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مشروع عمر ١
مشروع عمر ١
مشروع عمر ١
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ACNOWLEDGEMENT
We also wish to convey our utmost gratitude to our parents for their
unwavering love, prayers, support, and sacrifices. Without their selfless
devotion and support, this achievement would not have been possible.
Special thanks are extended to Almighty God for granting us the strength,
knowledge, ability, and opportunity to undertake this research study. Without
His guidance and mercy, our endeavors, including this research, would not
have come to fruition. To God be the Glory!
ABSTRACT:
INTRODUCTION:
Peritoneal dialysis can also effectively manage hyperkalemia but is less efficient
than hemodialysis. It may remove around half as much potassium as a standard
four-hour hemodialysis session in 24 hours. For patients with lower risk, high-
volume daily peritoneal dialysis can be an option, aiming to maximize
potassium clearance by using large fluid volumes and regular exchanges with
potassium-free dialysis fluid. Peritoneal dialysis also offers continuous therapy,
preventing rebound hyperkalemia and providing other potential benefits such as
increased hemodynamic stability and reduced need for vascular access.[25]
Definitions of Hyperkalemia:
In addition of that, there are other causes of high potassium level, like
Addison's disease, trauma or burn.And, some medications can cause high
potassium, like some water pills, beta blockers, some blood pressure
medications, and NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs). [31]
History and Physical Examination: A detailed medical history can provide clues
about potential causes. This includes conditions like chronic kidney disease,
medications (diuretics, ACE inhibitors), recent illnesses, and dietary habits.
Laboratory Tests:
Urine Studies: Urine tests like urine potassium and creatinine levels and urine
osmolality help assess kidney function and potassium excretion.
Other Blood Tests: Depending on the suspected cause, other blood tests like
blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, and adrenal hormone levels may be
helpful.
Purpose Test
In clinical settings, RAAS inhibitors are widely prescribed for CKD patients
due to their beneficial effects on both cardiac and renal functions. Recent
review and meta-analysis indicate their kidney-protective role, especially in
CKD patients with proteinuria, marking them as the primary choice among
antihypertensive medications for this patient group. However, it's crucial to
acknowledge the risk of hyperkalemia associated with their use.[42]
For instance, the Renaal study, focusing on diabetic kidney disease patients
treated with Losartan or a placebo, noted a higher incidence of hyperkalemia in
the Losartan group. Similarly, another study found that patients on irbesartan
had a significantly higher hyperkalemia rate compared to those on placebo. This
mirrors findings in the general population without CKD, where hyperkalemia
correlates with increased cardiovascular events and mortality among those with
renal injury.[43]
Notably, combined ACEI and ARB therapy, though potentially beneficial, has
been associated with a heightened risk of hyperkalemia and acute kidney injury.
Consequently, clinicians often reduce or discontinue RAAS inhibitors due to
potassium level concerns. However, this strategy may yield adverse outcomes.
Research by Epstein et al. revealed that patients who received lower doses or
had RAAS inhibitors discontinued after hyperkalemia experienced more
adverse events related to CKD progression, initiation of dialysis, cardiovascular
incidents, or mortality compared to those maintaining the maximum tolerated
dose.
Balancing the risk of hyperkalemia with the cardiac and renal benefits of RAAS
inhibitors underscores the need for exploring alternative therapeutic options for
potassium level management.[44]
CLINICAL CONSEQUENCES[45]
TREATMENT[46]
The management of hyperkalemia is divided into treatment for acute events and
chronic control of serum potassium.
The treatment for acute elevations of potassium aims to antagonize the action of
the ion in the cellular membrane and increase the potassium intake to the
intracellular space. These measures provide a temporary reduction or removal
of serum potassium. For that end, the therapeutic options are calcium gluconate,
insulin, sodium bicarbonate, b-adrenergic antagonists, diuretics, and/or
initiation or intensification of dialysis The focus of this review is not to provide
a detailed description of the treatment for acute hyperkalemia.[47]
Some patients, after the initial measures, still maintain a high level of
potassium. For these, it is indicated to associate pharmacological approaches,
such as the use of sodium bicarbonate and the introduction or increase of
diuretics. The sodium bicarbonate dose varies between 3-5 grams per day and is
indicated only in patients with metabolic acidosis. It is worth noting that this
measure is poorly tolerated in patients with CKD patients in advanced stages
due to the risk of increased blood pressure and fluid retention The prescription
of diuretics should be made with caution and strict control to prevent
hypovolemia, hypotension, decreased GFR, and, consequently, the recurrence
of hyperkalemia In addition, exchange resins can be used .[48]
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