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 PROGRESS IN THE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF MARINE STRUCTURES

MARSTRUC_Book.indb i 3/29/2017 9:33:41 AM

MARSTRUC_Book.indb ii 3/29/2017 9:33:47 AM
 PROCEEDINGS OF THE 6TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MARINE STRUCTURES
(MARSTRUCT 2017), LISBON, PORTUGAL, 8–10 MAY 2017

Progress in the Analysis and Design

of Marine Structures

Editors
C. Guedes Soares & Y. Garbatov
Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal

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 CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

Typeset by V Publishing Solutions Pvt Ltd., Chennai, India

Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY

All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the publisher.

Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication and the information
herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any damage to the property or
persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.

Published by: CRC Press/Balkema

P.O. Box 11320, 2301 EH Leiden, The Netherlands
e-mail: Pub.NL@taylorandfrancis.com
www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.com

ISBN: 978-1-138-06907-7 (Hbk + CD-ROM)

ISBN: 978-1-315-15736-8 (eBook)

MARSTRUC_Book.indb iv 3/29/2017 9:33:48 AM

 Progress in the Analysis and Design of Marine Structures – Guedes Soares & Garbatov (Eds)
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-06907-7

Table of contents

Preface xi
Organisation xiii

Fluid-structure interaction
Design and structural testing of a physical model for wetdeck slamming analysis 3
D. Dessi, E. Faiella, J. Geiser, E. Alley & J. Dukes
A storm-based procedure to generate standardised load-time history for fatigue strength
assessment of offshore structures 13
S. Li & C. Guedes Soares
A numerical simulation for coupling behavior between smoothed particle hydrodynamics
and structural finite element method 21
C. Ma, M. Oka & K. Iijima
Vertical wave loads acting on a cruise ship in head, oblique and following regular waves 29
S. Rajendran & C. Guedes Soares
Still water vertical bending moment in a flooding damaged ship 35
J.M. Rodrigues & C. Guedes Soares
On parameterization of emulsification and heat exchange in the hydraulic modelling
of oil spill from a damaged tanker in winter conditions 43
M. Sergejeva, J. Laanearu & K. Tabri
Practical verification of loading computer by laser measurements 51
G. Storhaug, O. Fredriksen, D. Greening & I. Robinson
Hydroelastic effects on slamming loads and dynamic response of flexible panels 59
S. Wang & C. Guedes Soares
Prediction of pressure induced by liquid sloshing for LNG carrier 69
R.-Q. Zhu, H.-X. Ma, Q.-M. Miao & W.-T. Zheng

Vibrations
Forced vibration analysis of the hull girder by propeller excitation and rudder interaction 77
F.J. Dominguez Ruiz, E.M. Cali Y. & L.A. García J.
Experimental characterization of viscoelastic materials for marine applications 87
J. Fragasso, L. Moro, P.N. Mendoza Vassallo, M. Biot & A. Badino
On the experimental characterization of resilient mounting elements 97
A. Hecquet, B. de’Vidovich, E. Brocco, M. Biot, F. Licciulli, G. Fabro, C. Pestelli,
H. Le Sourne & L. Moro
A new van der Pol equation based ice-structure interaction model for ice-induced vibrations 107
X. Ji & E. Oterkus
Whirling analysis of shaft line with a new compact flexible coupling 113
T. Pais, D. Boote & G. Repetti

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 Estimation of damping from wave induced vibrations in ships 121
G. Storhaug, K. Laanemets, I. Edin & J.W. Ringsberg
Optimization of the gun foundation structure of an offshore patrol vessel using a modern
genetic algorithm 131
A. de Vaucorbeil & K.E. Patron

Structural analysis
Shape and stress sensing of offshore structures by using inverse finite element method 141
A. Kefal & E. Oterkus
Effect of pressure distribution on the capacity of ship structure frames 149
M. Kõrgesaar, P. Kujala, M. Suominen, G.S. Dastydar, J. Romanoff,
H. Remes & J. Kämäräinen
Reduced finite element models for mast analysis 155
A. Lorenzetti, M. Gaiotti, S. Ghelardi & C.M. Rizzo
Modeling microstructure of materials by using peridynamics 165
N. Zhu, D. De Meo, S. Oterkus & E. Oterkus

Structural design
Influence of different topological variants on optimized structural scantlings of passenger ships 173
J. Andric, P. Prebeg & K. Piric
Conceptual ship design framework for designing new commercial ships 183
T. Damyanliev, P. Georgiev & Y. Garbatov
FEA based optimization for stiffened plate considering buckling and yield strength 193
J.D. Kim, B.-S. Jang, T.-Y. Park & S.B. Jeon
Ship hull structural scantling optimization 203
K. Stone & T. McNatt
The design and analysis of a heavy transportation and jacket launch barge 213
L.D. Cherian, T. Mathew, J. Land & J. Evans

Ultimate strength
Hull girder ultimate strength of container ships in oblique sea 225
I. Darie & J. Rörup
Progressive collapse analysis of a container ship under combined longitudinal bending
moment and bottom local loads 235
M. Fujikubo & A. Tatsumi
Optimal design of stiffened plate subjected to combined stochastic loads 243
Y. Garbatov & P. Georgiev
Compressive strength of double-bottom under alternate hold loading condition 253
J.M. Gordo
Residual strength estimation and imperfection modelling for plastically deformed stiffeners 263
I. Kahraman & G.T. Tayyar
Rapid, early-stage ultimate limit state structural design for multihulls 269
J.T. Knight
Accuracy improvement of PCM using simple box girder-based LSE data 277
I. Kvan & J. Choung
Geometrically nonlinear bending response of a ship-like box girder using an enhanced
single-layer theory 289
M. Metsälä, B.R. Gonçalves, J. Romanoff & J. Jelovica

vi

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 IACS common structural rules as an element of IMO goal based standards
for bulk carriers and oil tankers 297
J. Peschmann, H. von Selle, J. Jankowski, G. Horn & T. Arima
FE model calibration and validation of a tested plate with an opening under compressive load 305
S. Saad-Eldeen, Y. Garbatov & C. Guedes Soares
Ultimate strength of the hull girder of large container ships 313
S. Zhang, R. Villavicencio, N. White & L. Jiang
Experimental study on cumulative buckling deformation of stiffened panel subjected
to cyclic loading 319
Y. Tanaka, T. Ando, Y. Hashizume, A. Tatsumi & M. Fujikubo

Fatigue and fracture

Numerical analysis of mixed-mode fracture toughness of glass/vinylester composite laminates 329
F. Alizadeh & C. Guedes Soares
Fatigue strength assessment of an annealed butt welded joint accounting
for material inhomogeneity 337
Y. Dong, Y. Garbatov & C. Guedes Soares
Uncertainty analyses of local strain and fatigue crack initiation life of welded joints
under plane strain condition 349
Y. Dong & C. Guedes Soares
Reliability based inspection planning using fracture mechanics based formulations
for ship structures 361
K.M. Doshi, Y. Parihar & T. Roy
Study on fatigue life prediction of details with a surface crack under spectrum loading 369
X.P. Huang
Prediction of crack growth of an aged coast guard patrol ship based on various approaches 379
C.S. Kim, C.B. Li, J. Choung & Y.H. Kim
Benchmark study on considering welding-induced distortion in structural stress analysis
of thin-plate structures 387
I. Lillemäe-Avi, H. Remes, Y. Dong, Y. Garbatov, Y. Quéméner, L. Eggert,
Q. Sheng & J. Yue
Palmgren–miner’s rule and fracture mechanics based fatigue analysis of deepwater
mooring lines 395
X. Xue & N.-Z. Chen

Collision and grounding

A simplified method to assess the damage of an immersed cylinder subjected
to underwater explosion 405
K. Brochard, H. Le Sourne & G. Barras
Plate tearing mechanics of high-speed vessels’ aluminium plates during grounding incidents 415
B.C. Cerik & R. Villavicencio
Numerical investigation on a side-shell structure subjected to collision impact load 423
B.Q. Chen & C. Guedes Soares
Plastic and fracture damages of double hull structures under lateral collisions 431
S.-R. Cho, S.-U. Song, S.-H. Park & H.K. Shin
Double-hull breaching energy in ship-tanker collision 439
M. Heinvee & K. Tabri
Full thickness material tests for impact analysis verification 449
M. Hoogeland & A.W. Vredeveldt

vii

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 Material relationship identification for finite element analysis at intermediate strain
rates using optical measurements 459
J.M. Kubiczek, K.S. Burchard, S. Ehlers & M. Schöttelndreyer
Numerical assessment of the resistance of ship double-hull structures in stranding 469
B. Liu, L. Zhu & L. Chen
Correlation analysis of IMO collision damage parameters 477
J. Parunov, M. Ćorak & S. Rudan
Probability of failure of composite beams under high velocity impact 487
S.D. Patel & C. Guedes Soares
Validation of a simplified method for the crashworthiness of offshore wind turbine jackets
using finite elements simulations 497
T. Pire, S. Echeverry, P. Rigo, L. Buldgen & H. Le Sourne
Structural response and energy absorption of the simplified ship side under the impact
of rigid indenters with different shapes 507
X. Qiu, L. Zhu, M. Yan & B. Liu
Experimental investigation of accidental sliding loads on the response of hull plating 513
B.W.T. Quinton, C.G. Daley, D.B. Colbourne & R.E. Gagnon
Performance assessment of the crashworthiness of corroded ship hulls 523
J.W. Ringsberg, Z. Li & E. Johnson
Impact of sea bottom shapes on grounding damage: Suitability of modelling
with Gaussian processes 533
O-V.E. Sormunen
A new simplified method to investigate the side-by-side collision of two ships 541
Q. Yuan, Y. Zhang & X.B. Li
Experimental and numerical analysis of tanker double-hull structures punched by a wedge
indenter 549
M. Zhang, J.X. Liu & Z.Q. Hu
Study on residual velocity of high-speed projectile after penetrating back-water plates 557
P.D. Zhao & L. Zhang

Plate dynamics
Effects of HAZ on the response of impulsively loaded aluminium plates 565
B.C. Cerik
Comparison of different modeling approaches for dynamic analysis of corroded
plates 573
A. Eslami-Majd & A. Rahbar-Ranji
Research progress on saturated impulse for ship plates under dynamic loading 583
L. Zhu, X. Bai & T.X. Yu
Review of work on ship structures subjected to repeated impact loadings 591
L. Zhu, S. Shi & W. Cai

Welded structures
Determination of the double-ellipsoid heat source parameters for the numerical simulation
of a welding process 599
J.H. Chujutalli & S.F. Estefen
Finite element study on the ultimate strength of aluminum plates joined by friction
stir welding 609
V. Farajkhah & C. Guedes Soares
Investigations on thermo-mechanical tensioning as an active buckling mitigation tool 617
A. Gadagi, N.R. Mandal & S. Kumar

viii

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 Distortions and residual stress analysis of thin butt welded plates accounting for manufacturing
imperfections 623
M. Hashemzadeh, Y. Garbatov & C. Guedes Soares
The influence of heavy weight loading method on the local welding deformation
and residual stress of a deck grillage 631
Y. He, Z. Chen & J. Wu
Fast computation on evaluation of critical welding buckling condition in fabrication
of lightweight marine structure 639
J. Wang, H. Zhou & H. Zhao
Experimental testing of under matched aluminum welds in tension 649
C. Wincott, R. Wiwel, K. Zhang, J. McCormick & M. Collette

Corrosion
A modified method assessing the integrity of carbon steel structures subjected
to corrosion fatigue 659
A. Cheng & N.-Z. Chen
Study on under-film corrosion simulation of free edges in water ballast tanks 667
N. Osawa, S. Takeno, S. Katayama, T. Oda, A.B.A. Halim, K. Shiotani & A. Takada
Concept design of an autonomous mechatronic unit for inspection of holds 679
E. Ravina
A study on corrosion condition assessment considering maintenance and repair 687
N. Yamamoto

Ice conditions
Experimental investigation of an accidental ice impact on an aluminium high speed craft 697
H. Herrnring, J.M. Kubiczek, S. Ehlers, N.O. Niclasen & M. Burmann
On a shifting pressure-area relationship for the accidental limit state analysis of abnormal
ice actions 705
E. Kim, J. Amdahl & M. Song
Dynamic response of ship side structure to the collision with ice sheets 713
X.H. Shi, P.X. Wang & C. Guedes Soares
Structural damage and residual ultimate strength of ship colliding with ice 721
M.C. Xu, J. Song, S.X. Chen & Z.J. Pan

Damaged structures
Damage assessment in concrete marine structures using damage plasticity model 733
S. Chandrasekaran & P.T. Ajesh Kumar
Assessment of residual life of existing fixed offshore platforms 745
S. Copello & C.M. Rizzo
Numerical validation tests of a damage assessment tool based on super-element method
within the scope of A.D.N. regulations 753
S. Paboeuf, Y.P. Sone Oo & H. Le Sourne
Strength enhancement of cracked swash bulkheads of jack-up spud-can 763
S. Saad-Eldeen, Y. Garbatov & C. Guedes Soares

Offshore structures
Analysis of FPSO accident and incident data 773
U. Bhardwaj, A.P. Teixeira & C. Guedes Soares
The latest development of reinforcement techniques on tubular joints 783
Z. Li, X. Jiang & G. Lodewijks

ix

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 Design of offshore tubular members against excessive local indentation under lateral impacts 791
Z. Yu & J. Amdahl

Subsea structures
Strength analysis of corroded pipelines subjected to internal pressure and bending moment 803
A.A. Barbosa, A.P. Teixeira & C. Guedes Soares
A design of the subsea manifold protective structure against dropped objects 813
S.H. Woo, J. Choung & K. Lee
Analysis of the influence of spherical bulkhead reinforcement ring structure type
on the strength of the structure 821
S. Yuan & Q. Chen
Lateral buckling and post-buckling response based on a modified nonlinear pipe-soil
interaction model 827
X. Zhang, C. An, M. Duan & C. Guedes Soares

Composite structures
Numerical investigation of pre-damaged composite plates subjected to compressive
uniaxial load 841
F. Alizadeh, Y. Garbatov & C. Guedes Soares
Hotspot stress analysis of a composite T-joint accounting for geometric and surface
roughness effects 849
N. Kharghani, Y. Garbatov & C. Guedes Soares
The effect of laminate, stud geometry and advance coefficient on the deflection
of a composite marine propeller 859
F. Prini, S.D. Benson & R.S. Dow
Structural fire integrity testing of lightweight multiple core sandwich structures 869
M. Rahm, F. Evegren, E. Johnson & J.W. Ringsberg

Renewable energy devices

A higher-order coupling model of the blades of the floating offshore wind turbine 879
J. Chen & Z. Hu
The effect of marine growth dynamics in offshore wind turbine support structures 889
M. Martinez-Luengo, P. Causon, A.B. Gill & A.J. Kolios
An improved lumping approach for fatigue analysis of a spar-type wind turbine 899
J. Wu & N.-Z. Chen
Characteristics of p-y curves for monopile offshore wind turbines on clay soil 905
Q.L. Yin, C. Guedes Soares & S. Dong

Safety and reliability

Simplified method for structural safety assessment of an energy saving device subjected
to nonlinear hydrodynamic load 915
H.B. Ju, B.S. Jang & D.B. Lee
Reliability analysis of offshore wind turbine gearbox 923
M.X. Li, J.C. Kang, L.P. Sun & M. Wang
A generic framework for reliability assessment of offshore wind turbine monopiles 931
L. Wang & A. Kolios
System reliability of a jacket offshore wind turbine subjected to fatigue 939
B. Yeter, Y. Garbatov & C. Guedes Soares

Author index 951

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 Progress in the Analysis and Design of Marine Structures – Guedes Soares & Garbatov (Eds)
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-06907-7

Preface

This book contains the papers presented at the 6th International Conference on Marine Structures,
MARSTRUCT 2017, held in Lisbon, Portugal between 8 and 10 May. This is the sixth in the MARSTRUCT
Conference series and follows on from previous events held in Glasgow—Scotland, Lisbon—
Portugal, Hamburg—Germany, Espoo—Finland and Southampton—UK in 2007, 2009, 2011, 2013 and 2015
respectively.
The main objective of the MARSTRUCT Conferences is to provide a specialised forum for academics,
researchers and industrial participants to discuss progress in their research directly related with structural
analysis and design of marine structures. It was the intention that the MARSTRUCT Conferences be
specifically dedicated to marine structures, which complements other conferences on general aspects of
ships and offshore structures already available.
This series of Conferences is one of the main activities of the MARSTRUCT Virtual Institute, an
association of research groups interested in cooperating in the field of marine structures, which was
created in 2010 after the end of the Network of Excellence on Marine Structures (MARSTRUCT), which
was funded by the European Union. The MARSTRUCT Virtual Institute, http://www.marstruct-vi.com/,
was created with the same members as the EU project, but with the aim to extend that membership to
other interested groups in the future.
The Conference reflects the work conducted in the progress in the analysis and design of marine
structures, including the full range of methods, modelling procedures and experimental results. The aim
is to promote knowledge that enables marine structures to be more efficient, environmentally friendly,
reliable and safe using the latest methods and procedures for design and optimisation. This book also
deals with the fabrication and new materials of marine structures. The 105 papers are categorized in the
following themes and areas of research:
• Methods and tools for establishing loads and load effects—Fluid-structure interaction, vibrations;
• Methods and tools for strength assessment—Ice conditions, collision and grounding, fatigue and frac-
ture, ultimate strength, plate dynamics;
• Experimental analysis of structures—Experimental analysis;
• Materials and fabrication of structures—Composite structures, welded structures;
• Methods and tools for structural design and optimisation—Structural analysis, structural design,
renewable energy devices, offshore structures, subsea structures;
• Structural reliability, safety and environmental protection—Structural reliability models.
The MARSTRUCT 2017 Conference also includes 5 keynote lectures from industrial experts covering
ship and offshore structures:
• Evolution of the structural design of fast craft—Stefano Ferraris, Fincantieri SpA, Italy
• General approach to the design of high speed craft structures—Gil Pina Cabral, Damen Shipyards
Gorinchem, The Netherlands
• Challenges in the structural design of jack-up and semi-submersible rigs’—Alberto Morandi,
GustoMSC, Houston, USA
• Practical aspects of structural integrity of FPSOs—Timo de Beer, SBM Schiedam BV, The Netherlands
• Structural design of Heavy Lift Vessels—Michiel Verdult, Vuyk Engineering Rotterdam BV, The Netherlands
We hope that the overview coming from important industrial companies will be an important
contribution to the audience.
The articles in this book were accepted after a peer-review process, based on the full text of the papers.
Thanks are due to the Technical Programme and Advisory Committees who had most of the responsibility

xi

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 for reviewing the papers. We are also grateful to the additional anonymous reviewers who helped the
authors deliver better papers by providing them with constructive comments, and hope that this process
contributed to a consistently good level of the papers included in the book.

C. Guedes Soares & Y. Garbatov

xii

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 Progress in the Analysis and Design of Marine Structures – Guedes Soares & Garbatov (Eds)
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-06907-7

Organisation

CONFERENCE CHAIRMAN

C. Guedes Soares, IST, University of Lisbon, Portugal

TECHNICAL PROGRAMME COMMITTEE

M. Biot, University of Trieste, Italy

R. Bronsart, Rostock University, Germany
N.Z. Chen, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
L. Domnisoru, University of “Dunarea de Jos” at Galati, Romania
S. Ehlers, Hamburg University of Technology, Germany
Y. Garbatov, Instituto Superior Técnico, Portugal
A.M. Horn, DNVGL, Norway
E. Oterkus, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
J. Parunov, University of Zagreb, Croatia
P. Rigo, University of Liège, Belgium
J.W. Ringsberg, Chalmers University Technology, Sweden
C.M. Rizzo, University of Genova, Italy
E. Rizzuto, University of Naples—Frederico II, Italy
J. Romanoff, Aalto University, Finland
A.R. Shenoi, University of Southampton, UK
K. Tabri, Tallinn University of Technology, Estonia
M. Taczala, West Pomeranian University of Technology, Poland
P. Temarel, University of Southampton, UK
H. von Selle, DNVGL, Germany
S. Zhang, Lloyd’s Register, UK

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

S. Aksu, Defence Science and Technology, Organisation, Australia

Y. Bai, Zhejiang University, China
X. Cheng, CSSRC, Wuxi, China
S.R. Cho, University of Ulsan, Korea
M. Collette, University of Michigan, USA
W.C. Cui, Shanghai Ocean University, China
S.F. Estefen, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
M. Fujikubo, Osaka University, Japan
Z.Q. Hu, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China
H.W. Leheta, Alexandria University, Egypt
Y.M. Low, National University Singapore, Singapore
N.R. Mandal, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
L. Moro, Memorial University, Canada
J.K. Paik, Pusan National University, South Korea
N.G. Pegg, DND, Canada

xiii

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 Y. Yamada, National Maritime Research Institute, Japan
N. Yamamoto, MIJAC from ClassNK, Japan
L. Zhu, Wuhan University of Technology, China

LOCAL ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Y. Garbatov, Instituto Superior Técnico, Portugal (Chair)

J.M. Gordo, Instituto Superior Técnico, Portugal
A.P. Teixeira, Instituto Superior Técnico, Portugal

TECHNICAL PROGRAMME SECRETARIAT

Maria de Fátima Pina, IST, University of Lisbon, Portugal

Sandra Ponce, IST, University of Lisbon, Portugal

xiv

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 Fluid-structure interaction

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MARSTRUC_Book.indb ii 3/29/2017 9:33:47 AM
 Progress in the Analysis and Design of Marine Structures – Guedes Soares & Garbatov (Eds)
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-06907-7

Design and structural testing of a physical model for wetdeck slamming

analysis

D. Dessi & E. Faiella

CNR-INSEAN, National Research Council—Marine Technology Research Institute, Rome, Italy

J. Geiser, E. Alley & J. Dukes

Naval Surface Warfare Center, Carderock Division, USA

ABSTRACT: The investigation of wetdeck slamming phenomenon is a challenging Fluid-Structure

Interaction (FSI) problem for both experimental and numerical analysis, requiring detailed design and
structural assessment of the physical model. The focus of this paper is to document the design approach
and the testing effort devoted to provide a reliable and well identified physical model before the towing-
tank tests were carried out for giving key insights into the wetdeck load and responses as well as an FSI
validation dataset for numerical solvers. Thus, one of the main objectives is reducing the uncertainty
linked to the modeling of the multi-hull structure by performing a series of both static and dynamic char-
acterization tests on the as built catamaran model. The insight gained from this test campaign will be used
to update the structural models coupled within the FSI solvers to increase the accuracy of the predicted
hydrodynamic loading.

1 INTRODUCTION Among FSI problems still receiving posi-

Fluid-structure interaction experiments are a
challenging task because they are aimed to repro-
duce in a laboratory environment the ‘correct’
coupling between the fluid and solid, as it occurs
in real life. If the aim is to understand the phys-
ics behind these phenomena, the setup has to
scale both the body elasticity and the flow condi-
tions according to similitude relationships, typi-
cally the conservation of the Froude number if
wave excitation is involved. On the other hand, if
establishing a representative test case useful for
code validation or benchmarking is the objec-
tive, the involved physical parameters have to be
accurately estimated to feed correctly the numeri-
cal model. In this case, three sources of possible
errors have to be minimized as far as possible:
(i) errors in the fluid or structural numerical mod-
els as distinct frameworks, (ii) errors in the input
parameters (e.g., the forward speed or wave eleva-
tion), (iii) errors in the coupling between disci-
plines and/or in the numerical schemes employed
to achieve a time-marching solution. Therefore,
both to verify the correct hydroelastic scaling,
both to ensure the right modeling of the experi-
mental set-up, FSI testing requires the structural
identification of the elastic bodies interacting
with the fluid.
tive attention in ship and offshore engineering,
the accurate prediction of complex loading and
responses on multi-hull vessels is particularly
demanding, since it involves two-way coupling
of the deck structure with the flow imping-
ing on it. Currently, there is a gap in available
experimental FSI data related to this problem
that can be used for numerical solver validation.
Current FSI data sets are severely limited by the
uncertainties associated with the experimental
setups. Furthermore, though segmented model
tests have become more feasible and popular for
monohulls, not many experimental campaigns
(Hermundstad et al. 1995, Kyyro & Hakala 1997,
Cheng, F. 1997) exist for segmented catamarans
that provide both global and local loads and hull
responses. The only systematic investigation on
elastically scaled catamarans was carried out by
Lavroff et al. (2007, 2013). Dessi et al. (2016) have
already illustrated the preliminary experimental
results on an elastically scaled model of a SWATH
aimed to accurately depict the wave loading and
structural response from seakeeping tests. In the
present paper the focus is instead on the structural
tests performed for the physical model qualifi-
cation with an extended account of the dry and
wet vibration mode identification of the entire
catamaran.

MARSTRUC_Book.indb 3 3/29/2017 9:33:48 AM

 2 FROM CONCEPT DESIGN TO
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The concept design of the catamaran was inspired
by the need of sophisticated integrated sensor
equipment (up to 88 signal channels at a maxi-
mum sampling rate of 20 kHz) with a realistic
and adaptable floating platform. Although proper
scaling is not required to provide a reliable data-
set for code validation, some critical phenomena
may be concealed or partially obscured by a mis-
match between the hydrodynamic and elastic time
scales. Thus, a prototype craft, the FSF-1, previ-
ously tested at full-scale and at model-scale at the
Naval Surface Warfare Center, Carderock Division
(NSWCCD) towing-tank was chosen as a refer-
ence (Lin et al. 2007). For the FSI tests, the con-
structed model was elastically scaled to match the
full-scale structural characteristics of the FSF-1.
Initially, elastic scaling was performed by reduc-
ing the complexity of the reference structure which
is dictated by two main aspects: (i) the separation
of the hydrodynamic forces from the elastic defor-
mations using the backspline segmented model
approach which was previously implemented in
the past (Dessi & Mariani 2008), (ii) the defini-
tion of the hydroelastic scaling targets. The split
mode and the two-node vertical bending mode
were assumed as the reference modes to be scaled,
with frequencies equal to 2.2 Hz and 3.3 Hz at
full-scale, respectively. The frequency of the ship
vibration modes was determined during several
sea trials as reported in (Lin et al. 2007, Swartz
et al. 2012). The number of segments into which
the hull was divided (4 for each demihull and 2 for
the deck, see Figure 1) considered the need to exert
the hydrodynamic loads in a simplified but realistic
way. Several backspline layouts were analyzed dur-
ing the design process, but the selected one, shown
in Figure 2, provided the best convergence of the
FSF-1 hydroelastic scaling and the necessary sup-
port to the hull segments through the legs. A cus-
tom arrangement was chosen for the forward deck
that is mostly subjected to the water impacts: two
transverse bars, hinged to the demihull beams at
their ends, were placed to support the wet-deck, in
Figure 1. Segmented model of the catamaran.
MARSTRUC_Book.indb 4
Figure 2. Sketch of the elastic backspline.
a similar way as done by Lavroff et al. (2007). The
boundary conditions applied to these beams (sim-
ply supported at the ends) allow the indirect esti-
mation of the impact loads through applied force
(four piezoelectric Kisler load cells, Figure 3) and
strain gauges (three for each bar).
The length of the fore part of the wetdeck was
set as one third of the overall length, covering the
area where impacts were expected to be severe,
and ten pressure caps from Kulite were inserted to
sense the impulsive loads (Figure 4). The second
part of the wetdeck was cut near the stern to allow
for the installation of the anti-yaw system. To limit
the hull weight while ensuring protection from
sprays or green water, only the fore part of the ves-
sel superstructure was built and segmented in three
parts, with each segment separately connected to
the wetdeck and to the port and starboard bow
segments, respectively. The amount of freeboard
along the vessel sides was reduced elsewhere. All
the links to the carriage required reinforcement
due to the high yaw moment that the catamaran
could exert in the case of a small misalignment.
After choosing the backspline layout, the geo-
metrical dimension and stiffness distribution was
designed according to Froude scaling laws. An
optimization approach was chosen assuming the
thickness of the aluminum hollow beam sections
and the ballast position along the beam rails as
project variables. The model scale was set as a
parameter downstream of which the optimization
process took place. Scale ratios λ between 17 and
20 were initially considered, and λ = 19 guaranteed
the right compromise between acceptable model
dimensions and sufficient freedom in allocating
mass for the various subsystems. All the rigid body
features appeared as constraints as well as some
physical constraints such as those relative to the
minimum or maximum thicknesses of the back-
spline. A weighted combination of the difference
between the reference and the computed frequen-
cies was set as an objective function. The optimi-
zation algorithm was based on the method of the
interior extended penalty function, which called an
in-house code for the generation of the FE model
3/29/2017 9:33:48 AM
 Figure 5. Split mode from FE model.
Figure 3. PZT load cells used for the measuring the
wetdeck impact forces along with mechanical interfaces.

Figure 6. Two-node vertical bending mode from FE

model.

Table 1. Physical model parameters.

Variable Value

Mass 206.8 Kg
Length between PP 3.84 m
Figure 4. Wet-deck pressure caps positions (the deck is LCG 1.628 m
rotated so the suspension bars appear vertical). TCG 0.000
VCG 0.369
Pitch radius 1.143
(TABSS) and a Lanczos algorithm for extracting Trim 0°
the vibration modes. This in-house FORTRAN Draft 0.196
code is efficient, fast running, and allows for a
simple representation of the physical model. In
addition, a high-fidelity model developed in MSC
NASTRAN was used for tuning of the simplified the backspline central beam. The inclined rod was
FE model. The shapes of the two main bending constrained to move up and down between the ver-
modes are shown Figures 5–6. The final physical tical brackets, exchanging lateral forces to counter-
model features are summarized in the Table 1. act the hydrodynamic yaw moment.
A stiff seakeeping sliding bar was chosen to
allow for the vertical heave motion, and while pitch
motion was allowed by the single hinge mounted on 3 PHYSICAL MODEL ASSESSMENT
the central beam of the backspline truss in corre-
spondence of the model Center of Gravity (CoG). The reduction of the elastic structure uncertain-
The sliding bar device was fixed with respect to ties required the completion of preliminary tests
the carriage, allowing no surge oscillation. Limited specifically devoted to this purpose. This experi-
yaw rotation (less than one degree) was allowed by mental campaign was performed in dry and wet
the ball bearing mechanism. The anti-yaw system conditions, including static and dynamic tests on
consisted of a vertical pitchfork fixed to the car- the assembled physical model or on the backspline
riage and an inclined rod placed at the rear end of alone.

MARSTRUC_Book.indb 5 3/29/2017 9:33:49 AM

 3.1 Dry static tests of the main frame sections attached in order to gauge the response
of the fastener connection between the legs and
In order to use the numerical structural model
demi-hulls.
for FSI simulations, it was necessary to verify the
The displacements of the backspline truss during
represented stiffness by static response testing.
each test condition were collected with a combina-
The testing was designed to produce static defor-
tion of string potentiometers at key displacement
mations that replicate the first several vibrational
locations, and a Digital Image Correlation (DIC)
mode shapes. This included the split, first sym-
setup along the side of the truss beams. The DIC
metric (hog and sag), and whipping modes. The
uses stereo cameras and a speckle pattern to meas-
backspline structure contained four legs on each
ure displacements along a continuous section of
side which were designed to connect the indi-
the model.
vidual demi-hull sections to the backspline truss
Figure 9 illustrates an example of the outputs
with bolted connections at both ends. To accom-
obtained from the static tests. The continuous lines
plish the dry static testing, adapters holding either
refer to the distribution of displacement obtained
a ball knob for simply supported displacement
by the DIC system for various applied loads. The
Boundary Conditions (BC) or eye-bolt for hang-
dots represent the measurement of the vertical dis-
ing weight loads were placed at these leg-to-demi-
placement provided by the string potentiometers
hull attachment points, as shown in Figure 7. For
at the chosen locations. The displacement curves
the split mode condition, the center four legs were
agree well with the discrete measurements, show-
supported with the displacement BC’s and two
ing a near linear structural response of the back-
diagonally opposed weight stacks on the outer
spline. A similar conclusion can be drawn for the
legs. First symmetric bending modes used four
sag load condition from the measurements shown
displacement BC’s at the center with four weight
in Figure 10, where the DIC estimated displace-
stacks at the outer edges (hog), or displacement
ment is compared with the string potentiometers.
BC’s at the outer legs with weight stacks on the
The dependence of the displacement on the loads
center legs (sag, as in Figure 8). The whipping
shows a linear trend in the sagging case. It is worth
mode case required weight suspended between the
forward two legs, and another between the aft two
legs with a rope at a shallow angle giving a high
horizontal load. Sag and whipping shape tests were
also conducted with the forward and aft demi-hull

Figure 9. Displacement field in static hog tests obtained

Figure 7. Loading and displacement BC adapters. with DIC.

Figure 10. Dependence of the single-point displace-

Figure 8. Sag mode loading and BC. ment on the applied load for sag tests.

MARSTRUC_Book.indb 6 3/29/2017 9:33:50 AM

 highlighting that the applied loads were far beyond Table 2. Comparison between FEM and experimental
those that the segmented model is expected to bear (RHT) modal analyses for the aluminum backspline.
during the seakeeping tests. In Figure 11, the split
mode results show a successful agreement between 1D elements 2D elements Dry tests
(beam el.) (shell el.) with RHT
continuous and discrete displacements. The areas
measured by the DIC were limited by obstructions Split mode 24.5 Hz 21.4 Hz 19.1 Hz
from the model disturbing the camera view. For Bending-2 41.4 Hz 40.8 Hz 39.1 Hz
this reason the displacement curves are not con- symmetric
tinuous. The results of these tests characterize the Bending-2 57.9 Hz 56.5 Hz 54.8 Hz
global stiffness of the structure and fine-tune the asymmetric
numerical model to evoke the same response under Bending-3 108.8 Hz 107.5 Hz 102.3 Hz
the tested loading conditions. symmetric
Bending-3 123.2 Hz 120.4 Hz 115.7 Hz
asymmetric
3.2 Global dry vibration tests of the catamaran
The first set of dry vibration tests were carried out
on the aluminum backspline without the demihulls
attached to confirm the validity of the FE models.
The FE modal analysis was used for design pur-
poses and later for ballasting and fine tuning of the
modal frequencies. Welding the planar truss and
connections between the forward beams required
detailed modeling in the numerical solvers. Iden-
tification of the backspline by impulse tests
required the model to be suspended in air on four
soft springs. The experimental modal analysis was
carried out using the Roving Hammer Technique
(RHT) which exploits multiple-inputs (with the
instrumented hammer) and one output, the accel-
Figure 12. Physical model hanging on soft springs for
eration at one point sufficiently far from vibration
dry vibration tests.
nodes. The predicted FE modes using 1D (beam)
elements are in fair agreement with those experi-
mentally identified as the frequency comparison in
Table 2 shows.
A second set of tests was designed to extract the
modes of the fully assembled physical model with
the roving hammer technique in 19 points. Two
support configurations were employed with eight
and ten soft springs (Figure 12), respectively, pro-
viding rigid body oscillation frequencies less than
1.5 Hz, well below the frequency range of the
elastic modes (in Dessi et al. 2016 a stiffer four-

Figure 13. Split mode from dry vibration tests

(10.3 Hz).

spring configuration was used). The split mode

Figure 11. Displacement field in split-like tests obtained
with DIC.
(10.3 Hz, Figure 13) and the two-node (symmet-
ric) vertical bending mode (16.6 Hz, Figure 14)
are in fair agreement with the numerical simula-
tions. The experimental modal analysis identi-
fied clearly the vertical, horizontal and mixed
modes up to 100 Hz (few of them are reported in
Figure 15). In the column named ‘1D elements’ of
Table 3, two numerical values are shown: the first
frequency value refers to segment masses lumped
at the CoG of each segment, whereas the second

MARSTRUC_Book.indb 7 3/29/2017 9:33:51 AM

 modes, some discrepancies with FEM appear in
Table 3.

3.3 Global wet vibration tests of the floating

Figure 14. Two-node vertical bending mode from dry
vibration tests (16.6 Hz).
catamaran
The wet vibration tests were performed before
and during the experimental campaign in the
towing tank. They were planned to identify the
effective behavior of the physical model and to
provide reference values for FSI modeling of
the mode decompositions. Two test series were
carried out: (i) for the first set of tests (“pool”
test), the physical model floated in a calm water
pool with an equivalent mass representing the
seakeeping vertical bar and the roving ham-
mer technique was exploited; (ii) later, during
regular seakeeping runs in the towing tank, the
operational mode shapes of the physical model
in its final configuration, including the link to
the carriage, were identified with an output-
only technique over 14 acceleration signals
(“towing-tank” test). The Operational Modal
Analysis (OMA for short) was carried out using
proper orthogonal decomposition coupled on

Figure 15. Horizontal 2-node symmetric bending

(22 Hz, top left), Mixed mode (24.5 Hz, top right),
2-node asymmetric vertical bending (29.2 Hz, bottom
left), 3-node asymmetric vertical bending (89.6 Hz,
bottom right).

Table 3. Comparison between FEM and EMA for the

dry vibration tests of the assembled model.

1D elements 2D elements
(beam el.) (shell el.) EXP

Split mode 11.0/10.6 9.8/9.92 10.4 Hz

Bending-2 18.5/16.9 17.5/16.3 16.3 Hz
Figure 16. Split mode from wet vibration tests in still
symmetric
water (8.6 Hz).
Bending-2 27.5/24.0–28.5 20.9/22.1 29.3 Hz
asymmetric
Bending-3 57.1/47.7 41.5/44.3 80.7 Hz
symmetric
Bending-3 64.4/54.5 44.6/48.3 89.6 Hz
asymmetric

frequency (after the slash) is relative to the same

FE model with information about the gyration
radii of the segments as well. The values relative
to the 2D (shell) FE model refer to a rigid mod-
eling of the segments (first value) and to reason-
ably modeled, flexible segments (second value),
within the limits and uncertainties that typically Figure 17. Two-node vertical bending mode from wet
apply to composite manufacture. For the vertical vibration tests in still water (15.5 Hz).

MARSTRUC_Book.indb 8 3/29/2017 9:33:52 AM

 Table 4. Results from the wet vibration tests and the FE
model analysis.

1D elements Towing-
(beam el.) Pool-RHT tank-OMA

Split mode 9.1 Hz 8.6 Hz 9.5 Hz

Bending-2 14.6 Hz 15.5 Hz 15.2 Hz
Bending-3 32.1 Hz 35.5 Hz 38.6 Hz

band-pass filtered data (Mariani & Dessi 2012). Figure 18. Three-node vertical bending mode from wet
The split mode is clearly shown both in the vibration tests in still water (35.4 Hz).
pool-RHT test (Figure 16) and towing-tank-
OMA tests (Figure 19), with a mode frequency
higher in the second case. The NASTRAN FE
model gave a frequency between those experi-
mentally obtained (see Table 4). The two-node
bending mode frequency, which varied between
15.2 Hz and 15.5 Hz in the identification tests,
was slightly under predicted by the FE code
model (14.6 Hz). The mode shape is clearly
defined (see Figures 17 and 20), but a similar,
less excited vibration mode was also identified
between 10–12 Hz. This fact probably demands
for larger arrays of measurement points, possi-
bly using 3-axis accelerometers, to get a clearer Figure 19. Split mode from vibration tests in waves
identification of the mode shapes. The same (9.5 Hz).
evidence of a high modal density applies as
we move to the subsequent modes (the term
“high” is set in comparison with similar identi-
fications on monohull segmented models). For
instance, the three-node bending (symmetric)
mode (Figures 18 and 21) shows experimen-
tal frequencies higher than the corresponding
FE-mode, with one accelerometer on the mid-
beam moving opposite with respect to the other
points in the case of tests with wave excitation
(Figure 21).

3.4 Dry vibration tests of the wetdeck Figure 20. 2-node bending mode from vibration tests
in waves (15.2 Hz).
The wetdeck is the most critical component of
the experimental platform because FSI modeling
of the wetdeck slam events fully benefits of a
correct representation of its structural proper-
ties. Using the roving-hammer (see Figure 22)
the mode shapes of the deck have been identi-
fied. It is worth underline that the tests were
done with the deck mounted on the suspension
bars. The lowest frequency mode nearly coin-
cides with the cantilever mode of the plate abaft
the fore suspension bar (Figure 23). The succes-
sive modes #2 and #3 are global torsional modes
of the entire deck but dominated by the twist-
ing of the fore (Figure 24) and after (Figure 25) Figure 21. 3-node bending mode from vibration tests
parts, respectively. In Figure 26 the mode shapes in waves (38.6 Hz).

MARSTRUC_Book.indb 9 3/29/2017 9:33:53 AM

 Figure 26. Deck mode #4 (170 Hz) and #5 (245.Hz)
from dry vibration tests.

#4 and #5 resemble to the 3-node and 4-node

Figure 22. Experimental set-up for the identification of
the wetdeck.
bending modes of the deck plate, respectively.
Mode #5 shows some significant oscillation of
the central portion of the deck, but at a relatively
high frequency. This indicates that the mid-part
of the deck is much stiffer than the fore and rear
parts.

4 HULL RESPONSE

The experimental campaign aimed to investigate

the complex FSI phenomena due to wetdeck
slamming was performed at the CNR-INSEAN
towing tank wave basin “Castagneto.” Only
a brief account, concerned with the elastic
response, is given here and the reader is referred
to Dessi et al. (2016) for more details. The strain-
Figure 23. Deck mode #1 (65.1 Hz) from vibration gauge layout is shown in Figure 27. Each meas-
tests.
urement point consisted of two strain-gauges
that were glued on the top-face of the beam and
closely connected to the bridge resistance with
a water-proof case to ensure protection against
water-on-deck events and permanent humid-
ity. The strain measurements were calibrated to
allow for the calculation of the distribution of
Vertical Bending Moments (VBM) along the cat-
amaran truss. For a single regular wave condi-
tion at a full-scale speed of 20 kts, the maximum
amplitude of the response (almost sinusoidal)
was plotted in terms of a discrete vector field
with vectors linked to the strain-gage points
Figure 24. Deck mode #2 (89.5 Hz) from vibration (Figure 28). The length of the vectors are pro-
tests. portional to the peak-to-peak values obtained
from the analysis of each signal, however phase
information between the strain-gauges is lost in
this data representation. Using the static cali-
bration factors, which allow transforming the
strains into vertical bending moments, the bend-
ing moment RAO can be calculated. An interest-
ing data representation is given by the surface
describing the VBM distribution My(x, t) along
the demihull beam, and in particular along
the starboard side. The 3D plot in Figure 29
describes the dependence of the VBM distribu-
tion (the x coordinate corresponds to the length
Figure 25. Deck mode #3 (131.5 Hz) from vibration of the demihull beam) on the non-dimensional
tests. wavelength λ/Lpp.

10

MARSTRUC_Book.indb 10 3/29/2017 9:33:53 AM

 time scales of the structure highlighting the
possibility of strong coupling with flow phenom-
ena. It is worth to point out that repeating the
tests at the end of a long-lasting experimental
campaign gives also the chance of verifying that
the experimental set-up did not suffer any signifi-
cant modification.

Figure 27. Position of strain-gages along the backspline.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work is supported by the U. S. Office of Naval

Research (ONR) under NICOP agreement under
the guidance of program officer Paul Hess. I wish
also to thank the PhD student Francesco Saltari
who gave his fruitful support to the structural test
campaign.

REFERENCES

Cheng, F. 1997. Some results from Lloyd Register’s

open water model experiments for high speed craft.
In Proc. 4th International Conference on Fast Sea
Transportation (FAST97), Sydney, Australia, 21–23
July.
Dessi, D. & Mariani, R. 2008. Analysis and prediction
Figure 28. Maximum strain value distribution for a of slamming-induced loads of a high-speed monohull
regular wave test (V = 1.78 m/s, aw = 0.035 m, λ/Lpp = 1.5, in regular waves. Journal of Ship Research, 52 (1):
all quantities at model scale). 71–86.
Dessi, D., Faiella, E., Geiser, J., Alley, E. & Dukes, J.
2016. Design, assessment and testing of a fast cata-
maran for FSI investigation. In Proc. 31st Symposium
on Naval Hydrodynamics, Monterey, California, 11–16
September.
Hermundstad, O.A., Moan, T. & Aarsnes, J.V. 1995.
Hydroelastic analysis of a flexible catamaran and com-
parison with experiments. In Proc. 3rd International
Conference on Fast Sea Transportation (FAST 95),
Lübeck-Travemünde, Germany, 25–27 September.
Kyyro, K. & Hakala, M.H. 1997. Determination of
structural dimensioning loads of a fast catamaran,
using rigid backbone segmented model testing tech-
niques. In Proc. 4th International Conference on Fast
Sea Transportation (FAST97), Sydney, Australia,
21–23 July.
Lavroff, J., Davis, M.R., Holloway, D.S. & Thomas, G.
2007. The Whipping Vibratory Response of a Hydro-
elastic Segmented Catamaran Model. In Proc. 9th
Figure 29. Dependence on the wavelength of the VBMs International Conference on Fast Sea Transportation
along the starboard demihull for an irregular sea test. (FAST07), Shangai, China, 23–27 September.
Lavroff, J., Davis, M.R., Holloway, D.S. & Thomas, G.
2013. Wave slamming loads on wave-piercer catama-
5 CONCLUSIONS rans operating at high-speed determined by hydro-elas-
tic segmented model experiments. Marine Structures
33: 120–142.
Conducting a systematic set of tests for identify-
Lin, W.M., Zhang, S., Weems, K., Jones, P., Meinhold, M.,
ing the structural properties of the elastic bod- Metcalf, B. & Powers, A.M. 2007. Numerical Simula-
ies interacting with the fluid gives the chance tion and Validation Study of Wetdeck Slamming on
to validate or even update the structural models High Speed Catamaran. In Proc. 9th International
included in the FSI solver. Nonetheless structural Conference on Numerical Ship Hydrodynamics, Ann
testing may be also used to verify the fundamental Arbor, Michigan, 5–8 August.

11

MARSTRUC_Book.indb 11 3/29/2017 9:33:54 AM

 Mariani, R. & Dessi, D. 2012. Analysis of the global Vessels. Structure and Infrastructure Engineering:
bending modes of a floating structure using the Maintenance, Management, Life-Cycle Design and
proper orthogonal decomposition. Journal of fluids Performance 8(7).
and structures 28: 115–134.
Swartz, R.A., Zimmerman A.T., Lynch, J.P., Rosario, J.,
Brady, T., Salvino, L. & Law, K.H. 2012. Hybrid
Wireless Hull Monitoring System for Naval Combat

12

MARSTRUC_Book.indb 12 3/29/2017 9:33:55 AM

 Progress in the Analysis and Design of Marine Structures – Guedes Soares & Garbatov (Eds)
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-06907-7

A storm-based procedure to generate standardised load-time history

for fatigue strength assessment of offshore structures

Shanshan Li & C. Guedes Soares

Centre for Marine Technology and Ocean Engineering (CENTEC), Instituto Superior Técnico,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

ABSTRACT: A procedure to generate the fatigue load history based on a Storm Model is proposed
in this paper. Adopting one year as the climatic reference period the procedure determines the sea state
sequence within one year, and for each sea state, the wave-induced stresses are modelled by a stress response
spectrum that is calculated from the stress Response Amplitude Operator (RAO) and a wave energy
spectrum. Next, the stress time history is simulated for each sea state in the sequence corresponding to
one year. Finally, the one-year time series are repeated to the whole design life or until final failure occurs
in the studied structure. An application example is given to demonstrate the fatigue life prediction for a
tubular T-joint of an offshore platform by using the generated load history, which shows the practical and
effective use of the proposed procedure.

1 INTRODUCTION needs to be provided as the load-time history in

Fatigue is an important degradation phenomenon
that needs to be considered in the design of marine
structures. To assess fatigue life, it is necessary to
model the wave-induced loading, which is random
(e.g. Garbatov et al. 2011). One of the open prob-
lems is the load sequence effect on fatigue crack
growth rate, which has been proved from labora-
tory tests to be an influencing factor that cannot be
neglected in fatigue analysis. For marine structures
such as ships and offshore platforms, currently
used fatigue strength assessment approaches are
based on Cumulative Fatigue Damage (CFD) the-
ory, which is unable to calculate the crack growth
process and to take the load sequence effect into
account. Only approaches based on Fatigue Crack
Propagation (FCP) theory have the potential to
model the change of crack size as a function of
load intensity, and sequence.
The essence of developing an FCP-based
fatigue life prediction method is to establish a ‘cor-
rect’ crack growth rate relation under both con-
stant amplitude load and variable amplitude load.
Over the past few decades, much progress has been
made on this issue (Wheeler 1972, Newman 1981,
McEvily et al. 1999, Okawa & Sumi 2008, Sumi &
Inoue 2011, Huang et al. 2008, Cui et al. 2011).
The capabilities of these models have been dem-
onstrated and validated by comparing with experi-
mental results on a wide range of alloys within
their specific scope of application.
In order to apply the FCP-based approaches
in the design of marine structures, fatigue load
the time domain rather than the currently used
load spectrum in the frequency domain. This is the
other key issue that needs to be solved in develop-
ing fatigue life prediction methods based on FCP
theory. Generally, the long-term distribution of
the wave-induced stress ranges is fitted by a two-
parameter Weibull distribution (Guedes Soares
and Moan, 1991). Stress ranges for a certain
period are equivalent to a series of pseudo-random
numbers generated by a program when the scale
parameter and shape parameter are determined by
the spectral analysis method (Guedes Soares et al.
2003; Garbatov et al, 2010, Nguyen, et al. 2013) or
adopting classification society recommended val-
ues and empirical formulae.
But it is still not completely satisfactory and it
is essential to generate load sequences consisting
both rough and calm seas to accurately simulate
the random nature in real oceans, so that sequence
effect can be taken into consideration. Baxevani
et al. (2009) proposed a stochastic spatio-temporal
wave model, which can simulate significant wave
height sequence by using satellite wave data. This
model was adopted to calculate fatigue strength of
ship structures (Mao et al. 2010, 2013, de Gracia
et al. 2016). However in this model, the stochas-
tic nature of storms (e.g., storm duration and
various maximum wave height of storm) were not
clearly distinguishable. Furthermore, complicated
cross-correlation analysis at numerous data points
is required in the application, and such analysis
requires a very large effort that is not compatible
with practical ship design.

13

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 Japanese researchers presented another rela-
tively simple load sequence generation model called
storm model. In the 1st generation of storm model
(Tomita et al. 1995), ocean conditions were clas-
sified into either storm or calm sea based on the
wave data in the North Pacific Ocean. Storms were
modelled as crescendo and decrescendo amplitude
waveform of individual wave height (hw), and calm
seas were modelled as time-independent random
waveform. These two conditions randomly occur
during the ships’ lifetime.
Kawabe et al. (2002, 2003) modified the 1st gen-
eration model so that the storm waveforms were
given by significant wave height (Hw) sequences,
and the correlation between Hw and mean wave
period (Tz), which was ignored in the 1st model,
was taken into account. Furthermore, the wave-
forms were determined so that Hw’s frequency dis-
tribution in a storm was similar to the tail of Hw’s
long-term distribution. That was called the 2nd
generation storm model.
On the basis of Japan Weather Association
(JWA)’s hindcast wave data, Prasetyo et al. (2012,
2013) presented the 3rd generation model so that
the variation of storm durations can be taken into
consideration. So far, the load sequences expe-
rienced by ocean-going ships and offshore struc-
tures can be approximately described by the storm
model. For a given structure, the fatigue life can be
obtained as the mean value of many calculations
with different combinations of storms and calm
seas in the whole lifetime, which is always a time-
consuming process due to a lot of computation.
In order to decrease such kind of redundant
calculations, Li et al. (2014, 2016) proposed a pro-
cedure for generating the Standardized Load-time
History (SLH) for marine structures based on the
storm model. SLH usually does not cover the total
design life, but only a representative fraction (a ref-
erence period of the design life), and all the storms
are expected to be located within the reference
period. Then a simulation is made with all possible
sequences of storms to identify which one leads
to the largest fatigue damage, this one is the SLH.
That is to say, the load sequence that leads to the
most serious condition of fatigue crack propagation
is chosen to be the SLH. Finally the SLH deter-
mined for the reference period will be repeated in
fatigue tests or numerical simulations until final fail-
ure occurs or the anticipated design life is covered.
However in the actual application, the number
of all possible load sequences within the reference
period is always too large to really obtain the one
that makes a crack grow fastest. For example, if
there are 14 storms experienced by an offshore
platform within one year, which is always selected
as the reference period for offshore structures when
determining the SLH, then all possible sequences
of storms should be about 8.7E10 (14*13*…*2*1).
14
MARSTRUC_Book.indb 14
It is obviously difficult to implement due to the
huge computing time.
This paper presents an improved procedure to
generate fatigue load history by using seasonal
Wave Scatter Diagrams (WSDs) instead of the
averaged one that was used before. This implies
the use of separate WSDs for each of the seasons.
Separating the analysis in four seasons makes each
of the studies much shorter computationally as the
number of load sequence variant decreases much,
for instance, if 5 storms in one season, then only
430 (5*4*3*2*1) possible storm sequences need
to be considered. Furthermore, it avoids studying
unrealistic storm sequences as one would not expect
winter storms and summer storms, for example,
to be mixed in sequence. The whole procedure is
implemented by a MATLAB program. Finally,
an example is given to demonstrate the fatigue life
prediction for a tubular T-joint of an offshore plat-
form by using the generated load sequence.
2 THE PROCEDURE TO GENERATE
LOAD HISTORIES FOR OFFSHORE
STRUCTURES
First it is critical to select the length of the refer-
ence period, trying to make sure that the full vari-
ety of load amplitudes is contained in this analysed
time period in their correct percentages. Too short
means that infrequent but high load amplitudes are
not contained in the load history, although they do
occur in service and will greatly affect the fatigue
life. In that case, the generated load history would
be quite different from that in service. Conversely
if too long, the amount of calculation work would
increase significantly. As for offshore structures,
the service life is generally designated as 20∼25
years, so one year seems to be an appropriate selec-
tion because structures experience similar weather
conditions every year, especially offshore platforms
with relatively fixed working locations.
Then the procedure determines the sea state
sequence within the selected reference period, and
then in each sea state, the wave-induced stress can
be modelled by stress response spectrum which
is calculated from the stress Response Amplitude
Operator (RAO) and a wave energy spectrum.
Finally, the stress time history is simulated for
each sea state in the sequence corresponding to
one year, the one-year time series will be repeated
to the whole design life or until final failure occurs
in the studied structure.
2.1 Sea state sequence generation
2.1.1 Wave data collection
Wave data collection in the studied sea area is
the first necessary step. For offshore structures,
3/29/2017 9:33:55 AM
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uses; and that according to the various purposes they are applied,
&c. Therefore, indeed, a Letter-Cutter should have a Forge set up,
as by Numb. 1. But some Letter-Cutters may seem to scorn to use a
Forge, as accounting it too hard Labour, and Ungenteel for
themselves to officiate at. Yet they all well know, that though they
may have a common Black-Smith perform their much and heavy
Work, that many times a Forge of their own at Hand would be very
commodious for them in several accidental little and light Jobs,
which (in a Train of Work) they must meet withal.
But if our Letter-Cutter will have no Forge, yet he must of necessity
accommodate himself with a Vice, Hand-Vice, Hammers, Files,
Small and Fine Files (commonly called Watch-makers Files) of these
he saves all, as they wear out, to smooth and burnish the Sides and
Face of his Letter with, as shall be shewed; Gravers, and Sculpters
of all sorts, an Anvil, or a Stake, an Oyl-stone, &c. And of these,
such as are suitable and sizable to the several Letters he is to Cut.
These, or many of these Tools, being described in Numb. 1. I refer
my Reader thither, and proceed to give an account of some Tools
peculiar to the Letter-Cutter, though not of particular use to the
Common Black-Smith.
Plate 10.
 ¶. 2. Of the Using-File.

This File is about nine or ten Inches long, and three or four Inches
broad, and three quarters of an Inch thick: The two broad sides must
be exactly flat and straight: And the one side is commonly cut with a
Bastard-Cut, the other with a Fine or Smooth Cut. (See Numb. 1.
Fol. 14, 15.) Its use is to Rub a piece of Steel, Iron, or Brass, &c. flat
and straight upon, as shall be shewed hereafter.
In chusing it, you must see it be exactly Flat and Straight all its
Length and Breadth: For if it in any part Belly out, or be Hollow
inwards, what is Rubbed upon it will be Hollow, Rubbing on the
Bellying part; and Bellying, Rubbing on the Hollow part. You must
also see that it be very Hard; and therefore the thickest Using-Files
are likeliest to prove best, because the thin commonly Warp in
Hardning.

¶. 3. Of the Flat-Gage.

The Flat-Gage is described in Plate 10. at A. It is made of a flat piece

of Box, or other Hard Wood. Its Length is three Inches and an half,
its Breadth two Inches and an half, and its Thickness one Inch and
an half. This is on the Flat, first made Square, but afterwards hath
one of its Corners (as h) a little rounded off, that it may the easier
comply with the Ball of the Hand. Out of one of its longest Sides, viz.
that not rounded off, is Cut through the thickness of it an exact
Square, whose one side b f, c g is about an Inch and three quarters
long; and its other side b d, c e about half an Inch long. The Depth of
these Sides and their Angle is exactly Square to the top and bottom
of the upper and under Superficies of the Flat-Gage.
Its Use is to hold a Rod of Steel, or Body of a Mold, &c. exactly
perpendicular to the Flat of the Using-File, that the end of it may rub
upon the Using-File, and be Filed away exactly Square, and that to
the Shank; as shall more at large be shewed in §. 2. ¶. 3.

¶. 4. Of the Sliding-Gage.

The Sliding-Gage is described in Plate 10. at Fig. B. It is a Tool

commonly used by Mathematical Instrument-Makers, and I have
found it of great use in Letter-Cutting, and making of Molds, &c. a a
the Beam, b the Tooth, c c the Sliding Socket, d d d d the Shoulder
of the Socket.
Its Use is to measure and set off Distances between the Sholder and
the Tooth, and to mark it off from the end, or else from the edge of
your Work.
I always use two or three of these Gages, that I need not remove the
Sholder when it is set to a Distance which I may have after-use for;
as shall in Working be shewed more fully.

¶. 5. Of the Face-Gages, marked C in Plate 10.

The Face-Gage is a Square Notch cut with a File into the edge of a
thin Plate of Steel, Iron, or Brass, the thickness of a piece of
common Latton, and the Notch about an English deep. There be
three of these Gages made, for the Letters to be cut on one Body;
but they may be all made upon one thin Plate, the readier to be
found, as at D. As first, for the Long Letters; Secondly, for the
Assending Letters; And Thirdly, for the Short-Letters. The Length of
these several Notches, or Gages, have their Proportions to the Body
they are cut to, and are as follows. We shall imagine (for in Practice
it cannot well be perform’d, unless in very large Bodies) that the
Length of the whole Body is divided into forty and two equal Parts.
The Gage for the Long-Letters are the length of the whole Body, viz.
forty and two equal Parts. The Gage for the Assending Letters,
Roman and Italica, are five Seventh Parts of the Body, viz. thirty
Parts of forty-two, and thirty and three Parts for English Face. The
Gage for the Short-Letters are three Seventh Parts of the whole
Body, viz. eighteen Parts of forty-two for the Roman and Italica, and
twenty two Parts for the English Face.
It may indeed be thought impossible to divide a Body into seven
equal Parts, and much more difficult to divide each of those seven
equal Parts into six equal Parts, which are forty-two, as aforesaid,
especially if the Body be but small; but yet it is possible with curious
Working: For seven thin Spaces may be Cast and Rubb’d to do it.
And for dividing each of the thin Spaces into six equal Parts, you
may Cast and Rub Full Point . to be of the thickness of one thin
Space, and one sixth part of a thin Space: And you may Cast and
Rub : to be the thickness of one thin Space, and two sixth parts of a
thin Space: And you may Cast and Rub , to be the thickness of one
thin Space, and three sixth parts of a thin Space: And you may Cast
and Rub - to be the thickness of one thin Space, and four sixth parts
of a thin Space: And you may Cast and Rub ; to be the thickness of
one thin Space, and five sixth parts of a thin Space.
The reason why I propose . to be Cast and Rubb’d one sixth part
thicker than a thin Space, is only that it may be readily distinguished
from : , - ; which are two sixth parts, three sixth parts, four sixth
parts, five sixth parts thicker than a thin Space. And for six sixth parts
thicker than a thin Space, two thin Spaces does it.
The manner of adjusting these several Sixth Parts of Thicknesses is
as follows. You may try if six . exactly agree, and be even with seven
thin Spaces; (or, which is all one, a Body) for then is each of those
six . one sixth part thicker than a thin Space, because it drives out a
thin Space in six thin Spaces. And you may try if six : be equal to a
Body and one thin Space; for then is each : two sixth parts thicker
than a thin Space. If six , be equal to nine thin Spaces, then each , is
three sixth parts of a thin Space thicker than a thin Space. If six - be
equal to ten thin Spaces, then each - is four sixth parts of a thin
Space thicker than a thin Space. If six ; be equal to eleven thin
Spaces, then each ; is five sixth parts of a thin Space thicker than a
thin Space.
Now, as aforesaid, a thin Space being one seventh part of the Body,
and the thin Space thus divided, you have the whole Body actually
divided into forty and two equal parts, as I have divided them in my
Drafts of Letters down the Sides, and in the Bottom-Line.
Though I have thus shewed how to divide a thin Space into six equal
Parts, yet when the Letter to be Cut proves of a small Body, the thin
Space divided into two equal Parts may serve: If it prove bigger, into
three or four equal Parts: And of the largest Bodies, they may be
divided into six, as aforesaid.
If now you would make a Gage for any number of thin Spaces and
Sixth Parts of a thin Space, you must take one thin Space less than
the number of thin Spaces proposed, and add . : , - ; according as
the number of sixth Parts of a thin Space require; and to those
complicated Thicknesses you may file a square Notch on the edge of
the thin Plate aforesaid, which shall be a standing Gage or Measure
for that number of thin Spaces and sixth Parts of a thin Space.
All the Exception against this way of Measuring is, that thin Spaces
cast in Metal may be subject to bow, and so their Thicknesses may
prove deceitful. But, in Answer to that, I say, you may, if you will,
Cast I for two thin Spaces thick, e for three thin Spaces thick, S for
four thin Spaces thick, L for five thin Spaces thick, D for six thin
Spaces thick, or any other Letters near these several Thicknesses,
as you think fit; only remember, or rather, make a Table of the
number of thin Spaces that each Letter on the Shank is Cast for. And
by complicating the Letters and Points, as aforesaid, you will have
any Thickness, either to make a Gage by, or to use otherwise.
On the other Edge of the Face-Gage you may file three other
Notches, of the same Width with those on the former Edge, for the
Long, the Assending, and Short-Letters. But though the two sides of
each of these Notches are parallel to each other, yet is not the third
side square to them, but hath the same Slope the Italick hath from
the Roman; as you may see in the Figure at b b b.

¶. 6. Of Italick, and other Standing Gages.

These Gages are to measure (as aforesaid) the Slope of the Italick
Stems, by applying the Top and Bottom of the Gage to the Top and
Bottom Lines of the Letters, and the other Side of the Gage to the
Stem: for when the Letter complies with these three sides of the
Gage that Letter hath its true Slope.
The manner of making these Gages (and indeed all other Angular
Gages) is thus.
Place one Point of a Pair of Steel Dividers upon the thin Plate
aforesaid, at the Point c or d (in Fig. D in Plate 10.) and with the
other Point describe a small fine Arch of a Circle; as, e f or g h. In
this Arch of the Circle must be set off on the Gage a 110 Degrees,
and on the Gage b 70 Degrees, and draw from the Centres c and d
two straight Lines through those numbers of Degrees: Then Filing
away the Plate between the two Lines, the Gages are finished.
To find the Measure of this, or any other number of Degrees, do
thus; Describe a Circle on a piece of Plate-Brass of any Radius (but
the larger the better) draw a straight Line exactly through the Centre
of this Circle, and another straight Line to cut this straight Line at
right Angles in the Centre, through the Circle; so shall the Circle be
divided into four Quadrants: Then fix one Foot of your Compasses
(being yet unstirr’d) in one of the Points where any of the straight
Lines cuts the Circle, and extend the moving Foot of your
Compasses where it will fall in the Circle, and make there a Mark,
which is 60 Degrees from the fixed Foot of the Compasses: Then fix
again one Foot of your Compasses in the Intersection of the straight
Line and Circle that is next the Mark that was made before, and
extend the moving Foot in the same Quadrant towards the straight
Line where you first pitch’d the Foot of your Compasses, and with
the moving Foot make another Mark in the Circle. These two Marks
divide the Quadrant into three equal Parts: The same way you may
divide the other three Quadrants; so shall the whole Circle be divided
into twelve equal Parts; and each of these twelve equal parts contain
an Arch of thirty Degrees: Then with your Dividers divide each of
these 30 Degrees into three equal Parts, and each of these three
equal Parts into two equal Parts, and each of these two equal Parts
into five equal Parts, so shall the Circle be divided into 360 equal
Parts, for your use.
To use it, describe on the Centre of the Circle an Arch of almost a
Semi-Circle: This Arch must be exactly of the same Radius with that
I prescribed to be made on the Gages a b, from e to f and from g to
h; then count in your Circle of Degrees from any Diametral Line 110
Degrees; and laying a straight Ruler on the Centre, and on the 110
Degrees aforesaid, make a small Mark through the small Arch; and
placing one Foot of your Compasses at the Intersection of the small
Arch, with the Diametral Line, open the other Foot to the Mark made
on the small Arch for 110 Degrees, and transfer that Distance to the
small Arch made on the Gage: Then through the Marks that the two
Points of your Compasses make in the small Arch on the Gage,
draw two straight Lines from the Centre c: and the Brass between
those two straight Lines being filed away, that Gage is made. In like
manner you may set off any other number of Degrees, for the
making of any other Gage.
In like manner, you may measure any Angle in the Drafts of Letters,
by describing a small Arch on the Angular Point, and an Arch of the
same Radius on the Centre of your divided Circle: For then, placing
one Foot of your Compasses at the Intersection of the small Arch
with either of the straight Lines proceeding from the Angle in the
Draft, and extending the other Foot to the Intersection of the small
Arch, with the other straight Line that proceeds from the Angle, you
have between the Feet of your Compasses, the Width of the Angle;
and by placing one Foot of your Compasses at the Intersection of
any of the straight Lines that proceed from the Centre of the divided
Circle, and the small Arch you made on it, and making a Mark where
the other Foot of your Compasses falls in the said small Arch, you
may, by a straight Ruler laid on the Centre of the divided Circle, and
the Mark on the small Arch, see in the Limb of the Circle the number
of Degrees contained between the Diametral, or straight Line and
the Mark.
If you have already a dividing-Plate of 360 Degrees, of a larger
Radius than the Arch on your Gage, you may save your self the
labour of dividing a Circle (as aforesaid,) and work by your dividing-
Plate as you were directed to do with the Circle that I shewed you to
divide.
In these Documents I have exposed my self to a double Censure;
First, of Geometricians: Secondly, of Letter-Cutters. Geometricians
will censure me for writing anew that which almost every young
Beginner knows: And Letter-Cutters will censure me for proposing a
Rule for that which they dare pretend they can do without Rule.
To the Geometricians I cross the Cudgels: yet I writ this not to them;
and I doubt I have written superfluously to Letter-Cutters, because I
think few of them either will or care to take pains to understand these
small Rudiments of Geometry. If they do, and be ingenious, they will
thank me for discovering this Help in their own Way, which few of
them know. For by this Rule they will not only make Letters truer, but
also quicker, and with less care; because they shall never need to
stamp their Counter-Punch in Lead, to see how it pleases them;
which they do many times, before they like their Counter-Punch, (be
it of A A V v W w V W, and several other Letters) and at last finish
their Counter-Punch but with a good Opinion they have that it may
do well, though they frequently see it does not in many Angular
Letters on different Bodies Cut by the same Hand. And were Letter-
Cutting brought to so common Practice as Joynery, Cabinet-making,
or Mathematical Instrument-making, every young Beginner should
then be taught by Rules, as they of these Trades are; because
Letter-Cutting depends as much upon Rule and Compass as any
other Trade does.
You may in other places, where you find most Convenience (as at i)
make a Square, which may stand you in stead for the Squaring the
Face and Stems of the Punch in Roman Letters, and also in many
other Uses.
And you may make Gages, as you were taught before to try the
Counter-Punches of Angular Letters; as, A K M N V X Y Z, Romans
and Italicks, Capitals and Lower-Case. But then, that you may know
each distinct Gage, you may engrave on the several respective
Gages, at the Angle, A A 4 &c. For by examining by the Drafts of
Letters, what Angle their Insides make, you may set that Angle off,
and make the Gage as you were taught before, in the Gage for the
Slope of Italicks.

¶. 7. Of the Liner.

The Liner is marked E in Plate 10. It is a thin Plate of Iron or Brass,

whose Draft is sufficient to express the Shape. The Use of it is on
the under-edge a b (which is about three Inches long) and is made
truly straight, and pretty sharp or fine; that being applied to the Face
of a Punch, or other piece of Work, it may shew whether it be
straight or no.

¶. 8. Of the Flat-Table.

The Flat-Table at F in Plate 10. The Figure is there sufficient. All its
Use is the Table F, for that is about one Inch and an half square, and
on its Superficies exactly straight and flat. It is made of Iron or Brass,
but Brass most proper. Its Use is to try if the Shank of a Punch be
exactly Perpendicular to its Face, when the Face is set upon the
Table; for if the Shank stand then directly upright to the Face of the
Table, and lean not to any side of it, it is concluded to be
perpendicular.
It hath several other Uses, which, when we come to Casting of
Letters, and Justifying of Matrices, shall be shewn.

¶. 9. Of the Tach.

The Tach is a piece of Hard Wood, (Box is very good) about three
Inches broad, six Inches long, and three quarters of an Inch thick.
About half its Length is fastned firm down upon the Work-Bench, and
its other half projects over the hither Edge of it. It hath three or four
Angular Notches on its Fore-end to rest and hold the Shank of a
Punch steady when the End of the Punch is screwed in the Hand-
Vice, and the Hand-Vice held in the left hand, while the Workman
Files or Graves on it with his Right Hand.
Instead of Fastning the Tach to the Bench, I Saw a square piece out
of the further half of the Tach, that it may not be too wide for the
Chaps of the Vice to take and screw that narrow End into the Chaps
of the Vice, because it should be less cumbersome to my Work-
Bench.

¶. 10. Of Furnishing the Work-Bench.

The Workman hath all his great Files placed in Leather Nooses, with
their Handles upwards, that he may readily distinguish the File he
wants from another File. These Nooses are nailed on a Board that
Cases the Wall on his Right Hand, and as near his Vice as
Convenience will admit, that he may the readier take any File he
wants.
He hath also on his Right Hand a Tin Pot, of about a Pint, with small
Files standing in it, with their Handles downwards, that their Blades
may be the readier seen. These small Files are called Watch-makers
Files, and the Letter-Cutter hath occasion to use these of all Shapes,
viz. Flat, Pillar, Square, Triangular, Round, Half-Round, Knife-Files,
&c.
He also provides a shallow square Box, of about five Inches long,
and three Inches broad, to lay his small Instruments in; as, his
Gages, his Liner, some common Punches, &c. This Box he places
before him, at the further side of the Work-Bench.
He also provides a good Oyl-Stone, to sharpen his Gravers and
Sculpters on. This he places at some distance from the Vice, on his
left hand.
 §. 13. ¶. 1. Of Letter-Cutting.
The Letter-Cutter does either Forge his Steel-Punches, or procures
them to be forged; as I shewed, Numb. 1. Fol. 8, 9, 10. in Vol. I. &c.
But great care must be taken, that the Steel be sound, and free from
Veins of Iron, Cracks and Flaws, which may be discerned; as I
shewed in Numb. 3. Vol. I. For if there be any Veins of Iron in the
Steel, when the Letter is Cut and Temper’d, and you would Sink the
Punch into the Copper, it will batter there: Or it will Crack or Break if
there be Flaws.
If there be Iron in it, it must with the Chissel be split upon a good
Blood-Red-Heat in that place, and the Iron taken or wrought out; and
then with another, or more Welding Heat, or Heats, well doubled up,
and laboured together, till the Steel become a sound entire piece.
This Operation Smiths call Well Currying of the Steel.
If there be Flaws in it, you must also take good Welding Heats, so
hot, that the contiguous sides of the Flaws may almost Run: for then,
snatching it quickly out of the Fire, you may labour it together till it
become close and sound.
Mr. Robinson, a Black-Smith of Oxford, told me a way he uses that is
ingenious, and seems rational: For if he doubts the Steel may have
some small Flaws that he can scarce discern, he takes a good high
Blood-Red Heat of it, and then twists the Rod or Bar (as I shewed,
Numb. 3. Vol. I.) which Twisting winds the Flaws about the Body of
the Rod, and being thus equally disposed, more or less, into the Out-
sides of the Rod, according as the Position of the Flaw may be,
allows an equal Heat on all sides to be taken, because the Out-sides
heat faster than the Inside and therefore the Out-sides of the Steel
are not thus so subject to Burn, or Run, as if it should be kept in the
Fire till the Middle, or Inside of it should be ready to Run. And when
the Steel is thus well welded, and soundly laboured and wrought
together with proper Heats, he afterwards reduces it to Form.
Now, that I may be the better understood by my Reader as he reads
further, I have, in Plate 10. at Fig. G described the several Parts of
the Punch; which I here explain.
 G The Face.
a a, b b The Thickness.
a b, a b The Heighth.
a c, b c, b c The Length of the Shank, about an Inch and
three quarters long.
c c c The Hammer-End.

This is no strict Length for the Shank, but a convenient Length; for
should the Letter Cut on the Face be small, and consequently, the
Shank so too, and the Shank much longer, and it (as seldom it is) not
Temper’d in the middle, it might, with Punching into Copper, bow in
the middle, either with the weight of the Hammer, or with light
reiterated Blows: And should it be much shorter, there might perhaps
Finger-room be wanting to manage and command it while it is
Punching into the Copper. But this Length is long enough for the
biggest Letters, and short enough for the smallest Letters.
The Heighth and Thickness cannot be assign’d in general, because
of the diversity of Bodies, and Thickness of Letters: Besides, some
Letters must be Cut on a broad Face of Steel, though, when it is Cut,
it is of the same Body; as all Letters are, to which Counter-Punches
are used; because the Striking the Counter-Punch into the Face of
the Punch will, if it have not strength enough to contain it, break or
crack one or more sides of the Punch, and so spoil it. But if the
Letter be wholly to be Cut, and not Counter-Punch’d, as I shall
hereafter hint in general what Letters are not, then the Face of the
Punch need be no bigger, or, at least, but a small matter bigger than
the Letter that is to be cut upon it.
Now, If the Letter be to be Counter-punch’d, the Face of the Punch
ought to be about twice the Heighth, and twice the Thickness of the
Face of the Counter-Punch; that so, when the Counter-Punch is
struck just on the middle of the Face of the Punch, a convenient
Substance, and consequently, Strength of Steel on all its Sides may
be contained to resist the Delitation, that the Sholder or Beard of the
Counter-Punch sinking into it, would else make.
If the Letter-Cutter be to Cut a whole Set of Punches of the same
Body of Roman and Italica, he provides about 240 or 260 of these
Punches, because so many will be used in the Roman and Italica
Capitals and Lower-Case, Double-Letters, Swash-Letters, Accented
Letters, Figures, Points, &c. But this number of Punches are to have
several Heighths and Thicknesses, though the Letters to be Cut on
them are all of the same Body.
What Heighth and Thickness is, I have shewed before in this §, but
not what Body is; therefore I shall here explain it.
By Body is meant, in Letter-Cutters, Founders and Printers
Language, the Side of the Space contained between the Top and
Bottom Line of a Long-Letter. As in the Draft of Letters, the divided
Line on the Left-Hand of A is divided into forty and two equal Parts;
and that Length is the Body, thus: J being an Ascending and
Descending Letter, viz. a long Letter, stands upon forty-two Parts,
and therefore fills the whole Body.
There is in common Use here in England, about eleven Bodies, as I
shewed in §. 2. ¶. 2. of this Volumne.
I told you even now, that all the Punches for the same Body must not
have the same Heighth and Thickness: For some are Long; as, J j Q,
and several others; as you may see in the Drafts of Letters: and
these Long-Letters stand upon the whole Heighth of the Body.
The Ascending and Descending Letters reach from the Foot-Line, up
to the Top-Line; as all the Capital Letters are Ascending Letters, and
so are many of the Lower-Case Letters; as, b d f, and several others.
The Descending Letters are of the same Length with the Ascending
Letters; as, g p q and several others. These are contained between
the Head-Line and the Bottom-Line. The Short Letters are contained
between the Head-Line and the Bottom-line. These are three
different Sizes of Heighth the Punches are made to, for Letters of the
same Body. But in proper place I shall handle this Subject more
large and distinctly.
And as there is three Heighths or Sizes to be considered in Letters
Cut to the same Body, so is there three Sizes to be considered, with
respect to the Thicknesses of all these Letters, when the Punches
are to be Forged: For some are m thick; by m thick is meant m
Quadrat thick, which is just so thick as the Body is high: Some are n
thick; that is to say, n Quadrat thick, viz. half so thick as the Body is
high: And some are Space thick; that is, one quarter so thick as the
Body is high; though Spaces are seldom Cast so thick, as shall be
shewed when we come to Casting: and therefore, for distinction
sake, we shall call these Spaces, Thick Spaces.
The first three Sizes fit exactly in Heighth to all the Letters of the
same Body; but the last three Sizes fit not exactly in Thickness to the
Letters of the same Body; for that some few among the Capitals are
more than m thick, some less than m thick, and more than n thick;
and some less than n thick, and more than Space thick; yet for
Forging the Punches, these three Sizes are only in general
Considered, with Exception had to Æ Æ Q, and most of the Swash-
Letters; which being too thick to stand on an m, must be Forged
thicker, according to the Workman’s Reason.
After the Workman has accounted the exact number of Letters he is
to Cut for one Set, he considers what number he shall use of each of
these several Sizes in the Roman, and of each of these several
Sizes in the Italick; (for the Punches of Romans and Italicks, if the
Body is large, are not to be Forged to the same shape, as shall be
shewed by and by) and makes of a piece of Wood one Pattern of the
several Sizes that he must have each number Forged to. Upon every
one of these Wooden Patterns I use to write with a Pen and Ink the
number of Punches to be Forged of that Size, lest afterwards I might
be troubled with Recollections.
I say (for Example) He considers how many long Letters are m thick,
how many Long-Letters are n thick, and how many Long-Letters are
Space thick, in the Roman; and also considers which of these must
be Counter-punch’d, and which not: For (as was said before) those
Letters that are to be Counter-punch’d are to have about twice the
Heighth and twice the Thickness of the Face of the Counter-Punch,
for the Reason aforesaid. But the Letters not to be Counter-punch’d
need no more Substance but what will just contain the Face of the
Letter; and makes of these three Sizes three Wooden Patterns, of
the exact Length, Heighth and Thickness that the Steel Punches are
to be Forged to.
He also counts how many are Ascendents and Descendents, m
thick, n thick, and Space thick; still considering how many of them
are to be Counter-punch’d, and how many not; and makes Wooden
Patterns for them.
The like he does for short-letters; and makes Wooden Patterns for
them, for Steel Punches to be Forged by.
And as he has made his Patterns for the Roman, so he makes
Patterns for the Italick Letters also; for the same shap’d Punches will
not serve for Italick, unless he should create a great deal more Work
to himself than he need do: For Italick Punches are not all to be
Forged with their sides square to one another, as the Romans are;
but only the highest and lowest sides must stand in Line with the
highest and lowest sides of the Roman; but the Right and Left-Hand
sides stand not parallel to the Stems of the Roman, but must make
an Angle of 20 Degrees with the Roman Stems: so that the Figure of
the Face of the Punch will become a Rhomboides, as it is called by
Geometricians, and the Figure of this Face is the Slope that the
Italick Letters have from the Roman, as in proper place shall be
further shewed. Now, should the Punches for these Letters be
Forged with each side square to one another, the Letter-Cutter would
be forced to spend a great deal of Time, and take great pains to File
away the superfluous Steel about the Face of the Letter when he
comes to the Finishing of it, especially in great Bodied Letters. Yet
are not all the Italick Letters to be Forged on the Slope; for the
Punches of some of them, as the m n, and many others, may have
all, or, at least, three of their sides, square to one another, though
their Stems have the common Slope, because the ends of their
Beaks and Tails lie in the same, perpendicular with the Outer Points
of the Bottom and Top of their Stems, as is shewed in the Drafts of
Letters.
Though I have treated thus much on the Forging of Punches, yet
must all what I have said be understood only for great Bodied
Punches; viz. from the Great-Primer, and upwards. But for smaller
Bodies; as English, and downwards, the Letter-Cutter generally, both
for Romans and Italicks, gets so many square Rods of Steel, Forged
out of about two or three Foot in Length, as may serve his purpose;
which Rods he elects as near his Body and Sizes as his Judgment
will serve him to do; and with the edge of a Half-round File, or a
Cold-Chissel, cuts them into so many Lengths as he wants Punches.
Nay, many of these Rods may serve for some of the small Letters in
some of the greater Bodies; and also, for many of their Counter-
Punches.
Having thus prepared your Punches, you must Neal them, as I
shewed in Numb. 3. Vol. I.

¶. 2. Of Counter-Punches.

The Counter-Punches for great Letters are to be Forged as the

Letter-Punches; but for the smaller Letters, they may be cut out of
Rods of Steel, as aforesaid. They must also be well Neal’d, as the
Punches. Then must one of the ends be Filed away on the outside
the Shank, to the exact shape of the inside of the Letter you intend to
Cut. For Example, If it be A you would Cut; This Counter-Punch is
easie to make, because it is a Triangle; and by measuring the Inside
of the Angle of A in the Draft of Letters, as you were taught, §. 12. ¶.
6. you may make on your Standing Gage-Plate a Gage for that
Angle: So that, let the Letter to be Cut be of what Body you will, from
the least, to the biggest Body, you have a Standing Gage for this
Counter-Punch, so oft as you may have occasion to Cut A.
The Counter-Punch of A ought to be Forged Triangularly, especially
towards the Punching End, and Tryed by the A-Gage, as you were
taught to use the Square, Numb. 3. Vol. I. Yet, for this and other
Triangular Punches, I commonly reserve my worn- out three square
Files, and make my Counter-Punch of a piece of one of them that
best fits the Body I am to Cut.
Having by your A-Gage fitted the Top-Angle and the Sides of this
Counter-Punch, you must adjust its Heighth by one of the three
Face-Gages mentioned in §. 12. ¶. 5. viz. by the Ascending Face-
Gage; for A is an Ascending Letter. By Adjusting, I do not mean, you
must make the Counter-Punch so high, as the Depth of the
Ascending Face-Gage; because in this Letter here is to be
considered the Top and the Footing, which strictly, as by the large
Draft of A, make both together five sixth Parts of a thin Space:
Therefore five sixth Parts must be abated in the Heighth of your
Counter-Punch, and it must be but four thin Spaces, and one sixth
part of a thin Space high, because the Top above the Counter-
Punch, and the Footing below, makes five sixth Parts of a thin
Space, as aforesaid.
Therefore, to measure off the Width of four thin Spaces and one
sixth Part of a thin Space, lay three thin Spaces, or, which is better,
the Letter e, which is three thin Spaces, as aforesaid; and . which is
one thin Space and one sixth part of a thin Space, upon one another;
for they make together, four thin Spaces, and one sixth part of a thin
Space; and the thickness of these two Measures shall be the
Heighth of the Counter-Punch, between the Footing and the Inner
Angle of A. And thus, by this Example, you may couple with proper
Measures either the whole forty-two, which is the whole Body, or any
number of its Parts, as I told you before.
This Measure of four thin Spaces and one sixth part of a thin Space
is not a Measure, perhaps, used more in the whole Set of Letters to
be Cut to the present Body, therefore you need not make a Standing
Gage for it; yet a present Gage you must have: Therefore use the
Sliding-Gage (described in §. 12. ¶. 4. and Plate 10. at B.) and move
the Socket c c on the Beam a a, till the Edge of the Sholder of the
Square of the Socket at the under-side of the Beam stands just the
Width of four thin Spaces and one sixth part of a thin Space, from
the Point of the Tooth b; which you may do by applying the Measure
aforesaid just to the Square and Point of the Tooth; for then if you
Screw down the Screw in the upper-side of the Sliding Socket, it will
fasten the Square at that distance from the Point of the Tooth. And
by again applying the side of the Square to the Foot of the Face of
the Counter-Punch, you may with the Tooth describe a small race,
which will be the exact Heighth of the Counter-Punch for A. But A
hath a Fine stroak within it, reaching from Side to Side, which by the
large Draft of A, you may find that the middle of this cross stroak is
two Thin Spaces above the bottom of this Counter-Punch; and with
your common Sliding-Gage measure that distance as before, and set
off that distance also on the Face of your Counter-Punch. Then with
the edge of a Fine Knife-File, File straight down in that race, about
the depth of a Thin Space, or somewhat more; So shall the Counter-
Punch for A be finisht. But you may if you will, take off the Edges or
Sholder round about the Face of the Counter-Punch, almost so deep
as you intend to strike it into the Punch: for then the Face of the
Counter-Punch being Filed more to a Point, will easier enter the
Punch than the broad Flat-Face. But note, That if it be a very Small
Bodied A you would make, the Edge of a Thin Knife-File may make
too wide a Groove: In this case you must take a peece of a well-
Temper’d broken Knife, and strike its Edge into the Face of the
Counter-Punch, as aforesaid.

¶. 3. Of Sinking the Counter-Punches.

Having thus finisht his Counter-Punch, he Hardens and Tempers it,

as was taught Numb. 3. fol. 57, 58. Vol. I. And having also Filed the
Face of his Punch he intends to cut his A upon, pretty Flat by guess,
he Screws the Punch upright, and hard into the Vice: And setting the
Face of his Counter-Punch as exactly as he can, on the middle of
the Face of his Punch, he, with an Hammer suitable to the Size of
his Counter-Punch, strikes upon the end of the Counter-Punch till he
have driven the Face of it about two Thin Spaces deep into the Face
of the Punch. So shall the Counter-Punch have done its Office.
But if the Letter to be Counter-Puncht be large, as Great-Primmer, or
upwards, I take a good high Blood-red Heat of it, and Screw it
quickly into the Vice; And having my Counter-Punch Hard, not
Temper’d, because the Heat of the Punch softens it too fast: And
also having before-hand the Counter-Punch Screwed into the Hand-
Vice with its Shank along the Chaps, I place the Face of the
Counter-Punch as before, on the middle of the Face of the Punch,
and with an Hammer drive it in, as before.
Taking the Punch out of the Vice, he goes about to Flat and
Smoothen the Face in earnest; for it had been to no purpose to Flat
and Smoothen it exactly before, because the Sinking of the Counter-
Punch into it, would have put it out of Flat again.
But before he Flats and Smoothens the Face of the Punch, He Files
by guess the superfluous Steel away about the Face of the Letter,
viz. so much, or near so much, as is not to be used when he comes
to finish up the Letter, as in this present Letter A, which standing
upon a Square Face on the Punch, meets in an Angle at the Top of
the Letter. Therefore the Sides of that Square must be Filed away to
an Angle at the Top of the Face of the Punch. But great care must be
taken, that he Files not more away than he should: For he considers
that the left-hand Stroak of A is a Fat Stroak, and that both the left-
hand and the right-hand Stroak too, have Footings, which he is
careful to leave Steel enough in their proper places for.
The reason why these are now Fil’d thus away, and not after the
Letter is finisht, is, Because in the Flatting the Face there is now a
less Body of Steel to File away, than if the whole Face of the Punch
had remain’d intire: For though the following ways are quick ways to
Flatten the Face, yet considering how tenderly you go to Work, and
with what Smooth Files this Work must be done, the riddance made
will be far less when a broad Face of Steel is to be Flatned, than
when only so much, or very little more than the Face of the Letter
only is to be Flatned.
To Flat and Smoothen the Face of the Punch, he uses the Flat-
Gage, (described §. 12. ¶. 3. and Plate 10. at A.) thus, He fits one
convex corner of the Shank of the Punch, into the Concave corner of
the Flat-Gage, and so applies his Flat-Gage-Punch and all to the
Face of the Using-File, and lets the Counter-Puncht end, viz. the
Face of the Punch Sink down to the Face of the Using-File: And then
keeping the convex Corner of the Shank of the Punch close and
steddy against the Concave corner of the Flat-Gage, and pressing
with one of his Fingers upon the then upper end of the Punch, viz.
the Hammer-end, he also at the same time, presses the lower end of
the Punch, viz. The Face against the Using-File, and thrusts the Flat-
Gage and Punch in it so oft forwards, till the extuberant Steel on the