m Designationi D2412 - 11 An American National Standard {-i

-.'t
'tF
Standard Test Method for H
Determination of External Loading Characteristics of Plastic o
Pipe by Parallel-Plate Loadingl zu

This standard is issued u[der the fixed designation D2412 the number imrediatel-v following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the yeu of last revision. A number in paentheses indicates the year of last reapproval- A
supersc*ipt epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

7-his stundard has been approved for use bv aBencies of tlrc Department of Defense.
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1. Scope* D695 Test \4ethod for Compressive Properties of Rigid s

Plastics
1.1 This test method covers the detennination of load-
D1600 Terninology for Abbreviated Tems Relating to Plas- s
deflection characteristics of plastic pipe under parallel-plate
tics
loading. $
D2122 Test N{ethod firr Determining Dimensions of Ther- {*€
1.2 This test method covers thermoplastic resin pipe, rein- nroplastic Pipe and Fittings
forced thermosetting resin pipe (RTRP), and reinforced poly- Ell'i Practice for Use of the Terns Plecision and Bias in
mer mortar pipe (RPMP),
**
ASTM Test Methods -t?
1.3 The characteristics determined by this test method are E69l Practice lor Conducting an Interlaboratory Study to {'1
Determine the Precision of a Test Method ^
pipe stiffness, stiflness factor, and load at specific deflections.
t40-5 Specification lor Corrugated Polyethylene (PE) Pipe
1.4 The values stated in inch-p<lund units are to be regarded -e=
and Fittings =9
as standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical
F41? Tenninology Relating to Plastic Piping Systems r.:
conversions to SI units that are provided lor information only iri
i+ tE r
and are not considered standard.
3. Terminology
l-While this test method can bc used in measuring the pipe
3.1 Definitions-Definitions are in accordance with Termi- nb
NorE
stiffness of comrgated plastic pipe or tubing, special conditions and td
procedures are used. These details are included in the product standards, nology b412, and abbreviations are in accordance with Termi- g16
&qb
lbr exarnple, Specrfication F405. nology D1600, unless otherwise specified. (8t$
.<ft
1.5 The text of this test method relerences notes
and 3.2 Definitions of krms Specific' to This Standard:
footnotes that provide explanatory material. These notes and 3.2.1 A1,-measured change of the inside diameter in the xm iI!b
lbotnotes (excluding those in tables and figures) shall not be direction of load application expressed in inches (millimetres).
considered as requirements of the test method. 3.2.2 initial inside diameter (d)-the average of the inside
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1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the diameters as determined for the several test specimens and d<
safety concerns, if atry, associated with its use. It is the expressed in inches (millimetres). ui ='
responsibiliry of the ttser of this standard to establish apprc' 3.2.3 load (F)-the load applied to the pipe to produce a
priate safety and health practices and deterntitte the applica- given percentage deflection. Expressed as newtons per metre or
bili4' of regulatory limitations prior to use. pounds-force per linear inch.
s
2. Referenced Documents 3.2.4 mean radius (r)-the mid-wall
radius determined by $
subtracting the average wall thickness from the average outside
2.1 ASTM Standards:2 diameter and dividing the difference by two. Expressed as
(r1
&
inches (millimetres). a.
3.2.5 pipe deflection (P)-the ratio of the reduction in pipe
I This test method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee Fl7 on Plastic
inside diameter to the initial inside diameter expressed as the sol
Piping Systenrs and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee F17.40 on Test
Meth0ds. percentage of the initial inside diameter.
Curent edition approved April l. 2011. Published April 2011. Originally ul
approved in 1965. kst previous edition approved in 2010 as D2412- l0a. DOI:
3.2.6 pipe signifcant events: (b

10.1520/D2412-11. 3.2.6.I liner cra<:king or crazing-the occurrence of a break {n

rFor referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
or network of fine breaks in the liner visible to the unaided eye. ts
tt,
conuct ASTM Customer Seruice at sen'ice@astm.org.For Annual Book of ASTM
Standards volurne information, refer to the standard's Document Summary page on
3.2.6.2 rupture-a crack or break extending entirely or -1
ir
the ASTM website. partly through the pipe wall.
($

tA Summary of Changcs section appears at the end of this standard a,

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Nolu 2-The significant events listed may or may not (rccur in a NorE 5-For some types o1'testing machines a greater plate thickness
specific pipe material. may be required to limit plate bending.
3.2.6.3 walL cracking-the occurence of a break in the pipe 6.3 Defonnatiort (Deflectiott) Indicator- The change in F
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wall visible to the unaided eye. inside diameter, or deformation parallel to the direction of
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3.2.6.4 v,ctll delanination-the occurrence of any separation loading, shall be measured with a suitable instrument rneeting 1.4
in the components of the pipe wall visible to the unaided eye. the requirements of Test Method D695, except that the instru-
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3.2.1 pipe stffitess (PS)-the vaiue obtained by dividing the ment shall be accurate to the nearest 0.010 in. (0.25 mm). The
force per unit length of specimen by the resulting deflection in instrument shall not support the pipe test specimen or the plate st
the same units at the prescribed percentage deflection. or affect in any way the load deffection measurements.
Changes in diameter are measured during loading by continu-
3.2.8 sriffness factor (SF)-the product of pipe stiffness and
the quanrity O.l4g 13 . ously recording plate travel or by periodically computing it.
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3.2.9 Discussion--The "pipe stiffness" and "stiffness factor"
are related as follows:
7. Test Specinrens o,

PS: F/Ly (t ) 7.1 For thermoplastic pipe, the test specimen shall be a
piece of pipe 6 + % in. (150 + 3 mm) long. t,
SF : EI : 0.1 49 FdlAy : 9. 149 r-'1tt; (2) ry
Norr 3-See Appcndix X2 for information relating PS, E, and A.r'. 7.2 For reinforced thermosetting resin pipe, the minimum o
test specimen length shall be three times the nominal pipe
4. Summary of Test Method diameter or 12.0 in. (300 rnm), whichever is smaller. For pipe I
4.1 A short length of pipe is loaded between two rigid larger than 60 in. (1524 mm) in diameter, the minimum ;'G
parallel flat plates at a controlled rate of approach to one specimen length shall be 20 o/o of the nominal diameter
adjusted to the nearest I in. (25.4 mm). r<
another. Load-deflection (of the pipe diameter) data are ob- -o
-,1 ;i
tained. If cracking, crazing, delamination, or rupture occurs, 7.3 The ends of specimens shall tre cut square and shall be
the corresponding load and deflection are recorded. free of burrs and jagged edges.
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5. Significance and Use 7.4 No less than three specimens shall be tested for each
sample of pipe. 3;
5.1 The extemal loading properties of plastic pipe obtained :'6
by this test method are used for the following: No'ru 6-For quality control tesling a single specimen may be used with $e
5.1.1 To determine the stiffness of the pipe. This is a the thinnest wall at the top. o*
-fr
function of the pipe dimensions and the physical properties of 7.5 Certain RTRP pipes exhibit surface inegularity because at
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the material of which the pipe is made. the production process is inside diameter controlled. To assure
5.1.2 To determine the load-deflection characteristics and accurate test results by parallel-plate loading, the test specimen 6'E
!nl\J
pipe stiftness which are used fbr engineering design (see must be uniformly loaded along its entire bearing surface. If .<Q
(Jt\
Appendix Xl). surface irregularities (resin-rich areas) along the ouiside diam- qur
5.1.3 To compare the characteristics of various plastics in eter prevent the bearing load from being:unilo.mly distributed 5!t
pipe form. along the length of the specimen, the outside. surface along the *11
5.1.4 To study the intenelations of dimensions and deflec- loading line shall be sanded smooth by hand. This sanding
tion properties of plastic pipe and conduit. shall only be done if the reinforcement is not damaged. Note
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5. 1.5 To measure the defl ection and load-resistance at any of that sanding shall be done only along the plate contact lines. a, -'
several significant events if they occur during the test. cr
8. Conditioning 0,
6. Apparatus
8.1 Condition pipe for at least 4 h in aiq at a temperature of o
6.1 Testing Machine-A properly calibrated compression 73.4 -r 3.6"F (23 -r 2"C), and conduct the test in a room o
testing machine of the constant-rate-of-crosshead movement maintained at the same temperature. E
type meeting the requiremenLs of Test Method D695 shall be u
used to make the tests. The rate of head approach shall be 0.50 8.2 When a referee test is required, condition specimens for 2
'r 3.6'F (23 + 2'C) and 50 + il
-+ O.02 in. (12.5 + 0.5 mm)/min. at least 40 h at 73.4 5 Vo relative
humidity and conduct the test under the same conditions.
Norr:4-Hydraulic testing machines that may vary slightly from these €
al
rate limits are commonly used and are satisfactory lbr testing RTRP and
RPMP pipe 24-in. (610-mm) size and larger.
9. Procedure
(t
6.2 Inading Plates-:ftte load sball be applied to the speci- 9.1 Make the following measurements on each specimen: o
g!
men through two parallel steel bearing plates. The plates shall 9.1.1 Determine the length of each specimen to the nearest
be flat, smooth, and clean. The thickness of the plates shall be %z in. (l mm) or better, by making and averaging at least four !
u.
sufficient so that no bending or deformation occurs during the equally spaced measurements around the perimeter. ?
test, but it shall not be less than 0.25 in. (6.0 mm). The plate 9.1.2 Measure the wall thickness of each specimen in
length shall equal or exceed the specimen length and the plate accordance with Test Method D2122. Make at least eight
o
width shall not be less than the pipe contact width at maximum measurements equally spaced around one end and calculate the
pipe deflection plus 6.0 in. (150 mm). average wall thickness. nl
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9.1.3 Determine whether a line of minimum wall thickness 9.6 Observe and note the load and deflection at the first
exists along the length of the specimen and if so mark it for use evidence of each of the following significant events when and
in 9.2.1 . if they occur: b
#:
9.6.1 Liner cracking or craz-itrg. *{
Noru 7 On RTRP and RPMP pipe measurements may be made at both 5
9.6.2 Wall cracking. H
ends.
9.6.3 Wall delamination.
t?
9.1.4 Determine the average outsjde diameter to the nearest 9.6.4 Rupture.
0.01 in. (0.2 mm) using a circumferential wrap tape or by
averaging the maximum and minimum outside diameters as
9.7 Record type and position of each event with respect to
rneasured with a micrometer or caliper.
the corresponding load and deflection. Discontinue the test
when eil.her of the lollowing occur:
9. 1.5 For OD-controlied pipe calculate the average pipe
9.1 .l The load on the specimen fails to increase with
inside diameter (ID) fy subt.uciing two times the average of ill
increasing deffection (maxirnum point on load-deflection plot
wall thicknesses (9.1.2) from the average of all outside
has been reached).
diameters (9.1 ,4). For ID-controlled pipe determine the aver-
9.1 .2 The specimen deflection reaches 30 Vo of the average
age ID by measuring the maximum and minimum inside
inside diameter or the required maximum deflection.
diameters. Use this average ID as the basis for computing the
percentage of deflection for all specimens in that lot of pipe. 10. Calculation o
9"2 Locate the pipe section with its longitudinal axis parallel 10.1 Calculate the pipe stiffness, PS, for any given deflec- ,{3
to the bearing plates and center it laterally in the testing tion as follows: (*d
machine. :stD
PS: F/Ly lbflin./in. (kPa) (3)
9.2.1 If an orientation ol minimum wall thickness has been Nore 9-Refer to ;\ppendix X-l for additional information on units.
found, place the first specimen so the thinnest wall is at the top
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10.2 When required, calculate the stiffness factor, SF, for Yvl
and rotate successive specimens 35 and 70'. If no minimum
any given deflection as follows: ^f1
LJO
wall thickness was identified, use any base line.
.sF:0.14g r.r .pS in. 3 .lbf/in. , (pa.m 3
) (4) i6
9.3 With the deflection'inclicator in place, bring the upper
10.3 When required, calculate the percentage pipe deflec-
plate into contact with the specimen with no more load than is
tion, P, as follows:
rX
necessary to hold it in place. This establishes the beginning ='X,r
hi
point for subsequent deflection measurements. P:A.v/dx100 (5) *iB
9.4 Compress the specimen at a constant rate of 0.50 {- 0.02 11. Report n#
in. (12.5 + 0.5 mrn)/min. 11.1 Report the following information:
$
*c)
ftah
. Nors S-For larger sizes of pipe made front rolativcly low-modulus I l.l. 1 Cornplete identification of the material tested, includ- tal\r
materials, creep may affect the restrlts ol'this test because of the loading ing type, source, manufacturer's code, previous history 1if <c0
rate specified. any), and product identification by standard nutnber. :i(fi
9.5 Record load-deflection measurements continuously or 11.1.2 Dimensions of each specimen, including average 5]}
intermittently with reference to the relative movement of the outside diameter, average wall thickness, average inside diam- lo
bearing plates. If measurements are made intermittently, make eter, liner thickness and reinforcement thickness where appli-
and record such measurements at increments of not more than cable, and average length. d<
5 Vc of the average inside diameter of the specimen. Refer to 11.1.3 Whether or not the outside diameter of the specimen $-.
Annex Al . was sanded.

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TABLE 1 Pipe Stiffness-Precision Statisticsa w
Reproduce- fft
Standard Repeatability
ability Reoeatabilitu
Reproduce- &
Detlection r R of
Level. %
Average s*". CA cB Devialion Standard
Standard Limit (e5 %)'"
CellAveragesc Devialionc Deviationc
Liri??l';Y%)"
g
?q 772.3 54.95 84.69 101 .0 237.1 282.7 7.11 11 .0 r 3.1 30.7 36.6 q
d

B z,c 380.2 20.52 18.12 27.37 50.72 76.64 5.40 4.77 7.20 I J.J 20.2
c 2.5 463.9 79.07 57.82 97.96 161.9 274.3 17.0 12.5 21.1 34.9 59.1
A 5.0 755.7 33.30 80.30 86.93 224.8 243.4 4.41 10.6 11 .5 29.7 32.2 ttt
(!
B 5.0 356.1 19.13 15.32 24.51 42.89 68.62 5.37 4.30 6.88 12.Q 19.3
419.4 37.80 27.74 77 .68
'18.5
c 5.0 46.89 131 .3 9.01 6.61 11.2 31.3 lrt
A 7.5 724.8 27.85 76.14 81.07 213.2 227.0 3.84 10.5 11.2 29.4 31.3
B 7.5 332.6 16.87 13.94 21 .88 39.02 61.27 5.07 4.19 6.58 11.7 18.4 e
7.5 371.7 26.70 18.82 32.66 52.69 91-45 7.18 5.06 8.79 14.2 24.6
5
A
Terms are used as specified in Praclice 8177.
B S. standard deviation of repeatability (variation ol replicate samples by same laboratory).
= (E
SR = standard deviation of reproducibility (variability between laboratory).
c Precision slatist,cs as percenl of average.

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11.1.4 Conditioning temperature, time, and environment. and5Zo).Every "testresult" represents an individual determi- €'
11.1.5 Theloadanddeflectionatwhichanyofthefollowing nation, and all participants were asked to report fifteen test f
events occurred: results for each pipe/deflection cornbination. Pipe samples fi
11.1.-5.1 Liner cracking or crazing, were D = 24 in. filarnent wound fiberglass pipe, E = 36 in. d
11.1.5.2 Wall cracking, continuous advancing mandrel liberglass pipe and F = 33 in. ;
11.1 .5.3 Wall delamination. and cast fiberglass pipe. Practice 1169 I was followed for the design e
11.1.5.4 Rupture. and analysis of the data; the details are given in ASTM ::
11.1.6 The reason for terminating the test. Research Report No. RR:F17-1051.4 E
11.1.7 Ifrequired,aplotoncartesiancoordinatesoftheload 12.1 .2.1 Repeatabilifi limit (r)--Two test results obtained g'
in pounds-force per inch (or newtons per metre) versus within one laboratory shall be judged not equivalent if they A
deflection in inetes (or millimetres) for each specimen tested. differ by more than the "t'' value for the material; "r" is the L
Each of the following occurrences shall be noted on the plots interval representing the critical difference between two test I
where applicable: results for the same material, obtained by the same operator F
II.L.1.I Linercrackingorcrazing, using the same equipment on the ru-L duy in the same I
11.1.7.2 Wall cracking, and laboratory. I
11.1.7.3 Wall delamination. (/)Rlpeatability limits are listed in Table 'l and Table 3 $
11.1.8 Pipe stiffness, F/L,y, at 5 and 10 Va deflection, for below. o
each specimen" If any cracking, crazing, or delamination l2.l .2.2 Reproducibility limit(R)--Two test results shall be i
occurred below 5 7c deflection, calculate pipe stiftness at that judged not equivalent if they differ by Inore than the '?" value
percent deflection where cracking or delamination occurred tbr the -ut"iiul; '?" is the intervai representing the critical 5 6'
- $.
and note this in the report. difference between two test results for the same material, H
5
11.1.9 When specifically requested determine the stiffness obtained by different operators using different equipment t"
factor, SF, at 5 and l0 7o deflection, for each specimen. If any dilI'erent laboratories. t E
cracking, crazing, or delamination occurred below 5 Vo defr,ec- (/) Reproducibility limits are listed in Tablc 2 and Table 3 S g
tion, calculate apparent stiffness factor at the percent deflection below. q-
rvhere cracking or delamination occurred and note this in the 12.1.2.3 The above terms (repeatability limit & reproduc- $ ={
report. ibility limit) are used as specified in Practice E177. F
11.1.10 Date of test. 12.1.2.4 Any judgement in accordance with statements !i =. f'
12.1.2.1 and 12.1 .2.2 would have an approximate 95Vo prob- 5'F
12. precision and Bias ability of being correct
precision3: i S
l2-l 12.1.3 To judge the equivalency of two test results. lt is $ i:
l2.l.l Therntoplastic Pipes-An interlaboratory study of recommended to choose the material closest in characteristics iF E
pipe stiffness was conducted in accordance with Practice E69 I to the test material. .ff $
rvith seven laboratories participating, each obtainilS tl" 12.2 Bias-Data obrained using this test method are be- i g
results at three deflection levels on three pipe ymgles.
][ lieved. to be reliable since accepted techniques of analysis are 3F
pipesampleswereC=4in.corrugatedPEpipe,A=6in.SDR used. However, because no reference method is available, no 5
26 ABS dwv pipe, and B = 12 in. SDR 35 PVC sewer pipe. bias statement is made. 3H^
Information regarding the precision is found in Table l. H{
12.1.2 Thermoset Resin Pipes-T\e precision of this test S, i
data have been filed at ASTM Intemational Headqurters and mav !I
method is based on an interlaboratory study of pipe stiftress .^ lljf"nt"t i
conducted in 2010. Each or eight raborat".i"";;;'i;;;; "::ffi'j"iJrTH"i:H*:T?,".1::nqtrillllXlurH"uoqu*"rsmdmay F
different thermoset resin pipe products at two deflections (2.5Vo be otta-inea by requesting Research Report RR:FI7-1051. H
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TABLE 2 Stiflness at 2.5% Deflection (psi) =
Average" cE
Material R v
1
ttrsRrR c
Sample D 68.79 1.89 2.18 5.29 6.1'l tt
a
Sample E 126.6 5.48 5.81 15.3 16.3 g
Sample F 49.51 1.t1 1-93 3.11 5.41 o;

^The average ol laboratories' calculated averages (a

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TABLE 3 Stiffness at 5olo Dellection (psi)

m
v
66.30 1.03 1.28 2.88 3.57
S-{
Sample E 121.9 3. IJ 5.31 14.4 14.9
Sample F 47.17 1.01 1.63 2.43 4.56 ie
a
^The average of laboralories' calculated averages.
e

ANNEX
ql
(Mandatory Information) -
A1. I'LOTTING LOAD VERSUS DEFLECTION lr

A1.1 The load versus deflection plot is typically a smooth Fig. A1.1 . In such cases, the initial straight line portion of the
curve. In some cases, for example, when the curve is Senerated curve shall be extrapolated back, and this intercept be used as (* {c
automatically, the apparent zero poillt is in error: for example, the (0,0) point. =(d
*e
X<
;t!
YGI

^(1
3ur
42 (.,
g
=H
H'5
t
UF
E -'l3
o>
X r-"
I *rs
(Dah
o6Fr-fctlo{,1
t,!l\l
.das

i(fl
rlb
FlG. A1-1 Method ol Estimating the Origin

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APPENDD(ES g, r,

(Nonmandatory Information)

Xl. METHOD OII APPLYING PIPE STIFFNESS FOR ENGTNEERING DESIGN o

G

GI
X1.1 The PS determined by this test rnethod can be used to W, = vertical load per unit of pipe length, lbf/in. (or N/m) ul
calculate approximate deflections under earth load. Accord- of pipe, il.
ingly, the following modified Spangler equation is one avail- PS - F/Ly = pipe stiffness (as determined by test), lbf/in./
able expression that can be used to give approximations of in. or (kPa), s
g
deflections occurring in plastic pipe under earth load: Dn = deflection lag factor, and
E' = modulus of soil reaction, psi (or kPa).
D" KW,
-' 0. 149 PS+ 0.06 I E' XI.2
Pipe stiffness also relates to handling and installation
lr)
&
characteristics of a pipe during the very early stages of soil
{rr

consolidation around the pipe. There can be a minimum pipe >

{n
where:
stiffness below which pipe becomes difficult to install. Local .s
x = horizontal deflection of pipe, in. (or rnm), (may be conditions and installation practice must be considered in
taken also as the vertical deflection), selecting this minimum for a particular project and in assigning
K = bedding constant, dependent upon the support the o
specific values to be used in the above equations for pipe
pipe received from the bottom of the trench, deflection. Beyond these statetnents no representation in regard
g
s;
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to linfting maximum or minimum pipe sti{Iness values deter- made or implied

a

mined in accordance rvith the provision of this test method is

X2. PS AND SF VERSUS DEFLECTION

X2.1 The EI of a pipe is a function of the material's fiexural nreasured PS or SF values can be related to llr( tt'uc /i/ ol tlrc
modulus (tr) and the wall thickness (t) of the pipe. since 1 = pipe as long as the pipe remains elliptical. Thcrelirrc:
f ttZ. ls such it is a fixed value for any given set of material 0
PS: (F/ L y)C: (F/ Ly)( 1 + L 1;/)/)l
and dimensional parameters. However, the quantities pipe
sti{Tness (PS) %nd stiffness factor (SF) are computed values E1: (sr):0.r4913(PS) (I
c
determined from the test resistance at a particular deflection.
These values are highly dependent on the degree of deflection, X2.2 Use of the load deflection values from this test method !
lbr as the pipe deflects the radius of curvature changes. The to calculate a material flexural modulus should incorporate this
greater the deflection at which PS or SF are determined, the correction. Also, it should be recognized that in the study of the g
greater the magnitude of the deviation from the true El value. behavior of deflected pipe it is the tenn E1 which was used in c
c
g
By applicatiorr of the correction factor C = | + (Lr/2d)1,3 the developing much of the theory of flexible pipe.
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3.'
X3. UNITS FOR PS AND SF trd
YUT

X3.l The pipe stiffness value is calculated by dividing the dillerent quantities and should not be confused one with the
force per unit length by the deffection. In the inch-pound other. J('
system of units, this is pounds-force per inch of length per inch
of deflection, lbf/(in..in.): this is commonly expressed as X3.2 The stiffness factor is calculated from PS and the mean c*
rE
lbf/in.2 or psi. In SI, with the force expressed in newtons per radius of the tube, in inches or millimetres. These units are H'5
metre of length and the deflection in millimetres, the PS is in.3.lbf/in.2 or mm3.kPa which can be expressed dimensionally *d
expressed in kilopascals (kPa). Although PS units are dimen- as lbf.in. or FN.m. 3'c
sionally the same as those for pressure and stress, they are o>
3u
:a io
{Dab
irn hJ
.<0g

SUMMARY OF CHANGES
q;
:'D
Xo
Comrnittee Fl7 has identified the location ol selected changes to this standard since the last issue (D2412-10a) Yll
that may impact the use of this standard. (Approved April l,2011.) 6<
ur
='
a
(// Precision and bias information and data have been added ct
cq,
for thermosetting resin products in Section 12.
(}
o
Committee F17 has identified the location of selected changes to this standard since the last issue (D2412-10)
TF
that may impact the use of this standard. (Approved Dec. 1, 2010.) a
z
(l)l:ig. AI.l was revised. :
ql
€
ot
Committee F17 has identified the location of selected changes to this standard since the last issue
(D2412-42(2008)) that may impact the use of this standard. =
(t
o
::
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(1,)Appendir X2, conected the equation or C by adding a (2/ Appentlix X2, modified equations for PS and ST to improve F
"close parenthesis." clarity.
6
3
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:
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