Chapter 12 on Pile Foundations has a new section defining point bearing and
friction piles (Section 12.5). Section 12.5 on installation of piles has been thor-
oughly revised. Factor of safety for axially loaded piles suggested by USACE
(1991) has been incorporated in Section 12.8 on equations for estimating pile
capacity. The analysis by Poulos and Davis (1974) for estimation of elastic
settlement of piles has been included in Section 9.17. About half of the end-of-
chapter problems are new.
●●
In Chapter 13 on Drilled Shaft Foundations, several figures have been im-
proved to aid in better interpolation for solving problems. More than half of the
end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
Chapter 14 on Piled Rafts—An Overview is a new chapter. It describes
optimizations of the advantages of pile foundations and raft foundations for
construction of very tall buildings.
●●
In Chapter 15 on Foundations on Difficult Soil, all but two of end-of-chapter
problems are new.
●●
Chapter 16 on Lateral Earth Pressure has two new sections on (a) general-
ized case for Rankine seismic active pressure—granular backfill (Section 16.5),
and (b) solution for passive earth pressure by lower bound theorem of plasticity
(Section 16.15). The section on passive force on walls with earthquake forces
(Section 16.7) has been expanded. All end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
In Chapter 17 on Retaining Walls, a new section (Section 17.10) on gravity
retaining wall design for earthquake conditions has been added. Discussion on
the properties of geotextile has been expanded along with some new geotextile
photographs. More than half of the end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
Chapter 18 on Sheet-Pile Walls has three new sections added: (a) cantilever
sheet piles penetrating sandy soil—a simplified approach (Section 18.8);
(b) free earth support method for penetration of sandy soil—a simplified ap-
proach (Section 18.10); and (c) holding capacity of deadman anchors (Section
18.18). All end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
In Chapter 19 on Braced Cuts, all end-of-chapter problems are new.
●●
Each chapter now includes a Summary section. New and revised example
problems are presented in various chapters as needed.
Instructor Resources
A detailed Instructor’s Solutions Manual containing solutions to all end-of-
chapter problems, an Image Bank with figures and tables in the book, and Lecture
Note PowerPoint Slides are available via a secure, password-protected Instructor
Resource Center at https://login.cengage.com.
prefacE xvii
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Acknowledgments
●●
We are deeply grateful to Janice Das for her assistance in completing the revi-
sion. She has been the driving force behind this textbook since the preparation
of the first edition.
●●
Special thanks are due to Rohini Sivakugan for her help during the preparation
of the manuscript for this edition.
●●
It is fitting to thank Rose P. Kernan of RPK Editorial Services. She has been
instrumental in shaping the style and overseeing the production of this edition
of Principles of Foundation Engineering as well as several previous editions.
●●
We also wish to thank the Global Engineering team at Cengage who worked in
the development of this edition. Especially, we would like to extend our thanks
to Timothy Anderson, Product Director; Angie Rubino, Associate Content
Developer; Kristin Stine, Marketing Manager; and Alexander Sham, Product
Assistant.
Braja M. Das
Nagaratnam Sivakugan
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prefacE xix
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Preface to the SI Edition
This edition of Principles of Foundation Engineering, Ninth Edition has been adapted
to incorporate the International System of Units (Le Système International d’Unités
or SI) throughout the book.
Le Système International d’Unités

The United States Customary System (USCS) of units uses FPS (foot−pound−second)
units (also called English or Imperial units). SI units are primarily the units of the
MKS (meter−kilogram−second) system. However, CGS (centimeter−gram−second)
units are often accepted as SI units, especially in textbooks.
Using SI Units in this Book

In this book, we have used both MKS and CGS units. USCS (U.S. Customary Units)
or FPS (foot-pound-second) units used in the US Edition of the book have been
converted to SI units throughout the text and problems. However, in case of data
sourced from handbooks, government standards, and product manuals, it is not only
extremely difficult to convert all values to SI, it also encroaches upon the intellec-
tual property of the source. Some data in figures, tables, and references, therefore,
remains in FPS units.
To solve problems that require the use of sourced data, the sourced values can be
converted from FPS units to SI units just before they are to be used in a calculation.
To obtain standardized quantities and manufacturers’ data in SI units, readers may
contact the appropriate government agencies or authorities in their regions.
Instructor Resources
The Instructors’ Solution Manual in SI units is available on the book’s website at
http://login.cengage.com. A digital version of the Solutions Manual, Lecture Note
PowerPoint slides for the SI text, as well as other resources are available for instruc-
tors registering on the book’s website.
Feedback from users of this SI Edition will be greatly appreciated and will help
us improve subsequent editions.
Cengage Learning
xxi
About the Authors
Dr. Braja Das is Dean Emeritus of the College of Engineering and Computer Science
at California State University, Sacramento. He received his B.Sc. degree with honors
in Physics and B.Sc. degree in Civil Engineering from Utkal University, India; his
M.S. in Civil Engineering from the University of Iowa, Iowa City; and his Ph.D. in
Geotechnical Engineering from the University of Wisconsin at Madison. He is the
author of a number of geotechnical engineering texts and reference books and more
than 300 technical papers. His primary areas of research include shallow founda-
tions, earth anchors, and geosynthetics.
Dr. Das is a Fellow and Life Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
a Life Member of the American Society for Engineering Education, and an Emeritus
Member of the Stabilization of Geomaterials and Recycled Materials Committee of
the Transportation Research Board of the National Research Council (Washington
DC). He has previously served as a member on the editorial board of the Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering of ASCE, a member of the editorial board of Lowland
Technology International Journal (Japan), as associate editor of the International
Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineering (ISOPE), and as co-editor of the Journal
of Geotechnical and Geological Engineering (Springer, The Netherlands). Presently
he is the editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering
(Taylor & Francis, U.K.). He has received numerous awards for teaching excellence,
including the AMOCO Foundation Award, the AT&T Award for Teaching Excellence
from the American Society for Engineering Education, the Ralph Teetor Award from
the Society of Automotive Engineers, and the Distinguished Achievement Award for
Teaching Excellence from the University of Texas at El Paso.
Dr. Das is widely recognized in his field and has been invited as a keynote speaker
to multiple conferences worldwide. His prolific career has taken him to Australia,
Mexico, the Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador,
India, Korea, Bolivia, Venezuela, Turkey, the Turkish Republic of North Cyprus,
United Arab Emirates, Tunisia, and the United Kingdom. He has also been named
as the first Eulalio Juárez Badillo Lecturer by the Mexican Society of Geotechnical
Engineers. The Soil-Structure Interaction Group of Egypt established an honor lec-
ture series that takes place once every two years in Egypt. The first lecture was deliv-
ered during the Geo-Middle-East Conference in July 2017.
Dr. Nagaratnam Sivakugan received his Bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering

from the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, with First Class Honors. He earned
his MSCE and Ph.D. from Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA. Dr. Sivakugan’s
writings include eight books, 140 refereed international journal papers, 100 refereed
international conference papers, and more than 100 consulting reports. As a regis-
tered professional engineer of Queensland and a chartered professional engineer, Dr.
Sivakugan does substantial consulting work for the geotechnical and mining industry
in Australia and overseas, including the World Bank. He is a Fellow of the American
Society of Civil Engineers and Engineers Australia. He has supervised 14 Ph.D.
students to completion at James Cook University, Queensland, Australia, where he
was the Head of Civil Engineering from 2003 to 2014. He is an Associate Editor
for three international journals and serves on the editorial boards of the Canadian
Geotechnical Journal and the Indian Geotechnical Journal.
xxii
2.1 grain-size distribution 1
1
Introduction
Firma V/shutterstock.com
1.1 Geotechnical Engineering 2 1.6 Numerical Modeling 4

1.2 Foundation Engineering 2 1.7 Empiricism 5
1.3 Soil Exploration 2 1.8 Literature 5
1.4 Ground Improvement 3 References 6
1.5 Solution Methods 4
2 CHapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Geotechnical Engineering
G
eotechnical engineering, also known as geomechanics, is an emerging area
in civil engineering. It deals with soil mechanics, with some emphasis on
rock mechanics, where we apply engineering principles, such as the theory
of elasticity, Mohr’s circle, and continuum mechanics, to develop simple solutions
that can be applied to geotechnical and foundation engineering problems. When
dealing with problems related to geomaterials, which include soil, aggregates, and
rocks, some knowledge of geology is always an advantage.
A thorough understanding of the geotechnical engineering fundamentals
is a prerequisite for studying foundation engineering. These include phase rela-
tions, soil classification, compaction, permeability, seepage, consolidation, shear
strength, slope stability, and soil exploration. These areas are covered in Principles
of Geotechnical Engineering (9th Edition) in good detail. The main points are dis-
cussed very briefly in Chapters 2 and 3 in Part 1 of this text.
A new chapter on geotechnical instrumentation is included in this edition as
Chapter 4 in Part 1. When projects become complex or the design or construction
methods are nonstandard, it is often advisable to use instruments and measure the
loads, stresses, deformations, and strains at critical locations and monitor them over
a certain period to ensure the performance of the structure is satisfactory. This new
chapter gives an overview of the major instruments used in geotechnical engineering.
1.2 Foundation Engineering

Every civil engineering project has some geotechnical or foundation engineering
component. This includes all earth and earth-supported structures, namely, founda-
tions and earth-retaining structures, the two broad categories discussed in this book.
The related chapters are bundled into Parts 3 and 4, respectively. Under foundations
(Part 3), shallow foundations and deep foundations are discussed. In this edition, a
new chapter is introduced on the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) method,
which is quite different compared to the traditional allowable stress design (ASD)
method that has been used by geotechnical engineers for decades. The LRFD was
initially brought into practice by the American Concrete Institute (ACI) in the 1960s.
It is widely used in structural engineering and is becoming popular in foundation
engineering applications such as footings, piles, and retaining walls. The main differ-
ence between LRFD and ASD is the way the safety factor is applied.
A new introductory chapter on piled-raft foundations is included in this edition
(Chapter 14). Piled rafts exploit the advantages of piles and rafts, two different types
of foundations. For tall buildings, they appear to give economical solutions com-
pared to those given by rafts or piles alone.
Retaining walls, sheet piles, and braced cuts are covered under earth-retaining
structures in Part 4.
1.3 Soil Exploration

All geotechnical designs require knowledge of the soil and rock properties in the
vicinity of the structure. These are determined through a soil exploration (also known
as site investigation) program that consists of (a) in situ tests, (b) sampling at the
1.4 Ground Improvement 3
Figure 1.1 Soil exploration program (Courtesy of N. Sivakugan, James Cook

University, Australia)
site, and (c) laboratory tests on the samples taken from the site. Based on the soil
exploration data, a simplified soil profile can be developed, which can be the basis
for geotechnical designs. Figure 1.1 shows drilling in progress as part of a subsoil
investigation.
The heterogeneous nature of the ground conditions and the spatial variability in
the soil properties make it difficult to assign the design parameters to a simplified soil
model. Every borehole and its associated tests can cost thousands of dollars to the
client, and it is often the case that our wish list is longer than what the budget permits.
Therefore, it is prudent to plan the soil exploration program to extract the maximum
possible data from the ground that is relevant to the project at a reasonable cost.
Due to budgetary constraints, it is sometimes necessary to strike a balance between
laboratory and in situ tests. The same parameters can be determined by laboratory or
in situ tests. Some good geotechnical judgment is required here to select the right tests.
Laboratory and in situ tests must complement each other. One should never be chosen
at the expense of the other. They have their own advantages and disadvantages.
1.4 Ground Improvement

When designing a beam or a bridge, an engineer has the luxury of specifying the
strength of concrete. The same thing applies to most engineering materials. When it
comes to soil, the situation is different. Once the site is identified, one has to design
the structure to suit the soil conditions. Any attempt to replace the soil with a better-
performing soil can be an expensive option. However, the existing ground can be
improved through one of the many ground improvement techniques.
Very often, the soil conditions at a site do not meet the design requirements
in their present form. The soil may be too weak, undergo excessive deforma-
tions, and/or lead to possible failure. Even if the soil at the surface is suitable,
the subsoil conditions may be unfavorable. Designing the structure or facility
to suit the existing soil conditions is not necessarily the best option. Instead,
improving the ground and looking for more economical alternatives can save
millions of dollars.
Compaction is a simple and inexpensive ground improvement technique that
works on all types of soil. Figure 1.2 shows some soil compaction in progress for
a highway construction project. The other ground improvement techniques include
4 CHapter 1 Introduction
Figure 1.2 Soil compaction for a highway construction project (Courtesy of N. Sivakugan,
James Cook University, Australia)
vibroflotation, dynamic compaction, blasting, preloading, vertical drains, lime/cement

stabilization, stone columns, jet grouting, and deep mixing. They are discussed briefly
in Chapter 5 (Part 2).
1.5 Solution Methods

In geotechnical or foundation engineering, there are three ways of solving a problem.
They are:
●●
analytical methods
●●
physical modeling
●●
numerical modeling
For simple problems, similar to those discussed in textbooks, it is possible to apply
the geotechnical engineering principles and the closed form solutions available in the
literature. This applies to situations where the soil conditions are relatively uniform
and the boundary conditions are well defined. In some instances, it is also possible
to build a small scale model that can be tested in the laboratory to investigate the dif-
ferent scenarios. This is known as physical modeling. In larger projects, where the
soil conditions and the boundary conditions are complex, it is difficult to apply the
geotechnical theories and arrive at closed form solutions. Here, numerical modeling
becomes a valuable tool. Once the model is developed, it can be used to carry out
a thorough sensitivity analysis, exploring the effects of different parameters on the
performance of the structure.
1.6 Numerical Modeling

Soil is a particulate medium. For simplicity it is treated as a continuum, which is as-
sumed to follow one of the many constitutive models such as Mohr–Coulomb, linear
elastic, nonlinear elastic, Cam Clay, or Drucker–Prager. These constitutive models
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with a smile to the two girls.
“Ladies,” he said, lifting his hat again, “at the risk of being
considered impertinent, I wish to ask you if you are going my way? If
so I will help you with your bags, having again cinched what seems
to be the only baggage transportation facilities at this station.”
For once Tavia was really speechless. It was Dorothy who quite
coolly asked the young man:
“Which is your direction?”
“To the Fanuel,” he said.
“That is where we are going,” Dorothy admitted, giving him her
bag again without question.
“Oh!” exclaimed Tavia, “getting into the picture with a bounce,” as
she would have expressed it. “Aren’t you the handiest young man!”
“Thank you,” he replied, laughing. “That is a reputation to make
one proud. I never was in this man’s town before, but I was
recommended to the Fanuel by my boss.”
“Oh!” Tavia hastened to take the lead in the conversation. “We’ve
been here before—Doro and I. And we always stop at the Fanuel.”
“Now, I look on that as a streak of pure luck,” he returned. He
looked at Dorothy, however, not at Tavia.
The boy with the wagon went on ahead and the three voyagers
followed, laughing and chatting, G. K. swinging the girls’ bags as
though they were light instead of heavy.
“I want awfully to know his name,” whispered Tavia, when they
came to the hotel entrance and the young man handed over their
bags again and went to the curb to get his own suitcases from the
boy.
“Let’s,” added Tavia, “go to the clerk’s desk and ask for the rooms
your Aunt Winnie wrote about. Then I’ll get a chance to see what he
writes on the book.”
“Nonsense, Tavia!” exclaimed Dorothy. “We’ll do nothing of the
kind. We must go to the ladies’ parlor and send a boy to the clerk, or
the manager, with our cards. This is a family hotel, I know; but the
lobby and the office are most likely full of men at this time in the day.”
“Oh, dear! Come on, then, Miss Particular,” groaned Tavia. “And
we didn’t even bid him good-bye at parting.”
“What did you want to do?” laughed Dorothy. “Weep on his
shoulder and give him some trinket, for instance, as a souvenir?”
“Dorothy Dale!” exclaimed her friend. “I believe you have
something up your sleeve. You seem just sure of seeing this nice
cowboy person again.”
“All men from the West do not punch cattle for a living. And it
would not be the strangest thing in the world if we should meet G. K.
again, as he is stopping at this hotel.”
However, the girls saw nothing more of the smiling and agreeable
Westerner that day. Dorothy Dale’s aunt had secured by mail two
rooms and a bath for her niece and Tavia. The girls only appeared at
dinner, and retired early. Even Tavia’s bright eyes could not spy out
G. K. while they were at dinner.
Besides, the girls had many other things to think about, and
Tavia’s mind could not linger entirely upon even as nice a young man
as G. K. appeared to be.
This was their first visit to New York alone, as the more lively girl
indicated. Aunt Winnie White had sprained her ankle and could not
come to the city for the usual fall shopping. Dorothy was, for the first
time, to choose her own fall and winter outfit. Tavia had come on
from Dalton, with the money her father had been able to give her for
a similar purpose, and the friends were to shop together.
They left the hotel early the next morning and arrived at the first
huge department store on their list almost as soon as the store was
opened, at nine o’clock.
An hour later they were in the silk department, pricing goods and
“just looking” as Tavia said. In her usual thoughtless and incautious
way, Tavia dropped her handbag upon the counter while she used
both hands to examine a particular piece of goods, calling Dorothy’s
attention to it, too.
“No, dear; I do not think it is good enough, either for the money or
for your purpose,” Dorothy said. “The color is lovely; but don’t be
guided wholly by that.”
“No. I suppose you are right,” sighed Tavia.
She shook her head at the clerk and prepared to follow her friend,
who had already left the counter. Hastily picking up what she
supposed to be her bag, Tavia ran two or three steps to catch up
with Dorothy. As she did so a feminine shriek behind her startled
everybody within hearing.
“That girl—she’s got my bag! Stop her!”
“Oh! what is it?” gasped Dorothy, turning.
“Somebody’s stolen something,” stammered Tavia, turning around
too.
Then she looked at the bag in her hand. Instead of her own seal-
leather one, it was a much more expensive bag, gold mounted and
plethoric.
“There she is! She’s got it in her hand!”
A woman dressed in the most extreme fashion and most
expensively, darted down the aisle upon the two girls. She pointed a
quivering, accusing finger directly at poor Tavia.
CHAPTER II
G. K. TO THE RESCUE
Dorothy Dale and her friend Tavia Travers had often experienced
very serious adventures, but the shock of this incident perhaps was
as great and as thrilling as anything that had heretofore happened to
them.
The series of eleven previous stories about Dorothy, Tavia, and
their friends began with “Dorothy Dale: A Girl of To-day,” some years
before the date of this present narrative. At that time Dorothy was
living with her father, Major Frank Dale, a Civil War veteran, who
owned and edited the Bugle, a newspaper published in Dalton, a
small town in New York State.
Then Major Dale’s livelihood and that of the family, consisting of
Dorothy and her small brothers, Joe and Roger, depended upon the
success of the Bugle. Taken seriously ill in the midst of a lively
campaign for temperance and for a general reform government in
Dalton, it looked as though the major would lose his paper and the
better element in the town lose their fight for prohibition; but Dorothy
Dale, confident that she could do it, got out the Bugle and did much,
young girl though she was, to save the day. In this she was helped
by Tavia Travers, a girl brought up entirely differently from Dorothy,
and who possessed exactly the opposite characteristics to serve as
a foil for Dorothy’s own good sense and practical nature.
Major Dale was unexpectedly blessed with a considerable legacy
which enabled him to sell the Bugle and take his children to The
Cedars, at North Birchland, to live with his widowed sister and her
two boys, Ned and Nat White, who were both older than their cousin
Dorothy. In “Dorothy Dale at Glenwood School,” is related these
changes for the better in the fortunes of the Dale family, and as well
there is narrated the beginning of a series of adventures at school
and during vacation times, in which Dorothy and Tavia are the
central characters.
Subsequent books are entitled respectively: “Dorothy Dale’s Great
Secret,” “Dorothy Dale and Her Chums,” “Dorothy Dale’s Queer
Holidays,” “Dorothy Dale’s Camping Days,” “Dorothy Dale’s School
Rivals,” “Dorothy Dale in the City,” and “Dorothy Dale’s Promise,” in
which story the two friends graduate from Glenwood and return to
their homes feeling—and looking, of course—like real, grown-up
young ladies. Nevertheless, they are not then through with
adventures, surprising happenings, and much fun.
About the time the girls graduated from school an old friend of
Major Dale, Colonel Hardin, passed away, leaving his large estate in
the West partly to the major and partly to be administered for the
local public good. Cattle raising was not so generally followed as
formerly in that section and dry farming was being tried.
Colonel Hardin had foreseen that nothing but a system of irrigation
would save the poor farmers from ruin and on his land was the
fountain of supply that should water the whole territory about Desert
City and make it “blossom as the rose.” There were mining interests,
however, selfishly determined to obtain the water rights on the
Hardin Estate and that by hook or by crook.
Major Dale’s health was not at this time good enough for him to
look into these matters actively or to administer his dead friend’s
estate. Therefore, it is told in “Dorothy Dale in the West,” how Aunt
Winnie White, Dorothy’s two cousins, Ned and Nat, and herself with
Tavia, go far from North Birchland and mingle with the miners, and
other Western characters to be found on and about the Hardin
property, including a cowboy named Lance Petterby, who shows
unmistakable signs of being devoted to Tavia. Indeed, after the party
return to the East, Lance writes to Tavia and the latter’s apparent
predilection for the cowboy somewhat troubles Dorothy.
However, after their return to the East the chums went for a long
visit to the home of a school friend, Jennie Hapgood, in
Pennsylvania; and there Tavia seemed to have secured other—and
less dangerous—interests. In “Dorothy Dale’s Strange Discovery,”
the narrative immediately preceding this present tale, Dorothy
displays her characteristic kindliness and acute reasoning powers in
solving a problem that brings to Jennie Hapgood’s father the very
best of good fortune.
Naturally, the Hapgoods are devoted to Dorothy. Besides, Ned and
Nat, her cousins, have visited Sunnyside and are vastly interested in
Jennie. The girl chums now in New York City on this shopping tour,
expect on returning to North Birchland to find Jennie Hapgood there
for a promised visit.
At the moment, however, that we find Dorothy and Tavia at the
beginning of this chapter, neither girl is thinking much about Jennie
Hapgood and her expected visit, or of anything else of minor
importance.
The flashily dressed woman who had run after Tavia down the
aisle, again screamed her accusation at the amazed and troubled
girl:
“That’s my bag! It’s cram full of money, too.”
There was no great crowd in the store, for New York ladies do not
as a rule shop much before luncheon. Nevertheless, besides
salespeople, there were plenty to hear the woman’s unkind
accusation and enough curious shoppers to ring in immediately the
two troubled girls and the angry woman.
“Give me it!” exclaimed the latter, and snatched the bag out of
Tavia’s hand. As this was done the catch slipped in some way and
the handbag burst open.
It was “cram full” of money. Bills of large denomination were rolled
carelessly into a ball, with a handkerchief, a purse for change,
several keys, and a vanity box. Some of these things tumbled out
upon the floor and a young boy stooped and recovered them for her.
“You’re a bad, bad girl!” declared the angry woman. “I hope they
send you to jail.”
“Why—why, I didn’t know it was yours,” murmured Tavia, quite
upset.
“Oh! you thought somebody had forgotten it and you could get
away with it,” declared the other, coarsely enough.
“I beg your pardon, Madam,” Dorothy Dale here interposed. “It was
a mistake on my friend’s part. And you are making another mistake,
and a serious one.”
She spoke in her most dignified tone, and although Dorothy was
barely in her twentieth year she had the manner and stability of one
much older. She realized that poor Tavia was in danger of “going all
to pieces” if the strain continued. And, too, her own anger at the
woman’s harsh accusation naturally put the girl on her mettle.
“Who are you, I’d like to know?” snapped the woman.
“I am her friend,” said Dorothy Dale, quite composedly, “and I
know her to be incapable of taking your bag save by chance. She
laid her own down on the counter and took up yours——”
“And where is mine?” suddenly wailed Tavia, on the verge of an
hysterical outbreak. “My bag! My money——”
“Hush!” whispered Dorothy in her friend’s pretty ear. “Don’t
become a second harridan—like this creature.”
The woman had led the way back to the silk counter. Tavia began
to claw wildly among the broken bolts of silk that the clerk had not
yet been able to return to the shelves. But she stopped at Dorothy’s
command, and stood, pale and trembling.
A floorwalker hastened forward. He evidently knew the noisy
woman as a good customer of the store.
“Mrs. Halbridge! What is the matter? Nothing serious, I hope?”
“It would have been serious all right,” said the customer, in her
high-pitched voice, “if I hadn’t just seen that girl by luck. Yes, by luck!
There she was making for the door with this bag of mine—and
there’s several hundred dollars in it, I’d have you know.”
“I beg of you, Mrs. Halbridge,” said the floorwalker in a low tone,
“for the sake of the store to make no trouble about it here. If you
insist we will take the girl up to the superintendent’s office——”
Here Dorothy, her anger rising interrupted:
“You would better not. Mrs. Winthrop White, of North Birchland, is
a charge customer of your store, and is probably just as well known
to the heads of the firm as this—this person,” and she cast what
Tavia—in another mood—would have called a “scathing glance” at
Mrs. Halbridge.
“I am Mrs. White’s niece and this is my particular friend. We are
here alone on a shopping tour; but if our word is not quite as good as
that of this—this person, we certainly shall buy elsewhere.”
Tavia, obsessed with a single idea, murmured again:
“But I haven’t got my bag! Somebody’s taken my bag! And all my
money——”
The floorwalker was glancing about, hoping for some avenue of
escape from the unfortunate predicament, when a very tall, white-
haired and soldierly looking man appeared in the aisle.
“Mr. Schuman!” gasped the floorwalker.
The man was one of the chief proprietors of the big store. He
scowled slightly at the floorwalker when he saw the excited crowd,
and then raised his eyebrows questioningly.
“This is not the place for any lengthy discussion, Mr. Mink,” said
Mr. Schuman, with just the proper touch of admonition in his tone.
“I know! I know, Mr. Schuman!” said the floorwalker. “But this
difficulty—it came so suddenly—Mrs. Halbridge, here, makes the
complaint,” he finally blurted out, in an attempt to shoulder off some
of the responsibility for the unfortunate situation.
“Mrs. Halbridge?” The old gentleman bowed in a most courtly
style. “One of our customers, I presume, Mr. Mink?”
“Oh, yes, indeed, Mr. Schuman,” the floorwalker hastened to say.
“One of our very good customers. And I am so sorry that anything
should have happened——”
“But what has happened?” asked Mr. Schuman, sharply.
“She—she accuses this—it’s all a mistake, I’m sure—this young
lady of taking her bag,” stuttered Mr. Mink, pointing to Tavia.
“She ought to be arrested,” muttered the excited Mrs. Halbridge.
“What? But this is a matter for the superintendent’s office, Mr.
Mink,” returned Mr. Schuman.
“Oh!” stammered the floorwalker. “The bag is returned.”
“And now,” put in Dorothy Dale, haughtily, and looking straight and
unflinchingly into the keen eyes of Mr. Schuman, “my friend wishes
to know what has become of her bag?”
Mr. Schuman looked at the two girls with momentary hesitation.
There was something compelling in the ladylike look and
behaviour of these two girls—and especially in Dorothy’s speech. At
the moment, too, a hand was laid tentatively upon Mr. Schuman’s
arm.
“Beg pardon, sir,” said the full, resonant voice that Dorothy had
noted the day before. “I know the young ladies—Miss Dale and Miss
Travers, respectively, Mr. Schuman.”
“Oh, Mr. Knapp—thank you!” said the old gentleman, turning to the
tall young Westerner with whom he had been walking through the
store at the moment he had spied the crowd. “You are a discourager
of embarrassment.”
“Oh! blessed ‘G. K.’!” whispered Tavia, weakly clinging to
Dorothy’s arm.
CHAPTER III
TAVIA IN THE SHADE
Mrs. Halbridge was slyly slipping through the crowd. She had
suddenly lost all interest in the punishment of the girl she had
accused of stealing her bag and her money.
There was something so stern about Mr. Schuman that it was not
strange that the excitable woman should fear further discussion of
the matter. The old gentleman turned at once to Dorothy Dale and
Tavia Travers.
“This is an unfortunate and regrettable incident, young ladies,” he
said suavely. “I assure you that such things as this seldom occur
under our roof.”
“I am confident it is a single occurrence,” Dorothy said, with
conviction, “or my aunt, Mrs. Winthrop White, of North Birchland,
would not have traded with you for so many years.”
“One of our charge customers, Mr. Schuman,” whispered Mr. Mink,
deciding it was quite time now to come to the assistance of the girls.
“Regrettable! Regrettable!” repeated the old gentleman.
Here Tavia again entered her wailing protest:
“I did not mean to take her bag from the counter. But somebody
has taken my bag.”
“Oh, Tavia!” exclaimed her friend, now startled into noticing what
Tavia really said about it.
“It’s gone!” wailed Tavia. “And all the money father sent me. Oh,
dear, Doro Dale! I guess I have thrown my money away, and, as you
prophesied, it isn’t as much fun as I thought it might be.”
“My dear young lady,” hastily inquired Mr. Schuman, “have you
really lost your purse?”
“My bag,” sobbed Tavia. “I laid it down while I examined some silk.
That clerk saw me,” she added, pointing to the man behind the
counter.
“It is true, Mr. Schuman,” the silk clerk admitted, blushing painfully.
“But, of course, I did not notice what became of the lady’s bag.”
“Nor did I see the other bag until I found it in my hand,” Tavia cried.
The crowd was dissipated by this time, and all spoke in low voices.
Outside the counter was a cash-girl, a big-eyed and big-eared little
thing, who was evidently listening curiously to the conversation. Mr.
Mink said sharply to her:
“Number forty-seven! do you know anything about this bag
business?”
“No—no, sir!” gasped the frightened girl.
“Then go on about your business,” the floorwalker said, waving her
away in his most lordly manner.
Meanwhile, Dorothy had obtained a word with the young Mr.
Knapp who had done her and Tavia such a kindness.
“Thank you a thousand times, Mr. Knapp,” she whispered, her
eyes shining gratefully into his. “It might have been awkward for us
without you. And,” she added, pointedly, “how fortunate you knew
our names!”
He was smiling broadly, but she saw the color rise in his bronzed
cheeks at her last remark. She liked him all the better for blushing so
boyishly.
“Got me there, Miss Dale,” he blurted out. “I was curious, and I
looked on the hotel register to see your names after the clerk
brought it back from the parlor where he went to greet you yesterday.
Hope you’ll forgive me for being so—er—rubbery.”
“It proves to be a very fortunate curiosity on your part,” she told
him, smiling.
“Say!” he whispered, “your friend is all broken up over this. Has
she lost much?”
“All the money she had to pay for the clothes she wished to buy,
I’m afraid,” sighed Dorothy.
“Well, let’s get her out of here—go somewhere to recuperate.
There’s a good hotel across the street. I had my breakfast there
before I began to shop,” and he laughed. “A cup of tea will revive
her, I’m sure.”
“And you are suffering for a cup, too, I am sure,” Dorothy told him,
her eyes betraying her amusement, at his rather awkward attempt to
become friendly with Tavia and herself.
But Dorothy approved of this young man. Aside from the
assistance he had undoubtedly rendered her chum and herself, G.
Knapp seemed to be far above the average young man.
She turned now quickly to Tavia. Mr. Schuman was saying very
kindly:
“Search shall be made, my dear young lady. I am exceedingly
sorry that such a thing should happen in our store. Of course,
somebody picked up your bag before you inadvertently took the
other lady’s. If I had my way I would have it a law that every shopper
should have her purse riveted to her wrist with a chain.”
It was no laughing matter, however, for poor Tavia. Her family was
not in the easy circumstances that Dorothy’s was. Indeed, Mr.
Travers was only fairly well-to-do, and Tavia’s mother was
exceedingly extravagant. It was difficult sometimes for Tavia to
obtain sufficient money to get along with.
Besides, she was incautious herself. It was natural for her to be
wasteful and thoughtless. But this was the first time in her
experience that she had either wasted or lost such a sum of money.
She wiped her eyes very quickly when Dorothy whispered to her
that they were going out for a cup of tea with Mr. Knapp.
“Oh dear, that perfectly splendid cowboy person!” groaned Tavia.
“And I am in no mood to make an impression. Doro! you’ll have to do
it all yourself this time. Do keep him in play until I recover from, this
blow—if I ever do.”
The young man, who led the way to the side door of the store
which was opposite the hotel and restaurant of which he had
spoken, heard the last few words and turned to ask seriously:
“Surely Miss Travers did not lose all the money she had?”
“All I had in the world!” wailed Tavia. “Except a lonely little five
dollar bill.”
“Where is that?” asked Dorothy, in surprise.
“In the First National Bank,” Tavia said demurely.
“Oh, then, that’s safe enough,” said Mr. Knapp.
“I didn’t know you had even that much in the bank,” remarked
Dorothy, doubtfully. “The First National?”
“Yep!” declared Tavia promptly, but nudged her friend. “Hush!” she
hissed.
Dorothy did not understand, but she saw there was something
queer about this statement. It was news to her that her chum ever
thought of putting a penny on deposit in any bank. It was not like
Tavia.
“How do you feel now, dear?” she asked the unfortunate girl, as
they stepped out into the open air behind the broad-shouldered
young Westerner, who held the door open for their passage.
“Oh, dear me!” sighed Tavia. “I’m forty degrees in the shade—and
the temperature is still going down. What ever shall I do? I’ll be
positively naked before Thanksgiving!”
CHAPTER IV
SOMETHING ABOUT “G. KNAPP”
But how can three people with all the revivifying flow of youth in
their veins remain in the dumps, to use one of Tavia’s own
illuminating expressions. Impossible! That tea at the Holyoke House,
which began so miserably, scaled upward like the notes of a
coloratura soprano until they were all three chatting and laughing like
old friends. Even Tavia had to forget her miserable financial state.
Dorothy believed her first impression of G. Knapp had not been
wrong. Indeed, he improved with every moment of increasing
familiarity.
In the first place, although his repartee was bright enough, and he
was very jolly and frank, he had eyes and attention for somebody
besides the chatterbox, Tavia. Perhaps right at first Tavia was a little
under the mark, her mind naturally being upon her troubles; but with
a strange young man before her the gay and sparkling Tavia would
soon be inspired.
However, for once she did not absorb all the more or less helpless
male’s attention. G. Knapp insisted upon dividing equally his
glances, his speeches, and his smiles between the two young ladies.
They discovered that his full and proper name was Garford Knapp
—the first, of course, shortened to “Garry.” He was of the West,
Western, without a doubt. He had secured a degree at a Western
university, although both before and after his scholastic course he
had, as Tavia in the beginning suggested, been a “cowboy person.”
“And it looks as if I’d be punching cows and doing other chores for
Bob Douglas, who owns the Four-Square ranch, for the rest of my
natural,” was one thing Garry Knapp told the girls, and told them
cheerfully. “I did count on falling heir to a piece of money when Uncle
Terrence cashed in. But not—no more!”
“Why is that?” Dorothy asked, seeing that the young man was
serious despite his somewhat careless way of speaking.
“The old codger is just like tinder,” laughed Garry. “Lights up if a
spark gets to him. And I unfortunately and unintentionally applied the
spark. He’s gone off to Alaska mad as a hatter and left me in the
lurch. And we were chums when I was a kid and until I came back
from college.”
“You mean you have quarreled with your uncle?” Dorothy queried,
with some seriousness.
“Not at all, Miss Dale,” he declared, promptly. “The old fellow
quarreled with me. They say it takes two to make a quarrel. That’s
not always so. One can do it just as e-easy. At least, one like Uncle
Terrence can. He had red hair when he was young, and he has a
strong fighting Irish strain in him. The row began over nothing and
ended with his lighting out between evening and sunrise and leaving
me flat.
“Of course, I broke into a job with Bob Douglas right away——”
“Do you mean, Mr. Knapp, that your uncle went away and left you
without money?” Dorothy asked.
“Only what I chanced to have in my pocket,” Garry Knapp said
cheerfully. “He’d always been mighty good to me. Put me through
school and all that. All I have is a piece of land—and a good big
piece—outside of Desert City; but it isn’t worth much. Cattle raising
is petering out in that region. Last year the mouth and hoof disease
just about ruined the man that grazed my land. His cattle died like
flies.
“Then, the land was badly grazed by sheepmen for years. Sheep
about poison land for anything else to live on,” he added, with a
cattleman’s usual disgust at the thought of “mutton on the hoof.”
“One thing I’ve come East for, Miss Dale, is to sell that land. Got a
sort of tentative offer by mail. Bob wanted a lot of stuff for the ranch
and for his family and couldn’t come himself. So I combined his
business and mine and hope to make a sale of the land my father
left me before I go back.
“Then, with that nest-egg, I’ll try to break into some game that will
offer a man-sized profit,” and Garry Knapp laughed again in his
mellow, whole-souled way.
“Isn’t he just a dear?” whispered Tavia as Garry turned to speak to
the waiter. “Don’t you love to hear him talk?”
“And have you never heard from your old uncle who went away
and left you?” Dorothy asked.
“Not a word. He’s too mad to speak, let alone write,” and a cloud
for a moment crossed the open, handsome face of the Westerner.
“But I know where he is, and every once in a while somebody writes
me telling me Uncle Terry is all right.”
“But, an old man, away up there in Alaska——?”
“Bless you, Miss Dale,” chuckled Garry Knapp. “That dear old
codger has been knocking about in rough country all his days. He’s
always been a miner. Prospected pretty well all over our West. He’s
made, and then bunted away, big fortunes sometimes.
“He always has a stake laid down somewhere. Never gets real
poor, and never went hungry in his life—unless he chanced to run
out of grub on some prospecting tour, or his gun was broken and he
couldn’t shoot a jackrabbit for a stew.
“Oh, Uncle Terrence isn’t at all the sort of hampered prospector
you read about in the books. He doesn’t go mooning around,
expecting to ‘strike it rich’ and running the risk of leaving his bones in
the desert.
“No, Uncle Terry is likely to make another fortune before he dies
——”
“Oh! Then maybe you will be rich!” cried Tavia, breaking in.
“No.” Garry shook his head with a quizzical smile on his lips and in
his eyes. “No. He vowed I should never see the color of his money.
First, he said, he’d leave it to found a home for indignant
rattlesnakes. And he’d surely have plenty of inmates, for rattlers
seem always to be indignant,” he added with a chuckle.
Dorothy wanted awfully to ask him why he had quarreled with his
uncle—or vice versa; but that would have been too personal upon
first meeting. She liked the young man more and more; and in spite
of Tavia’s loss they parted at the end of the hour in great good
spirits.
“I’m going to be just as busy as I can be this afternoon,” Garry
Knapp announced, as they went out. “But I shall get back to the hotel
to supper. I wasn’t in last night when you ladies were down. May I
eat at your table?” and his eyes squinted up again in that droll way
Dorothy had come to look for.
“How do you know we ate in the hotel last evening?” demanded
Tavia, promptly.
“Asked the head waiter,” replied Garry Knapp, unabashed.
“If you are so much interested in whether we take proper
nourishment or not, you had better join us at dinner,” Dorothy said,
laughing.
“It’s a bet!” declared the young Westerner, and lifting his broad-
brimmed hat he left the girls upon the sidewalk outside the
restaurant.
“Isn’t he the very nicest—but, oh, Doro! what shall I do?”
exclaimed the miserable Tavia. “All my money——”
“Let’s go back and see if it’s been found.”
“Oh, not a chance!” gasped Tavia. “That horrid woman——”
“I scarcely believe that we can lay it to Mrs. Halbridge’s door in
any particular,” said Dorothy, gravely. “You should not have left your
bag on the counter.”
“She laid hers there! And, oh, Doro! it was full of money,” sighed
her friend.
“Probably your bag had been taken before you even touched
hers.”
“Oh, dear! why did it have to happen to me—and at just this time.
When I need things so much. Not a thing to wear! And it’s going to
be a cold, cold winter, too!”
Tavia would joke “if the heavens fell”—that was her nature. But
that she was seriously embarrassed for funds Dorothy Dale knew
right well.
“If it had only been your bag that was lost,” wailed Tavia, “you
would telegraph to Aunt Winnie and get more money!”
“And I shall do that in this case,” said her friend, placidly.
“Oh! no you won’t!” cried Tavia, suddenly. “I will not take another
cent from your Aunt Winnie White—who’s the most blessed,
generous, free, open-handed person who ever——”
“Goodness! no further attributes?” laughed Dorothy.
“No, Doro,” Tavia said, suddenly serious. “I have done this thing
myself. It is awful. Poor old daddy earns his money too hardly for me
to throw it away. I should know better. I should have learned caution
and economy by this time with you, my dear, as an example ever
before me.
“Poor mother wastes money because she doesn’t know. I have
had every advantage of a bright and shining example,” and she
pinched Dorothy’s arm as they entered the big store again. “If I have
lost my money, I’ve lost it, and that’s the end of it. No new clothes for
little Tavia—and serves her right!” she finished, bitterly.
Dorothy well knew that this was a tragic happening for her friend.
Generously she would have sent for more money, or divided her own
store with Tavia. But she knew her chum to be in earnest, and she
approved.
It was not as though Tavia had nothing to wear. She had a full and
complete wardrobe, only it would be no longer up to date. And she
would have to curtail much of the fun the girls had looked forward to
on this, their first trip, unchaperoned, to the great city.
CHAPTER V
DOROTHY IS DISTURBED
Nothing, of course, had been seen or heard of Tavia’s bag. Mr.

Schuman himself had made the investigation, and he came to the
girls personally to tell them how extremely sorry he was. But being
sorry did not help.
“I’m done for!” groaned Tavia, as they returned to their rooms at
the hotel just before luncheon. “I can’t even buy a stick of peppermint
candy to send to the kids at Dalton.”
“How about that five dollars in the bank?” asked Dorothy, suddenly
remembering Tavia’s previous and most surprising statement. “And
how did you ever come to have a bank account? Is it in the First
National of Dalton?”
There was a laugh from Tavia, a sudden flash of lingerie and the
display of a silk stocking. Then she held out to her chum a neatly
folded banknote wrapped in tissue paper.

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1.1 Geotechnical Engineering 2

Part 1 Geotechnical Properties and Soil Exploration 7

2.2 Grain-Size Distribution 9

3 Natural Soil Deposits and Subsoil Exploration 67

4 I nstrumentation and Monitoring in Geotechnical

4.1 Introduction 135

Part 2 Soil Improvement 145

Part 3 Foundation Analysis 205

Bearing Capacity 206

6.16 Summary 254

7  ltimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow

8 Vertical Stress Increase in Soil 302

8.1 Introduction 303

8.14 Summary 333

9 Settlement of Shallow Foundations 336

10 Mat Foundations 396

10.2 Combined Footings 397

11 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) 427

11.3 Allowable Stress Design (ASD) 431

12 Pile Foundations 438

13 Drilled-Shaft Foundations 546

13.1 Introduction 547

13.5 Load Transfer Mechanism 555

14 Piled Rafts: An Overview 592

14.1 Introduction 593

15 Foundations on Difficult Soil 603

Collapsible Soil 604

17 Retaining Walls 694

Gravity and Cantilever Walls 697

17.9  omments on Design of Retaining Walls

18 Sheet-Pile Walls 752

18.1 Introduction 753

18.21 Ultimate Resistance of Tiebacks 811

19 Braced Cuts 814

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17.9 omments on Design of Retaining Walls