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Productivity Theory for
Industrial Engineering
 Systems Innovation Series
Adedeji B. Badiru
Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) – Dayton, OH

PUBLISHED TITLES
Social Responsibility: Failure Mode Effects and Analysis
Holly Alison Duckworth & Rosemond Ann Moore
Statistical Techniques for Project Control
Adedeji B. Badiru & Tina Agustiady
STEP Project Management: Guide for Science, Technology, and
Engineering Projects
Adedeji B. Badiru
Sustainability: Utilizing Lean Six Sigma Techniques
Tina Agustiady & Adedeji B. Badiru
Systems Thinking: Coping with 21st Century Problems
John Turner Boardman & Brian J. Sauser
Techonomics: The Theory of Industrial Evolution
H. Lee Martin
Total Productive Maintenance: Strategies and Implementation
Guide
Tina Agustiady & Elizabeth A. Cudney
Total Project Control: A Practitioner’s Guide to Managing Projects
as Investments, Second Edition
Stephen A. Devaux
Triple C Model of Project Management: Communication,
Cooperation, Coordination
Adedeji B. Badiru
Work Design: A Systematic Approach
Adedeji B. Badiru & Sharon C. Bommer
Productivity Theory for Industrial Engineering
Ryspek Usubamatov
Productivity Theory for
Industrial Engineering

Ryspek Usubamatov
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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 To the Readers
With the hope that this work will help to solve productivity
problems in manufacturing and industrial engineering.
Contents
Preface..................................................................................................................xi
Nomenclature....................................................................................................xv
Author.............................................................................................................. xvii

Chapter 1 Introduction to productivity theory for industrial

engineering................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 1
1.2 Production-based industries, machineries and technologies
for manufacturing systems..................................................................... 6
1.3 Reliability attributes for industrial machines and systems............. 15
1.3.1 Measuring and modelling the system reliability................. 18
Bibliography...................................................................................................... 22

Chapter 2 Conceptual principles of productivity theory for

industrial engineering.............................................................. 25
2.1 I ntroduction............................................................................................. 25
2.2 Technological processes and balancing are the basis for
structural designs of manufacturing machines and systems.......... 28
2.3 Productivity rate of a single machine tool.......................................... 37
2.4 Productivity rate of a machine with multi-tool machining
process...................................................................................................... 48
2.4.1 Practical test............................................................................... 62
2.4.2 The productivity rate of the machine tool with the
single machining process������������������������������������������������������� 68
Bibliography...................................................................................................... 73

Chapter 3 Manufacturing systems of parallel arrangement and

productivity rate......................................................................... 75
3.1 I ntroduction............................................................................................. 75
3.2 Productivity rate of manufacturing systems with parallel
arrangement and independent work of workstations....................... 77
3.3 Productivity rate of automated lines of parallel structure and
linear arrangement................................................................................. 80

vii
viii Contents

3.4 A n automatic machine of parallel structure and circular

design (rotor-type machine).................................................................. 86
3.4.1 Productivity rate of rotor-type automatic machines........... 89
3.5 Comparative analysis of productivity rates for
manufacturing systems of parallel arrangements............................. 95
Bibliography...................................................................................................... 97

Chapter 4 Manufacturing systems of serial arrangement and

productivity rate......................................................................... 99
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 99
4.2 Productivity rate of manufacturing systems with serial
arrangement and independent work of workstations..................... 101
4.3 Productivity rate of an automated line with serial structure........ 107
4.3.1 Industrial case study...............................................................117
4.4 Productivity rate of an automated line segmented on
sections with buffers of limited capacity.......................................... 122
4.4.1 An automated line segmented on sections with
buffers of big capacity����������������������������������������������������������� 136
4.5 Comparative analysis of productivity rates for
manufacturing systems of serial arrangements�������������������������������141
Bibliography.................................................................................................... 143

Chapter 5 Manufacturing systems of parallel–serial

arrangement ............................................................................145
5.1 Introduction........................................................................................... 145
5.1.1 Productivity rate of manufacturing systems with
parallel–serial arrangement and independent work of
workstations��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
5.1.2 Productivity rate of manufacturing systems of
parallel–serial arrangement and an independent
work of automated lines of parallel structure������������������� 150
5.1.3 Productivity rate of manufacturing systems of
parallel–serial arrangement and an independent
work of automated lines of serial structure����������������������� 153
5.1.4 Productivity rate of manufacturing systems of
parallel–serial arrangement and an independent
work of automated lines of serial structure segmented
on sections with buffers�������������������������������������������������������� 156
5.2 Productivity rate of an automated line of linear arrangement
and parallel–serial structure............................................................... 158
5.2.1 Productivity rate of an automated line of
parallel–serial structure segmented on sections
with buffers�����������������������������������������������������������������������������167
Contents ix

5.2.2
Productivity rate of an automated line of
parallel–serial structure with buffers after each line
of parallel structure��������������������������������������������������������������� 172
5.3 Productivity rate of rotor-type automated lines.............................. 173
5.3.1 Productivity rate of rotor-type automated lines
segmented on sections with buffers����������������������������������� 191
5.4 Comparative analysis of productivity rates for manufacturing
systems of parallel–serial arrangements........................................... 195
Bibliography.................................................................................................... 199

Chapter 6 Analysis of the work of industrial machines and

systems at real manufacturing environment..................... 201
6.1 Introduction........................................................................................... 201
6.2 A method for assessing productivity rate of manufacturing
system at real industrial environment.............................................. 204
6.2.1 Industrial case study.............................................................. 213
6.3 Productivity attributes and management analysis for
manufacturing systems....................................................................... 225
6.4 Manufacturing system availability and number of
technicians....................................................................................... 230
6.4.1 Methodology........................................................................... 233
Bibliography.................................................................................................... 242

Chapter 7 Conclusion................................................................................. 245

Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 253
Preface
Throughout the centuries, manufacturing industries accumulated experi-
ence in creating different machines for production of various goods, work
parts and products. All these diversities of machines and systems with
different designs are solving pivoted problems of economics to increase
the productivity rate of manufacturing processes with high quality of
­products. The productivity rate of manufacturing systems is the primary
area of any industry in the world. Manufacturers are interested in any
publication that focus on the problem of solving the productivity rate
problems. Macro and microeconomics consider two types of productiv-
ity. In macroeconomics, the term productivity is the ratio of output to
input, which is the efficiency of the economic system according to the
­fundamental science. Microeconomics considers physical productivity
as the number of products fabricated per given time as accepted by The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Productivity rate is
one important indicator criteria for an industry engineer to improve the
manufacturing system and provide a good sustainable output of produc-
tion processes.
The productivity theory for industrial engineering is not new, and
there are numerous publications with fundamental approaches and math-
ematical models of physical productivity for different designs of industrial
machines and systems. However, known mathematical models for the
manufacturing systems are simplified with numerous assumptions that
are not well developed analytically and lead to severe errors in calcula-
tions. The modern industrial machines and systems are considered as sys-
tems that contain different mechanisms and arrangements, and represent
conglomerates of mechanical, electrical and electronic units. The struc-
tures of manufacturing machines and systems are also having large vari-
ances with serial, parallel and serial–parallel arrangements of machines
disposed according to the technological process for machining products.
Any failure of components leads to downtime of expensive production
systems that should be minimised by different solutions. Manufacturers
are correcting the results by data of practical experience in the designs
of productive machines and systems and optimisation of the machining

xi
xii Preface

process. This is the reason that industries need productivity theory with
mathematical models that combine all aspects of production processes
and enables solving numerous engineering problems. This is an impor-
tant position that enables predicting the design and output of new man-
ufacturing machine and systems in preliminary stages. Manufacturers
need correct and clear mathematical models that enable computing with
high accuracy the productivity rate of machines and systems.
Proposed productivity theory for industrial engineering collected all
achievements in analytical and practical experience in formulating the
physical productivity for different manufacturing systems with simple
and complex designs. Productivity theory for industrial engineering dis-
covers laws and reasonable links for creating manufacturing machines
and systems. It is necessary to point out that this productivity theory is
universal and can be applied to any type of industries, i.e. manufactur-
ing, textile, transport, chemical, etc. The presented productivity theory
maximally avoids simplifications in analysis and mathematical models of
productivity rate for different designs and structures of the manufactur-
ing systems. Renovated and corrected productivity theory enables accu-
rate solving of the problems of design the machines and systems based
on innovative technologies with high manufacturing productivity rates.
Productivity theory enables defining optimal balancing technological
processes, optimal machining regimes and optimal structures of man-
ufacturing machines and systems by criterion of necessary or maximal
productivity rate and sustainable improvement of production process.
The fundamentals of productivity theory for industrial engineering
are based on several engineering and mathematical theories that include
theories of technological processes, machine designs, reliability, prob-
ability, optimisations, engineering management, economics and others.
Combined application of these theories enables the development of a
holistic productivity theory for industrial engineering. Productivity the-
ory considers all factors that influence the output and design of manufac-
turing machines and systems. The first factor is the technological process
that is the essence of design for any manufacturing machine and system,
which defines the limits of the productivity rate and time spent for produc-
tion process. Other theories applied to design of manufacturing machines
and systems enable a decrease in the non-productive or auxiliary and idle
times of production processes. The objective of productivity theory is to
provide the methods and mathematical models for studying the regulari-
ties and reasonable links in design of manufacturing machines and sys-
tems with optimal structures and maximal productivity rate. In addition,
this theory enables demonstrating the productivity losses and their reason
in real production environments. Solutions of these problems are mak-
ing the progress in developing industrial machines based on the appli-
cation of innovative technological processes that enable increase in their
Preface xiii

productivity rate. Such universality of productivity theory for solutions of

productivity problems for manufacturing machines and systems can be
used in complex and purposeful approaches for sustainable improvement
of production process. Hence, the perspective designs of manufacturing
machines and systems request from engineers and technologists the wide
knowledge and prospects and understanding the essence and regulari-
ties in the development of industrial engineering. Productivity theory for
industrial engineering can be a core course for manufacturing and indus-
trial engineering departments and faculties of universities and will be
desk book for practitioners and manufacturers.
Nomenclature
A availability of a machine (reliability factor)
Ce expenses for production processes
Cf fixed capital
Cs service capital
C empirical constant resulting from regression analysis of the
tool life
E efficiency of production system
F(x) cumulative distribution function
T cycle time for the machining of one product
Tc tool life of a cutter
I probability of downtime
L labour productivity
M total number of manufactured products
N service years for the economic system; the capacity of the
buffer
Nl limited capacity of the buffer
P(t) failure probability
Q productivity of a manufacturing system machine tool, etc.
Qa actual productivity of a machine
Qc cyclic productivity of a machine
Qm machine productivity
Qmax maximal productivity rate
Qt technological productivity of a machine
Ri(t) is the probability that workstation, section or some unit i will
work during a defined time (t) without failures
S salary of employees
V cutting speed of a machining process
Vn normative cutting speed
a total number of machine downtimes
b empirical constant that depends on the cutter tool material
c coefficient change in machining time, speed, velocity, etc.
fc correction factor for machining time
fm management factor

xv
xvi Nomenclature

fs.i correction factor for sections due to reliability

fs correction factor for probabilities
f(x) probability density distribution of random event
mw mean time to work between two failures
mr mean time to repair
n number of machine downtimes; number of tool replacement
q number of serial workstations, machine tools
qs number of all workstations in service by one technician
p number of parallel products
ps number of parallel workstations, machine tools
pτ number of workstations located on the transport sector τ of
the transport rotor
pγ number of workstations located on the idle sector γ of the
working rotor
ta auxiliary time
tav average machining time
tm machining time
tmb machining time at the bottleneck workstation
tmo total machining time
tmn normative machining time (min/part)
z number of products machined per observation time
θ observation time
θa auxiliary time for the production process
θcs idle time due to control system
θm idle time due to managerial problem
θi idle time of a machine, workstation
θp production process time
θr repair time of a machine
θw machine work time
θt/z idle time referred to one product due to technical problems of
a machine, (min/work part)
θorg/z idle time referred to one product due to managerial and
organisational problems, (min/work part)
λ failure rate
λcs failure rate of control system
λs failure rate of workstation or machine
λsb failure rate of the bottleneck machine tool or workstation
λtr failure rate of transport with the workpiece feed mechanism
λbf failure rate of a buffer
λb failure rate of a bottleneck section
λi failure rate of i mechanisms (gears, shafts, bearings, etc.)
Δλs added failure rate for a bottleneck section
Δt displacement time of the sequence station work
ΔQ productivity rate losses
Author
Ryspek Usubamatov graduated from Bauman Moscow State Technical
University. He is a professional engineer in mechanical, manufacturing
and industrial engineering. He obtained his Ph.D. in 1972 and doctor of
technical sciences in 1993. He worked as an engineer at a company and as
a lecturer in Kyrgyzstan and Malaysian universities. He has supervised
around 100 professional engineering students, 15 M.Sc. and 7 Ph.D. His
areas of research include productivity theory for industrial engineering,
gyroscope theory and wind turbines. He has published 7 books, 30 bro-
chures, more than 300 manuscripts and 60 patents of inventions.

xvii
chapter one

Introduction to productivity
theory for industrial engineering
Industrial engineering encompasses various technologies and p ­ roduction
machineries that focus on high productivity and quality of fabricated
goods. The main purpose underlying any industrial process is to strive
for productivity and profitability. Industries use several mathematical
models for productivity, which do not allow a production system to be
described correctly. Exact mathematical models for the productivity rate
include parameters such as technologies, design, reliability of machiner-
ies and management systems, which are the crucial problems in engineer-
ing. Modern manufacturing processes implement different machineries at
preparatory, machining and assembly stages, where machining remains
the most important one. Contemporary tendency of a manufacturing pro-
cess is complication and automation of machines and systems, which is a
natural result of engineering evolution. Production systems have become
increasingly complex in design, which in turn are faced with reliability
problems and is one of the most important attributes in all machiner-
ies and plays a key role in the cost-effectiveness of an industrial system.
The productivity rate of machines and systems has a direct relationship
with the reliability of their units, which should be described analytically.
Analysis and mathematical modelling of machine productivity makes it
possible to embed standard attributes of reliability as components of pro-
ductivity rate equations for different designs and structures of industrial
machines and systems.

1.1 Introduction
The term industrial engineering comprises a wide area of engineer-
ing that deals with the optimisation of complex processes and systems,
and leads to eliminate wastage of production time, decrease machine
time and decrease energy consumption and other resources that do not
­generate value. In addition, industrial engineers figure out how to better
engineering processes and systems that improve quality and productiv-
ity. Industrial engineering encompasses a range of specialised fields of
engineering, particularly areas of technologies and production machin-
eries that focus on high output with high quality. This is a main part

1
2 Productivity Theory for Industrial Engineering

of economic activity of industrial companies that represents the ­critical

­success factor of production systems. To define optimal engineering
­solutions and to describe mathematical models for productivity of manu-
facturing machines and systems, the concepts involved in it are primary
important problems in production systems.
The main purpose underlying any production process is to strive
for productivity and profitability, which are typically specified concepts
of efficiency. Production is a system of combining various technological
­processes, information, machinery and material inputs of production
to manufacture products for consumption. All production systems are
processes that transform resources into useful goods and are based on
application of labour, equipment, materials, land, buildings, etc. The tech-
nological processes constitute the works in the preparatory, machining
and assembly stages of manufacture, and finally the finished goods char-
acterise a typical production system. The technological processes subject
to the constraints of the capacity of the production system, which are
limited by the nature of physics of technology and quality of products,
limit the system’s ability to meet output expectations. The management
of technological processes, i.e. the planning and control of the produc-
tion ­system to achieve acceptable outputs, is an important task of the
­production manager.
The productivity of the manufacturing system and the quality of
products are major factors in determining the efficiency of production
­systems. Some researchers have deliberated productivity as a phenom-
enon in production processes. They suggest that the measurement of pro-
ductivity in production processes shall be developed so that it will indicate
an increase or decrease in the productivity of the company. Researchers
regard the measurement of productivity rate as an important part of the
productivity phenomenon and solve the problems related to measuring it
at a long time.
However, this approach is indistinct, indefinite, does not have links and
does not give clear picture dependency of productivity on technological
parameters of processes, design of manufacturing machine and systems.
In industries, there are several productivity measurement models.
Finding an appropriate model for production systems is crucial and an
important engineering and economic problem. First of all, it should be
described as the main technological process of production systems, and
after that study in detail must focus on the most interesting processes
from the point of view of productivity and the solutions to measure such
processes. Productivity should be identified in connection with profitabil-
ity and then the processes and machinery-generating products.
Analysis of known models for evaluation of the productivity for pro-
duction processes demonstrates that all of them consider productivity in
terms of economics and far from engineering terms. Methodologies for
Chapter one: Introduction to productivity theory for industrial engineering 3

calculating system productivity have been represented in several key pub-

lications that consider all aspects of the production process. For example,
overall equipment effectiveness is a well-known concept in maintenance
and is a way of measuring the effectiveness of a machine and systems.
It is the backbone of many techniques employed in asset management
programs. However, known models for productivity of different indus-
trial machines and systems are represented by generalised equations and
approaches in terms of economics, which do not allow one to discover
all engineering properties of the production system. Real process of a
company generates the production output, and mathematical models of
the production processes can describe it. It refers to a series of compo-
nents in production processes, which include parameters of technologies,
design and reliability of machineries, management systems, that ensure
the quantity and quality of products. Productivity index is a primary
factor in economics that has two broad branches: macroeconomics and
microeconomics.
Macroeconomics studies the economy as a whole. It also studies the
country’s economy or the global economy and the economic decisions of a
firm or groups of firms. In addition, macroeconomic problems are specific
to an industry or a commodity. Macroeconomic productivity is a measure
of the efficiency of production systems, where the term productivity is a
ratio of the output to the input of labour or the amount of output per unit
of input (labour, equipment, energy and capital). There are many different
ways of measuring economic productivity. Productivity may be conceived
of as a metric of the technical or engineering efficiency of production and
might be measured based on the number of hours it takes to produce a
good. Economists provide the definition of the efficiency of production
as the ability to accomplish a job with minimum expenditure of time
and effort. In addition, in economics, there are several partial mathemati-
cal models and definitions of productivity and efficiency for production
systems. With the help of production function, it is possible to describe
simply the mechanism of economic growth that presents a production
increase achieved by an economic system. Economic growth is created by
two factors: an increase in production input and an increase in production
output. These components are represented mathematically by the follow-
ing typical equation for the productivity of economic system [8]:

M QN
L= = (1.1)
Ce C f + (Cs + S)N

where L is the productivity economic system; M is the total number

of manufactured products (output); Ce is the expenses for production
­processes (input); Cf is the fixed capital (cost of buildings, roads, lories,
facilities, machinery, power station, computer centre, etc.); Cs is the service
4 Productivity Theory for Industrial Engineering

capital (cost of materials, energy, maintenance, cooling, water supply, etc.);

S is the salary of employees, N is the service years for the economic s­ ystem
(factory, plant, industry, etc.); Q is the physical productivity rate of the
­economic system (products/year).
Economists analysed Eq. (1.1) and demonstrated how productivity of
economic system depends on the value of its components and their influ-
ence on the economic system. Increase in the physical productivity Q
gives 60%–70% of economic efficiency (automation and new technology),
decrease in the fixed capital Cf and the service capital Cs gives 15%–20%
of economic efficiency as quality of products, and decrease in the number
of employees S gives 10%–15% of economic efficiency. Therefore, physical
productivity is the main and weighed component in the efficiency of an
economic system.
Growth potentials in productivity of economic system vary greatly
by industry, and as a whole, they are directly proportionate to the engi-
neering development in the branch. New and fast-developing industries
attain stronger growth in the productivity of economic system. Developed
industries demonstrate productivity growth in small steps. By the accu-
rate measurement of productivity of economic system, it is possible to
appreciate these small changes and create an organisation culture, where
continuous improvement is a common value. Today, experts understand
that human and social capitals together with competition have a signifi-
cant impact on productivity growth. Figure 1.1 depicts the percentage of
average impact of parameters for economic efficiency of production sys-
tems, i.e. increase in the physical or machine productivity, decrease in the
fixed and service capitals and decrease in the number of employees.
Microeconomics studies the economic decisions of an individual firm
or groups of firms. Microeconomics is considered mainly as the index

Economic
efficiency
60%

Increase machine productivity

40%

Decrease fixed and service capitals

20%
Decrease number of employees

0%

Figure 1.1 Growth of economic efficiency versus increase in the machine

­productivity, decrease in the fixed and service capitals and decrease in the
­number of employees.
Chapter one: Introduction to productivity theory for industrial engineering 5

of physical or machine productivity, where the term productivity refers

to the ratio of the number of products fabricated per time. Engineering
­science (ASME) presents the term of productivity as the amount of work
that can be accomplished in a given time period. The amount of work is
represented as the number of products that can be discrete and continu-
ous for production systems in the form of number of products, weights,
length, volume, etc., which depends on the type of industries. Dimensions
for physical or machine productivity represent the number of products/
time, metre/time, litre or m3/time, kg/time, etc. Differences in produc-
tivity measurement models are made transparent and evaluated by clear
technical units in productivity theory and can be used by the following
economic models of productivity, which is the highest level of economics.
Physical productivity of machines and systems is important and is a
multifactor index that depends on the technology of processes, the reli-
ability of mechanisms, machines and units, and indices of managerial and
organisational activities, which definitely affect the output of production
systems. All these components can be represented in mathematical mod-
els for productivity rate of machines and systems. Manufacturers need
the mathematical models for the productivity rate for different designs
and complexity of industrial machines and systems. Such mathematical
models should base on the reasonable links between all parameters that
play an important role in development and evaluation of the production
systems. In addition, these mathematical models should reflect changes in
the production processes. It means mathematical models for productivity
rate of industrial machines and systems are flexible tools that can give the
ability in calculating the economic indices of production systems and take
fast decision for micro and macroeconomics policies. Hence, the produc-
tivity theory for industrial machines and systems plays a primary role in
the efficiency of the economic system.
The object of productivity theory is analysis of regularities of devel-
opment for industrial engineering and definition of reasonable links and
dependencies, and their quantitative and qualitative descriptions. These
positions include analysis of factors that affect the productivity rate of
industrial machines and systems. Productivity theory contains mathemat-
ical models for quantitative dependency of productivity rates of industrial
machines and systems on their design, structural and exploitation param-
eters, and their reliability. Qualitative indices of products are a subject of
technology theory and are considered by the productivity theory from the
point of view to increase the productivity rates of machines and systems.
Nevertheless, any kind of technological processes have restrictions due to
physical processes that cannot give a big change in the productivity rate.
Increase in the productivity rate of a machine or system is possible by the
new technological processes with high physical ability in the intensifica-
tion of the processes. However, the high potential of new technologies
6 Productivity Theory for Industrial Engineering

can be implemented on the new construction of machines and systems.

Practice demonstrates that any attempt to use new technologies on the old
machines and systems does not give expected results. Productivity the-
ory with analytical approaches enable solving these problems optimally
based on the criterion of high productivity rate for industrial machines
based on applied technology and reliability of the system.
The productivity theory for industrial machines and systems is not
new; there are key publications with fundamental approaches and mathe-
matical models of physical productivity for different designs of industrial
machines and systems [16,17]. However, known mathematical models for
the manufacturing systems are simplified with numerous assumptions
and not well developed analytically, which leads to severe errors in calcu-
lations. This is the reason that known mathematical models of productiv-
ity theory for industrial machines and systems need deep revisions and
corrections. Renovated and corrected productivity theory considered new
mathematical models for productivity rate of industrial machines and
systems, described accurately manufacturing processes and met with the
requirements of modern production systems and economics.

1.2 Production-based industries, machineries

and technologies for manufacturing systems
Since the Industrial Revolution, production-based industries clearly dem-
onstrate the evolution of technologies and machineries. Contemporary
automated lines, computerised workshops and factories with industrial
robots are the result of scientific and engineering work.
From known types of industries, this book mainly considers
­production­-based ones and derived that the productivity theory is
applied to the primary and secondary industries. Primary industry is
described by the main activity, which is extraction of raw materials from
natural products untreated by people, from the land or sea, and consider-
ing mining, quarrying, forestry, farming and fishing. Secondary indus-
try is described by the manufacture or the process of raw materials into
­consumable goods.
Manufacturing is the production of goods for use and based on use
of labour and machinery with metallurgical, casting, forging, chemical,
textile, biological, etc., processing. The term may refer to a wide range
of human activity, from handicraft to high-tech, but most commonly
applied to industrial production. Such finished goods may be used for
manufacturing other, more complex products, such as aircraft, household
appliances or automobiles and numerous other products. Modern manu-
facturing includes all intermediate processes required for the production
and integration of a product’s components. Typical manufacturing pro-
cesses or technologies are material removal, material forming, additive
Chapter one: Introduction to productivity theory for industrial engineering 7

processes, joining, assembling, packaging, non-traditional technologies,

etc., and implemented in manufacturing systems.
A manufacturing system can be defined as the arrangement and
operation of machines, tools, material, people and information to produce
a value-added physical, informational or service product, whose success
and cost is characterised by measurable parameters. All manufactur-
ing or production systems and processes are classified by the following
three common types: mass, batch with internal divisions (small batch,
medium batch, large batch productions) and job shop. In mass production,
­equipment are specialised in execution identical, repeated operations of
technological process.
In batch production, equipment are specialised in execution of two
or more fixed operations, interchanged in defined sequences. In job-shop
production, equipment is loaded by different works and does not have
stable fixed operations. Today some industries have new types of manu-
facturing system that calls as mass and fast changeable production sys-
tem that have properties of mass and batch productions. Manufacturing
is usually directed towards the mass production of products for sale to
consumers at a profit. Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate
processes required for the production and integration of a product’s com-
ponents. The manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering
and industrial design.
These properties of the production processes reflect on the designs
of the manufacturing facilities. Analysis of the manufacturing machines
and systems for different productions depicts the following picture. In
the mass production system, items to be processed flow through a series
of steps, or operations, that are common to most other products being
processed. Since large volumes of throughput are expected, specially
designed equipment and methods are often used so that lower produc-
tion costs can be achieved. Frequently, the tasks handled by workers are
divided into relatively small segments that can be quickly mastered and
efficiently performed. Examples include systems for assembling auto-
mobile engines and automobiles themselves, as well as other consumer
products such as televisions, washing machines and personal comput-
ers. Mass production systems are often referred to as assembly systems
or assembly line systems and, as noted later, are common in mass pro-
duction ­operations. Mass production system is equipped by the machine
tools and automated lines with fixed designs.
In the batch system, general-purpose equipment and methods are
used to produce small quantities of output (goods or services) with
­specifications that vary greatly from one batch to the next. A given quan-
tity of a product is moved as a batch through one or more steps, and the
total volume emerges simultaneously at the end of the production cycle.
Examples include systems for producing specialised machine tools or
8 Productivity Theory for Industrial Engineering

heavy-duty construction equipment, specialty chemicals and processed

food products, or in the service sector, the system for processing claims
in a large insurance company. Small batch production systems are often
referred to as job shops.
Batch production systems are base for the flexible manufacturing
­systems with the computerised numerical control (CNC) machine tools.
The batch production system mentioned thus far is often found in combi-
nation with other types.
The third type of production system is the project, or job-shop system,
i.e. for a single, one-of-a-kind product. Because of the singular nature of
project systems, special methods of management have been developed to
contain the costs of production within reasonable levels. Job-shop produc-
tion is equipped mainly by manually controlled machine tools and can
have same properties and machinery with small batch production sys-
tem. Analysis of the machinery designs for different types of production
systems demonstrates that each type of production equipped with own
designs of machinery cannot be used effectively at other systems.
Technology. One important aspect of manufacturing process is tech-
nology. Industrial technology is the use of engineering and manufactur-
ing technology to make production faster, simpler and more efficient.
An industrial technologist involves the processes of management, oper-
ation and maintenance of complex operation systems. Manufacturing
systems comprise production technologies and associated services,
processes, plants and equipment, including automation, robotics, mea-
surement systems, cognitive information processing, signal processing
and production control by high-speed information and communication
systems.
Advanced manufacturing systems involve manufacturing opera-
tions that create high-tech products, use innovative techniques in man-
ufacturing and invention of new processes and technologies for future
­manufacturing. This competitive advantage can only be built on manu-
facturing strength, which is best achieved through the acquisition of the
highest technology and equipment in time. Those who master advanced
manufacturing technologies will be endowed with the right machinery to
respond to needs related to cost, quality and cycle time.
Today, industrial countries are homeland to major and advanced
manufacturing processes. These manufacturing industries provide tech-
nologies and solutions, which are needed to respond to major challenges
of the nearest future to ensure a better future for society. Advanced
manufacturing systems integrate different technologies and knowledge
into manufacturing process, which help to optimise the production
and ­factories. An industrial technology professional uses engineering
and fabrication skills to produce a streamlined manufacturing process.
These systems comprise not a single technology but rather a combination
Chapter one: Introduction to productivity theory for industrial engineering 9

of different technologies which include, among others, material engi-

neering technologies (e.g. metal forming, metal removing, knitting,
­chipping, assembling, etc.), electronic and computing technologies, and
their ­combination, measuring technologies (including optical and chemi-
cal technologies), transportation technologies and other logistic technolo-
gies. The industrial technology field employs creative and technically
proficient individuals who can help a company achieve efficient and prof-
itable productivity.
Machinery. Since the Industrial Revolution, manufacturing machines
passed the evolution process, starting from simple designs and today
represented manufacturing systems as advanced in designs and automa-
tions like automated lines and factories. This variety of manufacturing
machines enables demonstrating their evolution, direction of develop-
ment and the change in increase of productivity.
Industries use two types of machinery that should be separated for
the following analysis. The first type is the power-related machinery that
converts electric, thermal, chemical, etc., into mechanical energy. The sec-
ond type is the general-purpose machinery that is used in production
systems to manufacture goods for consumers. There is a special-purpose
machinery that is machinery designed for exclusive use in one or a small
cluster of activities. The general- and special-purpose machinery are
widely used in production processes of different type goods in manufac-
turing industries. This type of machinery is represented in metal-forming
and metal-removing technologies that accounted more value added in the
machinery and equipment-manufacturing sector.
Manufacturing technology provides the machinery that enable pro-
duction of all manufactured goods. Machinery includes machine tools,
automated lines with machine tools that are called workstations and
other related equipment and their accessories and tooling used to perform
­specific operations on manufactured materials to produce durable goods
or components. Related technologies include computer-aided design and
computer-aided manufacturing as well as assembly and test systems to
create a final product or subassembly. In addition, big variances in con-
structional decisions of manufacturing machines and systems give rise to
big variances in designations of machineries. For example, some publica-
tions represent manufacturing lines as a flow line, transfer line, conveyor
line, etc. Productivity theory uses the following designations for consis-
tency: manufacturing system is an arrangement created by machine tools
of independent work and equipped with simple transporters for work
parts by rolled tables, chutes, etc.; automated line is an arrangement cre-
ated by machine tools or workstations of hard joining and equipped with
transport and control systems. These manufacturing arrangements can
be different designs and structures, but with independent or dependent
work of basic technological machineries.
10 Productivity Theory for Industrial Engineering

Technologies are basis for machinery designs. Manufacturing spe-

cial machinery and automated machinery is the backbone of production
systems, because automation in solving primary problems increases pro-
ductivity. Regular practice demonstrates that upgrading or rebuilding
existing automation systems or special machines is the most productive
and cost-effective solution.
Analysis of machinery’s designs for all type of industries demon-
strates that the basic structure of any type of industrial machines is the
same and can be presented as shown in Figure 1.2. Structural difference
of machines is in executive mechanisms that form the machine’s designs.
The properties of executive mechanisms play important role in productiv-
ity theory for industrial machines and systems. Executive mechanisms
implement machining, auxiliary motions and control the work of them.
Reliability of the executive mechanisms is a primary factor presented
by attributes in mathematical models of productivity rate for industrial
machines and systems.
Metal-forming technologies. Metal-forming processes belong to the pre-
paratory stage of a production system that generally relate to production
of the blanks or work parts for the next machining stage. Metal-forming
technologies imply the formation of blanks or work parts through cast-
ing or plastic deformation of the raw material and refer to a group of
manufacturing methods. The forming processes do not lead to a signifi-
cant change in mass, composition or volume of the material by which
the given shape of the work part is converted to another shape. Metal-
forming machinery by plastic deformation is represented by a variety of
types of machines. Typical machinery of cold- and hot-forming technol-
ogy are forging machine, hammer, press and bending machine, press-
forming machine, shearing machine, blanking and punching machines,

Manufacturing machine Textile machine Mining machine

Mechanisms for Mechanisms for Mechanisms for
Actuator machining motions: machining motions: machining motions:
spindles, tools, spindles, bobbins mining head,
supports, etc flyers, spools, etc boring arm,
Transmission turntable, etc

Mechanisms for Mechanisms for

Mechanisms for auxiliary motions:
Execuitive auxiliary motions: auxiliary motions: mobile base,
mechanisms feeder, clamps feeder, grippers conveyor, scoop
clutches, etc clutches, etc clutches, etc

Control system: Control system: Control system:

mechanical, mechanical, mechanical,
electric, electric, electric,
electronic electronic electronic

Figure 1.2 Structure of industrial machines.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
perla de tan grande estima que no
le podían poner precio, y con él
se hizo una salsa de que comió
Marco Antonio. También es autor
Flavio Vopisco, que uno llamado
Phiago comía cien panes y una
ternera y un puerco á un comer,
aunque parece esto cosa que se
creerá de mala gana. Eracides,
griego, era tan gran comedor, que
convidaba á los que querían
comer con él á cualquiera hora
del día por tornar á comer con
ellos muchas veces. De los
pueblos de Asia y de los asirios,
muchos escriben que no
entendían sino en comer y beber,
y que en esto ponían su
bienaventuranza; y lo que más se
puede notar de todo es lo que
escribe Julio César en el libro
llamado Anticatones, que Marco
Catón uticense, con todas las
virtudes que dél se cuentan, era
tan destemplado en el comer y
beber, que muchas veces pasaba
toda una noche sin dormir por
estar en los banquetes. Quinto
Ortensio, orador, fué el primero
que hizo en Roma que los pavos
se comiessen, y Sergio Orata,
según dice Plinio, inventó
estanques en el lago bayano por
tener en él las ostras para vender
á la gula de los romanos, y Lúculo
rasgó una montaña sobre
Nápoles á grandísima costa para
hacer un estanque para tener
pescado con que satisfacer su
gula. Y porque me parece que
bastan los ejemplos que he
traído, oígan vuesas mercedes
las palabras de Macrobio en el
libro tercero de las Saturnales, las
cuales son éstas: Quién negará
haber sido grandíssima y indómita
gula entre los antiguos, los cuales
de mar tan largo traían
instrumentos á su desorden,
como son las lampreas que
echaban en los estanques, y sin
éstas, hay muchas cosas y
autoridades que podrían hacer al
caso para probar que los antiguos
no tuvieron la templanza que el
señor licenciado ha dicho; pero si
él me satisface á esto, yo me daré
por satisfecho en todo lo demás
que pudiere alegar.
Licenciado.—En trabajo me ha
puesto el señor Salazar, porque
no tienen tan poca fuerza sus
argumentos y razones que no
será dificultosa la respuesta; pero
yo espero en Dios de darle tan
buena salida que le contente y
confiesse ser verdad lo que yo he
dicho. Y digo que es assí, que
también entre los antiguos hubo
algunos golosos y desordenados,
tanto y más que agora lo son, y
que se hacían los banquetes y
gastos excesivos en muy gran
cantidad; pero esta desorden no
era general como agora lo es,
sino particular, y de manera que
generalmente parecía mal á
todos, porque no hay ciudad tan
bien ordenada donde no haya
algunos delitos, ni campo de
soldados tan bien concertado que
no haya en él algunos revoltosos,
ni aun monasterio, si es de
muchos frayles, que no esté en él
algún desasosegado, y así no es
mucho que entre tan gran multitud
de gentes como en los tiempos
antiguos había en el mundo,
hubiese algunos dados á la
desorden de la gula, así como el
señor Salazar lo ha dicho, que de
creer es que aún serán muchos
más de los que dice; pero éstos,
en comparación de los otros que
usaban de la templanza, es como
una estrella para todas las que
hay en el cielo, y una golondrina,
como suelen decir, no hace
verano, ni diez granos de neguilla
en un muelo de trigo no son
causa de que se haga mal pan, ni
es justo que por tan pocos
golosos condenemos á muchos
templados; y la mayor señal de
que lo eran es que luego se
conocían entre ellos los que se
desmandaban en el comer y
beber demasiadamente. Y los
poetas y oradores tratando de
este vicio lo traían por exemplo
para que los que después dellos
viniesen, pensando que las
gentes habían siempre de
permanecer en la templanza que
ellos comúnmente guardaban;
pero agora en nuestros tiempos
así podríamos notar un hombre
templado y tenerlo en mucho,
como si viésemos alguna cosa
muy nueva, y los que lo son es
porque no pueden más, que la
gula y la curiosidad del comer
está tan desenfrenada en todos,
que es cosa para espantar á los
que bien lo consideraren, y lo que
peor es que los pobres y los que
poco pueden muchas veces son
más golosos y destemplados que
los ricos, y no se contentan con
un manjar ni con dos ni con tres,
que querrían comer cincuenta si
pudiessen. Y entre los antiguos
no debían ser menos cinco que
agora ciento, porque así dice
Juvenal en la primera sátira
reprendiendo este vicio: ¿Quién
hubo entre los antiguos que en
los convites secretos comiesse
siete manjares? Como si dixese:
Gran desorden es la que agora
hay en Roma, pues que hay
banquetes en que se sirven siete
platos diferentes, lo cual nunca se
hizo entre los antiguos. Y pues
que Juvenal en su tiempo
reprendía este desconcierto, ¿qué
hiciera en el nuestro viendo los
grandes desconciertos que ya
vienen en dar en locura? En que,
como he dicho, no sería poco
necesario el remedio, como lo
pusieron los atenienses con los
criados y hijos de uno que se
llamaba Nosipio, que porque
supieron que comía y bebía
demasiadamente, mandaron que
no comiesen con él, porque no
quedasen avezados á aquella
mala costumbre. Agora hombres
hay que comen mucho; pero si lo
pide su estómago, no son tanto
de reprenderle como los que
quieren comer de muchos y
diferentes manjares, adobados
con mucha diversidad de cosas,
entre las cuales unas son
calientes, otras son frías, unas
templadas y otras sin ninguna
templanza; unas son duras y
pessadas y otras son fáciles de
gastar, de manera que la virtud
del estómago se embaraza con
ellas y no puede recebir tanto
provecho que no será mayor el
daño para no sé conservar la
salud ni la vida. Y torno á decir
que teniendo atención á la
moderación y buena regla que los
antiguos tenían en sus comidas,
que todos agora se habrían de
moderar en ellas, y
principalmente los grandes
señores, á lo menos en no hacer
gastos superfluos y sin provecho,
que después que se sirven lo que
se pueden comer, y hasta sin
hacer falta, no han de querer que
se sirva lo demás para sólo el
humo de la autoridad y de la
grandeza, pues se conoce el poco
provecho y el gran daño que se
recibe. Y aun el mundo y la gente
conocen dél tiene muy gran razón
de agraviarse, porque esto es
causa de que los mantenimientos
se hayan subido en precios tan
excesivos, porque saben que hay
muchos que los compren y gasten
y que han de hallar por ellos lo
que pidieren y quisieren llevar. Y
en verdad que no sería mal hecho
que en esto se pusiese algún
remedio y se hiciesse alguna ley
en que se diese orden para
remediarlo. Y porque me he
divertido de lo que queda con el
señor Salazar, que fué
satisfacerle á sus objeciones,
quiero saber si queda satisfecho
con lo que he respondido, porque
á no lo estar, yo me conformaré
con su buen parecer y juicio.
Salazar.—No faltará qué poder
replicar, pero yo sé que vuesa
merced me satisfará tan bien á
ello como á lo pasado, y assí lo
quiero dexar, aunque no fuera
malo que con reprender la
desorden y destemplanza de las
comidas se hubiera dicho algo de
la que se tiene en el tiempo
dellas, porque también se estima
por grandeza no tener orden ni
concierto en esto, haciendo del
día noche y de la noche día, y
caando han de comer á las diez
del día comen á las dos de la
tarde, y si han de cenar á las seis
de la tarde cenan á las once y á
las doce de la noche, assí que es
una confusión y desatino la que
ellos tienen por orden y concierto.
Ruiz.—Bien entendida está ya
esta materia, porque el señor
licenciado la ha tratado tan bien
en tan pocas palabras, que queda
poco por decir de lo dicho, y
paréceme que no habrá menos
que tratar de la desorden que se
tiene en los vestidos y gastos que
en ellos se hacen, porque no
tienen menos destruído el mundo
ni es menos el yerro que las
gentes cometen en este desatino.
Licenciado.—Essa es materia
más larga y para tratarse más
despacio que el que agora
tenemos, porque la noche se
viene acercando y el sereno, con
el frescor del río, podría hacernos
daño si más nos detuviésemos, y
si vuestras mercedes mandasen,
será bien que nos vamos.
Quiñones.—También el señor
licenciado se ha querido en esto
mostrar médico como en lo
pasado, y pues es su consejo tan
bueno, justo será que lo sigamos.
Ruiz.—Por entre las huertas
podremos ir, por no volver por
donde venimos.
Salazar.—Guíe vuestra merced
delante, que todos le seguiremos.

Finis.
 COLLOQUIO

Que trata de la desorden que en

este tiempo se tiene en los
vestidos y cuán necesario
sería poner remedio en ello.

INTERLOCUTORES

Sarmiento.—Escobar.—Herrera.

Herrera.—¿No veis, señor

Sarmiento, qué galán y costoso
viene Escobar? Por Dios, que me
espanto de verle cada día salir
con un vestido de su manera, que
si tuviera un cuento de renta no
podría hacer más de lo que hace.
Sarmiento.—Passo que, según
es delicado, si nos oye pensará
que estamos murmurando dél.
Herrera.—Y aunque lo
hiciésemos sería pagarle de lo
que merece, porque jamás sabe
hacer otra cosa de todos cuantos
hay en el mundo.
Sarmiento.—No le arriendo la
ganancia, pues ha de pagar su
ánima lo que pecare su lengua.
Escobar.—¿Qué ociosidad es
esta tan grande? ¿Por ventura
tenéis, señores, tomado el paso á
las damas, que hoy andan en
visitaciones, para gozar de verlas
y juzgarlas? Pues á fe que no
tarden en venir dos dellas, que no
son de las más feas del pueblo.
Herrera.—Antes estamos para
juzgar los galanes, y vos sois el
primero, porque venís tan galán
que dais á entender á todos en
miraros.
Escobar.—¿Y qué gala halláis
que es ésta?
Herrera.—Si essa no lo es,
¿cuál queréis que lo sea? En
verdad que me parece á mí que
bastaría para un gran señor,
cuanto más para un pobre
caballero como vos. No fuera bien
que os contentárades con
tafetanes en esas calzas, sino
que por fuerza había de ser telilla
de oro, y aun no de la de Milán?
Escobar.—Hícelo porque dice
mejor con el terciopelo blanco.
Herrera.—Pues, la guarnición
de capa y sayo, ¿no es costosa?
Yo fiador que con lo que ella costó
se pudieran hacer bien dos sayos
y dos capas, sin que la capa está
toda aforrada en felpa para el
fresco que hace, y la hechura,
según lleva la obra, no debió de
ser muy barata.
Escobar.—No fué muy cara; en
ocho ducados sayo y capa.
Herrera.—Loado Dios que ocho
ducados os parecen poco. Agora
acabo de confirmar lo que
muchas veces he pensado, que
una de las cosas, y aun la más
principal, que el día de hoy trae la
gente pobre y perdida, sin
alcanzar con qué poder
sustentarse, es la costa grande
de los vestidos, los cuales
empobrecen harto más
dulcemente que no los edificios. Y
esta manera de empobrecer no la
puedo yo llamar por otro nombre
sino locura.
Escobar.—De essa manera todo
el mundo es loco, pues no hay
ninguno que podiendo no quisiese
andar muy bien vestido.
Herrera.—Confieso que,
generalmente, es assí; pero
muchos hay que no entran entre
los que decís.
Escobar.—Essos hacerlo han de
desventurados y mezquinos y que
tienen en poco la honra, porque
una de las cosas con que los
hombres andan más honrados es
con andar muy bien aderezados y
vestidos.
Herrera.—Bien habéis dicho, si
en ello no hubiese extremos, los
cuales son muy odiosos en
cualquiera cosa, y más en ésta
que forzosamente, tarde ó
temprano, se ha de dar señal de
un extremo á otro.
Escobar.—Yo os declaro que
hasta agora no os he entendido.
Herrera.—Pues yo haré que me
entendáis muy presto. Digo, que
los hombres habrían siempre de
tener respeto á su posibilidad y
mirar lo de adelante,
conformándose y contentándose
con lo que puedan para no caer
de aquello en que una vez se
pusieren, y si lo sustentaren, que
sea con no padecer trabajo por
otra vía. Que muy bien puede un
hombre vestirse de terciopelos,
rasos y gastar ciento ó doscientos
ducados si los tiene, y acabados
aquellos vestidos, como no tenga
con qué comprar otros, viene á
caer de un extremo en otro, que
es harto peor que si al principio se
contentara con un sayo y una
capa de paño, sin hacer tanta
costa, de manera que se hallan
los hombres sin la hacienda que
gastaron y no pueden sustentar la
honra que por ello decís que se
les sigue.
Escobar.—Muy gran seso sería
esse si los mancebos hubiesen
de contemplar essas cosas.
Herrera.—No pongo yo menos
culpa á los viejos que á los
mozos, porque también en esto
andan desordenados, aunque no
sea tanto como ellos.
Escobar.—Por vuestra vida,
señor Herrera, que dexéis estar el
mundo como lo hallasteis y como
siempre fue, porque excusado
será que por vuestro parecer
haya mudanza ni las gentes
dexen de vestirse costosamente
como lo hacen.
Herrera.—Engañado estáis,
señor Escobar, ni yo, aunque no
soy muy viejo, hallé en los
vestidos el mundo como agora le
vemos, ni fué siempre lo que
agora parece; antes hace en esto
tantas mudanzas, y más en
nuestros tiempos, que ya es
confusión pensar en ello.
Escobar.—Yo no las creo.
Herrera.—Es porque tenéis los
pensamientos embarazados, y
será bien que yo os diga algunas
para que os desengañéis y para
que veáis si se puede condenar
las de agora por una desatinada
locura.
Escobar.—Pues en verdad que
yo huelgo de oiros de muy buena
voluntad, y lo mismo hace, por
amor de mí, el señor Sarmiento,
que harto tiempo y espacio
tenemos para todo.
Herrera.—No ha muchos
tiempos que, en España, andaban
vestidas las gentes tan
llanamente que no traía un señor
de diez cuentos de renta lo que
agora trae un escudero de
quinientos ducados de hacienda,
porque estonces no había un
sayo entero de terciopelo, y el
que tenía un jubón, no hacía
poco, que éste era el hábito que
estonces se usaba, trayendo los
sayos sin mangas para que se
pareciesse, y algunos traían solas
las mangas con un collar postizo
de terciopelo que subía encima
del sayo para que se pareciese. Y
otros no ponían en las mangas
más de las puntas, que eran
cuatro ó cinco dedos de ancho,
que por mucha gala sacaban
fuera de las mangas del sayo
para que se pareciesse. El hábito
de encima eran capas castellanas
como agora se usan, ó capuces
cerrados de la manera que los
traen muchos portugueses, y por
guarnición un rebete de terciopelo
tan angosto que apenas podía
cobrir la orilla. Los sayos eran
largos y con girones; el que se
vestía de Londres no pensaba
que andaba poco costoso;
traíanlos escotados como
camisas de mujeres, y una puerta
muy pequeña delante de los
pechos puesta con cuatro cintas ó
agujetas y los musiquís de las
mangas muy anchos.
Sarmiento.—Bien extremado
está esto de lo de agora, porque
lo que estonces echaban en las
faldas y en las mangas echan
agora en los collares, que hacen
que suban encima de los cocotes
y ande el pescuezo metido en
ellos de manera que parecen los
que los traen mastines con
carrancas.
Herrera.—No quiero yo altercar
cuál es mejor uso en los trajes, el
de entonces ó el de agora; pero
solamente quiero que entendáis
que el de estonces era muy á la
llana y el de este tiempo muy
curioso, y cuanto al parecer bien,
aquello que se usa es lo que bien
parece, y si se usase traer los
zapatos de lana y las gorras de
cuero, á nadie le parecería mal;
pero dexando esto, el hábito de
encima era un capuz cerrado y el
que lo traía de contray de
Valencia no pensaba que era
poco costoso, y había de ser muy
rico para traerlo, y las calzas
todas eran llanas, que no sabían
qué cosa era otra hechura nueva;
usábanse estos bonetes que
agora se traen castellanos y unas
medias gorras con la vuelta
alzada ó caída atrás, y gorras de
grana grandes con unos tafetanes
de colores por debajo de la barba.
Escobar.—Debían de ser como
las que agora se pintan en las
mantas francesas.
Herrera.—Decís la verdad, y
aun hoy veréis muchos trajes
antiguos destos que digo. Los
señores por fiesta se vestían de
grana colorada ó morada, y era
tan grande la templanza que se
solía tener en los vestidos, que
andando yo buscando unas
escrituras de las de la casa de un
señor deste reino, vi entre ellas
una carta que el rey escrebía á
uno de sus pasados, por la cual le
rogaba y mandaba que se llegase
á la corte, que para el gasto que
se hiciese le ymbiaba once mil
maravedís de ayuda de costa, y
que lo que le encargaba era que
en ninguna dejase de llevar él su
jubón de puntas y collar de
brocado.
Sarmiento.—Gentil antigualla es
essa para lo que agora usamos;
cierto pocas acémilas debían de
ser menester en este tiempo para
llevar las recámaras de los
señores.
Herrera.—Lo que no llevaban
de recámara llevaban en la
mucha y muy lucida gente de que
andaban acompañados, que
parecía harto mejor que los cofres
en las acémilas, cargados de
plata y de oro y de vestidos
demasiados, y no por esso
dejaban de ir bien proveídos de lo
necesario para la calidad de sus
personas. Y con esto traían
también los señores una ropa de
martas que era la cosa de más
estima que estonces había, y
agora así Dios me salve que la he
yo visto traer á mercaderes y
personas que no valían otro tanto
su hacienda como el valor que
tiene la ropa. Pero esto no lo
tengo en tanto como ver que hoy
ha cuarenta años si vían á un
pobre hombre con un sayo de
terciopelo por rico que fuese, le
miraban como á cosa nueva y
desordenada, y en este tiempo
hasta los mozos y criados de los
caballos y aun los oficiales no lo
tienen en más que á un sayo
pardo, y pluguiese á Dios que se
contentasen con andar vestidos
de terciopelo y de las otras
maneras de sedas llanamente,
que lo que mayor daño hace es
las hechuras, las invenciones
nuevas y costosas que muchas
veces cuesta más lo acessorio
que lo principal, según las cosas
que piden los sastres y oficiales
de seda para pespuntar, para
hacer los torcidos, los caireles, los
grandujados, dando golpes y
cuchilladas en lo sano, deshilando
y desflorando, echando
pasamanos, cordones y trenzas,
botones, alamares; y lo que peor
es, que cuando un hombre piensa
que está vestido para diez años,
no es pasado uno cuando viene
otro uso nuevo que luego le pone
en cuidado, y lo que estaba muy
bien hecho se torna á deshacer y
remendar, quitando y poniendo; y
aun muchas veces no aprovecha
toda la industria que se pone, sino
que se ha de tornar á hacer de
nuevo, de manera que los usos é
invenciones nuevas de cada día
desasosiegan las gentes y
acaban las haciendas, porque
somos tan locos, que ninguno hay
que se conforme con lo que
puede, sino que el que tiene
veinte ducados los quiere también
echar en un sayo y en una capa,
como el que tiene dos mil, y no ha
sido esto poca parte para
encarecer los paños y sedas
hasta venir al precio que agora
piden y tienen, que si no hubiese
quien los comprase, gastándolos,
tan mal gastados, ellos vendrían á
valer harto más barato de lo que
valen.
Sarmiento.—Una cosa no puedo
yo acabar de entender, y es que
cuanto más encarecen los paños
y sedas y van subiendo en precio,
tanto se desordenan más las
gentes y procuran andar mejor
vestidos y más costosos.
Herrera.—Hacen como los
hombres beodos, que cuando hay
mayor carestía de vino les crece
más el apetito del beber, y no
tienen el real cuando lo ofrecen
en la taberna, aunque no les
quede otro ninguno; y pluguiese á
Dios que lo mismo hiciésemos
nosotros yendo con los dineros en
casa de los mercaderes, pero no
hacemos sino sacar fiado tan sin
medida como si nunca se hubiese
de pagar, y por esto sube cada
vara tres ó cuatro reales en
precio, y el pagar es muchas
veces con essecuciones, de
manera que por la mayor parte
viene á ser más el daño y las
costas que se pagan que lo
principal que se debe, y sin tener
respecto á ninguna cosa destas
no dejan de andar todos
desmedidos y desconcertados. Y
de lo que á mí me toma gana de
reir es de ver que los oficiales y
los hombres comunes andan tan
aderezados y puestos en orden
que no se diferencian en el hábito
de los caballeros y poderosos, y
topándolos en la calle quien no
los conozca, muchas veces
juzgará que cada uno dellos tiene
un cuento de renta.
Sarmiento.—Sabéis, señor
Herrera, que veo que esta
desorden y desconcierto que
decís de los vestidos solamente la
hay entre los cristianos. Y aun no
entre todos, porque dexando
aparte los que viven fuera del
conocimiento y sujeción de la
madre Iglesia romana, aun de los
que le son subjetos hay muchos
que no tienen esta curiosidad,
como son los húngaros, los
escoceses y otras gentes que
andan con hábitos humildes y
poco costosos; y lo que á mí me
parece que me da mayor causa
de murmurar es ver la templanza
de los infieles, moros, turcos y
gentiles. Porque á los moros y
turcos, que son los que confinan
con la christiandad y de quien
más noticia tenemos, vemos que
andan todos con hábitos y
aderezos casi comunes, y los que
son más ricos y poderosos,
cuando más se quieren
diferenciar en los vestidos, ponen
una almalafa ó capuz cerrado de
grana colorada ó de otro paño de
color, con unos borceguíes de
buen cuero. Todos ellos traen
zarahuelles sin gastar sus
haciendas en muslos de calzas, ni
en guarniciones, ni en otras cosas