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Sotirios E. Louridas · Michael Th. Rassias

Problem-Solving
and Selected
Topics in Euclidean
Geometry
In the Spirit of the Mathematical
Olympiads
Foreword by Michael H. Freedman
Problem-Solving and Selected Topics
in Euclidean Geometry
Sotirios E. Louridas r Michael Th. Rassias

Problem-Solving
and Selected
Topics in Euclidean
Geometry

In the Spirit of the Mathematical

Olympiads

Foreword by Michael H. Freedman

Sotirios E. Louridas Michael Th. Rassias
Athens, Greece Department of Mathematics
ETH Zurich
Zurich, Switzerland

ISBN 978-1-4614-7272-8 ISBN 978-1-4614-7273-5 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-7273-5
Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013938266

Mathematics Subject Classification: 51-XX, 51-01

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
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with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered
and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of
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Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
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While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of pub-
lication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any
errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect
to the material contained herein.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Foreword

Geometry has apparently fallen on hard times. I learned from this excellent trea-
tise on plane geometry that U.S. President James A. Garfield constructed his own
proof of the Pythagorean Theorem in 1876, four years before being elected to an
unfortunately brief presidency.
In a recent lecture, Scott Aaronson (MIT) offered a tongue-in-cheek answer to the
question: “Suppose there is a short proof that P = NP?” with, “Suppose space aliens
assassinated President Kennedy to prevent him from discovering such a proof?”
I found it pleasant to wonder which half of the two clauses was less probable. Sadly
he concluded that it was more likely that space aliens were behind Kennedy’s as-
sassination than that a modern president would be doing mathematics. Perhaps this
book offers hope that what was possible once will be possible again.
Young people need such texts, grounded in our shared intellectual history and
challenging them to excel and create a continuity with the past. Geometry has
seemed destined to give way in our modern computerized world to algebra. As with
Michael Th. Rassias’ previous homonymous book on number theory, it is a pleasure
to see the mental discipline of the ancient Greeks so well represented to a youthful
audience.
Microsoft Station Q Michael H. Freedman
CNSI Bldg., Office 2245
University of California
Santa Barbara, CA 93106-6105
USA

v
Acknowledgements

We feel deeply honored and grateful to Professor Michael H. Freedman, who has
written the Foreword of the book.
We would like to express our thanks to Professors D. Andrica, M. Bencze,
S. Markatis, and N. Minculete for reading the manuscript and providing valuable
suggestions and comments which have helped to improve the presentation of the
book. We would also like to thank Dr. A. Magkos for his useful remarks.
We would like to express our appreciation to the Hellenic Mathematical Society
for the excellent program of preparation of the young contestants for their partici-
pation in Mathematical Olympiads.
Last but not least we would like to offer our thanks to Dr. F.I. Travlopanos for his
invaluable help and for his useful suggestions.
Finally, it is our pleasure to acknowledge the superb assistance provided by the
staff of Springer for the publication of the book.
Sotirios E. Louridas
Michael Th. Rassias

vii
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 The Origin of Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 A Few Words About Euclid’s Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Basic Concepts of Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2 On Related Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.3 On Necessary and Sufficient Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Methods of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 Proof by Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Proof by Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.3 Proof by Contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.4 Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3 Fundamentals on Geometric Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1 A Few Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.1 Examples on Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3.1 Symmetry with Respect to a Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3.2 Symmetry with Respect to an Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.1 Examples of Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5 Homothety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5.1 Examples of Homothety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.6 Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6.1 Inverse of a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6.2 Inverse of a Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6.3 An Invariance Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.6.4 Basic Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

ix
x Contents

3.6.5 Another Invariance Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.6.6 Invertibility and Homothety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6.7 Tangent to a Curve and Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6.8 Inversion and Angle of Two Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.6.9 Computing Distance of Points Inverse to a Third One . . . 43
3.6.10Inverse of a Line Not Passing Through a Pole . . . . . . . 44
3.6.11Inverse of a Circle with Respect to a Pole Not Belonging
to the Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.6.12 Inverse of a Figure Passing Through the Pole of Inversion . 46
3.6.13 Orthogonal Circles and Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6.14 Applications of the Inversion Operation . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.7 The Idea Behind the Construction of a Geometric Problem . . . . . 51
4 Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.1 Geometric Problems with Basic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.2 Geometric Problems with More Advanced Theory . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3 Geometric Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.1 Geometric Problems with Basic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.2 Geometric Problems with More Advanced Theory . . . . . . . . . 124
6.3 Geometric Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
A.1 The Golden Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Index of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Chapter 1
Introduction

μη μoυ τ oυς κ ύκλoυς τ άρατ τ .

(Do not disturb my circles.)
Archimedes (287 BC–212 BC)

In this chapter, we shall present an overview of Euclidean Geometry in a general,

non-technical context.

1.1 The Origin of Geometry

Generally, we could describe geometry as the mathematical study of the physical
world that surrounds us, if we consider it to extend indefinitely. More specifically,
we could define geometry as the mathematical investigation of the measure, the
properties and relationships of points, lines, angles, shapes, surfaces, and solids.
It is commonly accepted that basic methods of geometry were first discovered
and used in everyday life by the Egyptians and the Babylonians. It is remarkable that
they could calculate simple areas and volumes and they had closely approximated
the value of π (the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle).
However, even though the Egyptians and the Babylonians had undoubtedly mas-
tered some geometrical techniques, they had not formed a mathematical system of
geometry as a theoretical science comprising definitions, theorems, and proofs. This
was initiated by the Greeks, approximately during the seventh century BC.
It is easy to intuitively understand the origin of the term geometry, if we ety-
mologically study the meaning of the term. The word geometry originates from the
Greek word γ ωμ τρία, which is formed by two other Greek words: The word γ η,
which means earth and the word μ´ τρoν, which means measure. Hence, geometry
actually means the measurement of the earth, and originally, that is exactly what
it was before the Greeks. For example, in approximately 240 BC, the Greek math-
ematician Eratosthenes used basic but ingenious methods of geometry that were
developed theoretically by several Greek mathematicians before his time in order to
measure the Earth’s circumference. It is worth mentioning that he succeeded to do
so, with an error of less than 2 % in comparison to the exact length of the circumfer-
ence as we know it today. Therefore, it is evident that geometry arose from practical
activity.

S.E. Louridas, M.Th. Rassias, Problem-Solving and Selected Topics in 1

Euclidean Geometry, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-7273-5_1,
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
2 1 Introduction

Geometry was developed gradually as an abstract theoretical science by mathe-

maticians/philosophers, such as Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, Apollonius, Euclid, and
others. More specifically, Thales, apart from his intercept theorem, is also the first
mathematician to whom the concept of proof by induction is attributed. Moreover,
Pythagoras created a school known as the Pythagoreans, who discovered numerous
theorems in geometry. Pythagoras is said to be the first to have provided a deductive
proof of what is known as the Pythagorean Theorem.

Theorem 1.1 (Pythagorean Theorem) In any right triangle with sides of lengths a,
b, c, where c is the length of the hypotenuse, it holds

a 2 + b2 = c2 . (1.1)

The above theorem has captured the interest of both geometers and number theo-
rists for thousands of years. Hundreds of proofs have been presented since the time
of Pythagoras. It is amusing to mention that even the 20th president of the United
States, J.A. Garfield, was so much interested in this theorem that he managed to
discover a proof of his own, in 1876.
The number theoretic aspect of the Pythagorean Theorem is the study of the
integer values a, b, c, which satisfy Eq. (1.1). Such triples of integers (a, b, c) are
called Pythagorean triples [86]. Mathematicians showed a great interest in such
properties of integers and were eventually lead to the investigation of the solvability
of equations of the form

a n + bn = cn ,

where a, b, c ∈ Z+ and n ∈ N, n > 2.

These studies lead after hundreds of years to Wiles’ celebrated proof of Fermat’s
Last Theorem [99], in 1995.

Theorem 1.2 (Fermat’s Last Theorem) It holds

a n + bn = cn ,

for every a, b, c ∈ Z+ and n ∈ N, n > 2.

Let us now go back to the origins of geometry. The first rigorous foundation
which made this discipline a well-formed mathematical system was provided in
Euclid’s Elements in approximately 300 BC.
The Elements are such a unique mathematical treatise that there was no need
for any kind of additions or modifications for more than 2000 years, until the time
of the great Russian mathematician N.I. Lobac̆evskiĭ (1792–1856) who developed
a new type of geometry, known as hyperbolic geometry, in which Euclid’s parallel
postulate was not considered.
1.2 A Few Words About Euclid’s Elements 3

1.2 A Few Words About Euclid’s Elements

For more than 2000 years, the Elements had been the absolute point of reference
of deductive mathematical reasoning. The text itself and some adaptations of it by
great mathematicians, such as A.M. Legendre (1752–1833) and J. Hadamard (1865–
1963), attracted a lot of charismatic minds to Mathematics. It suffices to recall that
it was the lecture of Legendre’s Elements that attracted E. Galois (1811–1832), one
of the greatest algebraists of all time, to Mathematics.
Euclid’s Elements comprise 13 volumes that Euclid himself composed in Alexan-
dria in about 300 BC. More specifically, the first four volumes deal with figures, such
as triangles, circles, and quadrilaterals. The fifth and sixth volumes study topics such
as similar figures. The next three volumes deal with a primary form of elementary
number theory, and the rest study topics related to geometry. It is believed that the
Elements founded logic and modern science.
In the Elements, Euclid presented some assertions called axioms, which he con-
sidered to be a set of self-evident premises on which he would base his mathemati-
cal system. Apart from the axioms, Euclid presented five additional assertions called
postulates, whose validity seemed less certain than the axioms’, but still considered
to be self-evident.

The Axioms
1. Things that are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another.
2. If equals are to be added to equals, then the wholes will be equal.
3. If equals are to be subtracted from equals, then the remainders will be equal.
4. Things that coincide to one another are equal to one another.
5. The whole is greater than the part.

The Postulates
1. There is a unique straight line segment connecting two points.
2. Any straight line segment can be indefinitely extended (continuously) in a
straight line.
3. There exists a circle with any center and any value for its radius.
4. All right angles are equal to one another.
5. If a straight line intersects two other straight lines, in such a way that the sum
of the inner angles on the same side is less than two right angles, then the two
straight lines will eventually meet if extended indefinitely.
Regarding the first four postulates of Euclid, the eminent mathematical physicist
R. Penrose (1931–) in his book The Road to Reality—A Complete Guide to the
Laws of the Universe, Jonathan Cape, London, 2004, writes:
Although Euclid’s way of looking at geometry was rather different from the way that we
look at it today, his first four postulates basically encapsulated our present-day notion of
a (two-dimensional) metric space with complete homogeneity and isotropy, and infinite in
extent. In fact, such a picture seems to be in close accordance with the very large-scale
spatial nature of the actual universe, according to modern cosmology.
4 1 Introduction

The fifth postulate, known as the parallel postulate, has drawn a lot of attention
since Euclid’s time. This is due to the fact that the parallel postulate does not seem
to be self-evident. Thus, a lot of mathematicians over the centuries have tried to pro-
vide a proof for it, by the use of the first four postulates. Even though several proofs
have been presented, sooner or later a mistake was discovered in each and every one
of them. The reason for this was that all the proofs were at some point making use of
some statement which seemed to be obvious or self-evident but later turned out to be
equivalent to the parallel postulate itself. The independence of the parallel postulate
from Euclid’s other axioms was settled in 1868 by Eugenio Beltrami (1836–1900).
The close examination of Euclid’s axiomatics from the formalistic point of view
culminated at the outset of the twentieth century, in the seminal work of David
Hilbert (1862–1943), which influenced much of the subsequent work in Mathemat-
ics.
However, to see the Elements as an incomplete formalist foundation-building for
the Mathematics of their time is only an a posteriori partial view. Surely, a full of
respect mortal epigram, but not a convincing explanation for the fact that they are
a permanent source of new inspiration, both in foundational research and in that on
working Mathematics.
It is no accident that one of the major mathematicians of the twentieth century,
G.H. Hardy, in his celebrated A Mathematician’s Apology takes his two examples
of important Mathematics that will always be “fresh” and “significant” from the
Elements. Additionally, the eminent logician and combinatorist D. Tamari (1911–
2006) insisted on the fact that Euclid was the first thinker to expose a well-organized
scientific theory without the mention or use of extra-logical factors. Thus, according
to D. Tamari, Euclid must be considered as the founder of modern way of seeing
scientific matters. References [1–99] provide a large amount of theory and several
problems in Euclidean Geometry and its applications.
Chapter 2
Preliminaries

Where there is matter, there is geometry.

Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)

2.1 Logic

2.1.1 Basic Concepts of Logic

Let us consider A to be a non-empty set of mathematical objects. One may construct

various expressions using these objects. An expression is called a proposition if it
can be characterized as “true” or “false.”

Example
√
1. “The number 2 is irrational” is a true proposition.
2. “An isosceles triangle has all three sides mutually unequal” is a false proposition.
3. “The median and the altitude of an equilateral triangle have different lengths” is
false.
4. “The diagonals of a parallelogram intersect at their midpoints” is true.
A proposition is called compound if it is the juxtaposition of propositions con-
nected to one another by means of logical connectives. The truth values of com-
pound propositions are determined by the truth values of their constituting propo-
sitions and by the behavior of logical connectives involved in the expression. The
set of propositions equipped with the operations defined by the logical connectives
becomes the algebra of propositions. Therefore, it is important to understand the
behavior of logical connectives.
The logical connectives used in the algebra of propositions are the following:

∧(and) ∨(or) ⇒ (if . . . then)

⇔ (if and only if) and ¬(not).

The mathematical behavior of the connectives is described in the truth tables,

seen in Tables 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, and 2.5.

S.E. Louridas, M.Th. Rassias, Problem-Solving and Selected Topics in 5

Euclidean Geometry, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-7273-5_2,
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
6 2 Preliminaries

Table 2.1 Truth table for ∧

a b a∧b

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Table 2.2 Truth table for ∨

a b a∨b

T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Table 2.3 Truth table for ⇒

a b a⇒b

T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Table 2.4 Truth table for ⇔

a b a⇔b

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Table 2.5 Truth table for ¬

a ¬a

T F
F T

In the case when

a⇒b and b ⇒ a (2.1)
are simultaneously true, we say that a and b are “equivalent” or that “a if and only
if b” or that a is a necessary and sufficient condition for b.
2.1 Logic 7

Let us now focus on mathematical problems. A mathematical problem is made

up from the hypothesis and the conclusion. The hypothesis is a proposition assumed
to be true in the context of the problem. The conclusion is a proposition whose
truth one is asked to show. Finally, the solution consists of a sequence of logical
implications
a ⇒ b ⇒ c ⇒ ··· . (2.2)
Mathematical propositions are categorized in the following way: Axioms, theo-
rems, corollaries, problems.
Axioms are propositions considered to be true without requiring a proof. Another
class of propositions are the lemmata, which are auxiliary propositions; the proof of
a lemma is a step in the proof of a theorem.
In Euclidean Geometry, we have three basic axioms concerning comparison of
figures:
1. Two figures, A and B, are said to be congruent if and only if there exists a trans-
lation, or a rotation, or a symmetry, or a composition of these transformations
such that the image of figure A coincides with figure B.
2. Two figures which are congruent to a third figure are congruent to each other.
3. A part of a figure is a subset of the entire figure.

2.1.2 On Related Propositions

Consider the proposition

p : a ⇒ b.
Then:
1. The converse of proposition p is the proposition

q : b ⇒ a. (2.3)

2. The inverse of proposition p is the proposition

r : ¬a ⇒ ¬b. (2.4)

3. The contrapositive of proposition p is the proposition

s : ¬b ⇒ ¬a. (2.5)

Example Consider the proposition

p: If a convex quadrilateral is a parallelogram then its diagonals bisect each other.

1. The converse proposition of p is q:

If the diagonals of a converse quadrilateral bisect each other, then it is a par-
allelogram.
8 2 Preliminaries

Fig. 2.1 Example 2.1.1

2. The inverse proposition of p is r:

If a convex quadrilateral is not a parallelogram, then its diagonals do not bisect
each other.
3. The contrapositive proposition of p is s:
If the diagonals of a convex quadrilateral do not bisect each other, then it is
not a parallelogram.

2.1.3 On Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

Proofs of propositions are based on proofs of the type

a ⇒ b,

where a is the set of hypotheses and b the set of conclusions. In this setup, we say
that condition a is sufficient for b and that b is necessary for a. Similarly, in the case
of the converse proposition
q : b ⇒ a, (2.6)
condition b is sufficient for a and condition a is necessary for b.
In the case where both
a⇒b and b ⇒ a (2.7)
are true, we have
a ⇔ b, (2.8)
which means that a is a necessary and sufficient condition for b.

Example 2.1.1 A necessary and sufficient condition for a convex quadrilateral to be

a parallelogram is that its diagonals bisect.

Proof Firstly, we assume that the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram (see

Fig. 2.1). Let K be the point of intersection of its diagonals. We use the property
that the opposite sides of a parallelogram are parallel and equal and we have that

AB = DC (2.9)
2.2 Methods of Proof 9

and
 = KCD
KAB  (2.10)
since the last pair of angles are alternate interior. Also, we have

 = CDK
ABK  (2.11)

as alternate interior angles. Therefore, the triangles KAB and KDC are equal, and
hence

KB = DK and AK = KC. (2.12)

For the converse, we assume now that the diagonals of a convex quadrilateral ABCD
bisect each other. Then, if K is their intersection, we have that

KA = CK and KB = DK. (2.13)

Furthermore, we have
 = DKC
BKA  (2.14)
because they are corresponding angles. Hence, the triangles KAB and KDC are
equal. We conclude that
AB = DC (2.15)
and also that
AB DC (2.16)
since
 = KCD.
KAB  (2.17)
Therefore, the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram. 

2.2 Methods of Proof

We now present the fundamental methods used in geometric proofs.

2.2.1 Proof by Analysis

Suppose we need to show that

a ⇒ b. (2.18)
10 2 Preliminaries

Fig. 2.2 Proof by analysis

(Example 2.2.1)

We first find a condition b1 whose truth guarantees the truth of b, i.e., a sufficient
condition for b. Subsequently, we find a condition b2 which is sufficient for b1 .
Going backwards in this way, we construct a chain of conditions

bn ⇒ bn−1 ⇒ · · · ⇒ b1 ⇒ b,

with the property that bn is true by virtue of a being true. This completes the proof.

Example 2.2.1 Consider the square ABCD. From the vertices C and D we consider
the half-lines that intersect in the interior of ABCD at the point E and such that

 = 15°.
 = ECD
CDE

Show that the triangle EAB is equilateral (see Fig. 2.2).

Proof We observe that

AD = BC, (2.19)
since they are sides of a square. Furthermore, we have (see Fig. 2.2)

CDE  = 15°
 = ECD (2.20)

hence
 = BCE
EDA  = 75°

and
ED = EC, (2.21)
since the triangle EDC is isosceles. Therefore, the triangles ADE and BEC are equal
and thus
EA = EB. (2.22)
2.2 Methods of Proof 11

Therefore, the triangle EAB is isosceles. In order to show that the triangle EAB is,
in fact, equilateral, it is enough to prove that

EB = BC = AB. (2.23)

In other words, it is sufficient to show the existence of a point K such that the
triangles KBE and KCB are equal. In order to use our hypotheses, we can choose K
in such a way that the triangles KBC and EDC are equal. This will work as long as
K is an interior point of the square.
Let G be the center of the square ABCD. Then, if we consider a point K such
that the triangles KCB and EDC are equal, we have the following:

GN < GB, (2.24)

and hence
 < GNB
GBN  = NBC.
 (2.25)

Therefore,
 < 45°,
2GBN (2.26)

so
 < 22.5°,
GBN (2.27)

and hence
 > 22.5°.
NBC (2.28)

Therefore,
 > KBC,
NBC  (2.29)
where M, N are the midpoints of the sides AB, DC, respectively. Therefore, the
 We observe that
point K lies in the interior of the angle EBC.
 = 90° − 15° − 15° = 60°,
KCE (2.30)

with
KC = CE. (2.31)
Therefore, the isosceles triangle CKE has an angle of 60° and thus it is equilateral,
implying that
EK = KC = CE (2.32)
and
 = 360° − 60° − 150° = 150°.
BKE (2.33)
12 2 Preliminaries

Fig. 2.3 Proof by synthesis

(Example 2.2.2)

Therefore, the triangles KCB and KBE are equal, and hence

EB = BC. (2.34)

2.2.2 Proof by Synthesis

Suppose we need to show that

a ⇒ b. (2.35)
The method we are going to follow consists of combining proposition a with a
number of suitable true propositions and creating a sequence of necessary conditions
leading to b.

 = 90° and let AD be the cor-

Example 2.2.2 Let ABC be a right triangle with BAC
responding height. Show that
1 1 1
2
= 2
+ .
AD AB AC2
Proof First, consider triangles ABD and CAB (see Fig. 2.3). Since they are both
right triangles and
 = ACB,
BAD 

they are similar. Then we have (see Fig. 2.3)

AB BC
= ,
BD AB
and therefore,
AB2 = BD · BC.
Similarly,
AC2 = DC · BC
2.2 Methods of Proof 13

and
AD2 = BD · DC.
Hence
1 1 1 1
+ = +
AB2 AC2 BD · BC DC · BC
BC
=
BD · BC · DC
1
= . 
AD2

2.2.3 Proof by Contradiction

Suppose that we need to show

a ⇒ b. (2.36)
We assume that the negation of proposition a ⇒ b is true. Observe that

¬(a ⇒ b) = a ∧ (¬b). (2.37)

In other words, we assume that given a, proposition b does not hold. If with this
assumption we reach a false proposition, then we have established that

a⇒b (2.38)

is true.

Example 2.2.3 Let ABC be a triangle and let D, E, Z be three points in its interior
such that
3SDBC < SABC , (2.39)

3SEAC < SABC , (2.40)

3SZAB < SABC , (2.41)

where SABC denotes the area of the triangle ABC and so on. Prove that the points D,
E, Z cannot coincide.

Proof Suppose that inequalities (2.39), (2.40), and (2.41) hold true and let P be the
point where D, E, Z coincide, that is,

D ≡ E ≡ Z ≡ P.
14 2 Preliminaries

Fig. 2.4 Proof by

contradiction (Example 2.2.3)

Then (see Fig. 2.4),

3[SPBC + SPAC + SPAB ] < 3SABC (2.42)
and thus
SABC < SABC , (2.43)
which is a contradiction. Therefore, when relations (2.39), (2.40), and (2.41) are
satisfied, the three points D, E, Z cannot coincide. 

Now, we consider Example 2.2.1 from a different point of view.

Example 2.2.4 Let ABCD be a square. From the vertices C and D we consider the
half-lines that intersect in the interior of ABCD at the point E and such that

 = 15°.
 = ECD
CDE

Show that the triangle EBA is equilateral.

Proof We first note that the triangle EBA is isosceles. Indeed, since by assumption

 = ECD
CDE  = 15°

one has
 = BCE
EDA  = 75° ⇒ ED = EC. (2.44)

We also have that AD = BC, and therefore the triangles ADE and BEC are equal and
thus EA = EB, which means that the point E belongs to the common perpendicular
bisector MN of the sides AB, DC of the square ABCD.
Let us assume that the triangle EBA is not equilateral. Then, there exists a point
Z on the straight line segment MN, Z different from E, such that the triangle ZAB
is equilateral. Indeed, by choosing the point Z on the half straight line MN such that
√
AB 3
MZ = < AB = AD = MN,
2
2.2 Methods of Proof 15

Fig. 2.5 Proof by

contradiction (Example 2.2.4)

the point Z is an interior point of the straight line segment MN and the equilaterality
of the triangle ZBA shall be an obvious consequence (see Fig. 2.5).
We observe that

 = ZBC
DAZ  = 30° and DA = ZA = AB = BZ = BC.

Thus

 = 180° − 30° ⇒ ZDA

2ZDA  = 75°,

which implies that

 = 90° − 75° = 15°.

CDZ (2.45)

Hence the points E, Z coincide, which is a contradiction. Therefore, the triangle

EBA is equilateral. 

2.2.4 Mathematical Induction

This is a method that can be applied to propositions which depend on natural num-
bers. In other words, propositions of the form

p(n), n ∈ N. (2.46)

The proof of proposition (2.46) is given in three steps.

1. One shows that p(1) is true.
2. One assumes proposition p(n) to be true.
3. One shows that p(n + 1) is true.
16 2 Preliminaries

Remarks
• If instead of proposition (2.46) one needs to verify the proposition

p(n), ∀n ∈ N \ {1, 2, . . . , N}, (2.47)

then the first step of the process is modified as follows:

Instead of showing p(1) to be true, one shows p(N + 1) to be true. After that,
we assume proposition p(n) to be true and we prove that p(n + 1) is true.
• Suppose p(n) is of the form

p(n) : k(n) ≥ q(n), ∀n ≥ N, (2.48)

where n, N ∈ N.
Suppose that we have proved

k(N ) = q(N). (2.49)

We must examine the existence of at least one natural number m > N for which
k(m) > q(m).
This is demonstrated in the following example.

 = 90°, with lengths of sides

Example 2.2.5 Let ABC be a right triangle with BAC
BC = a, AC = b, and AB = c. Prove that

a n ≥ bn + cn , ∀n ∈ N\{1}. (2.50)

Proof Applying the induction method we have.

• Evidently, for n = 2, the Pythagorean Theorem states that Eq. (2.50) holds true
and is, in fact, an equality. We shall see that for n = 3 it holds

a 3 > b3 + c3 .

In order to prove this, it suffices to show

 
a b2 + c2 > b3 + c3 . (2.51)

To show (2.51), it is enough to show

ab2 + ac2 − b3 − c3 > 0, (2.52)

for which it is sufficient to show

b2 (a − b) + c2 (a − c) > 0. (2.53)

This inequality holds because the left hand is strictly positive, since a > c and
a > b.
2.2 Methods of Proof 17

• We assume that
a n > bn + cn (2.54)
for n ∈ N \ {1, 2}.
• We shall prove that
a n+1 > bn+1 + cn+1 . (2.55)
For (2.55) it suffices to show that
 
a bn + cn − bn+1 − cn+1 > 0, (2.56)

for which, in turn, it is enough to show that

bn (a − b) + cn (a − c) > 0. (2.57)

Again, in the last inequality the left hand side term is greater than 0, since
a > c and a > b. Therefore, (2.50) is true. 
Chapter 3
Fundamentals on Geometric Transformations

Geometry is knowledge of the eternally existent.

Pythagoras (570 BC–495 BC)

A topic of high interest for problem-solving in Euclidean Geometry is the determi-

nation of a point by the use of geometric transformations: translation, symmetry,
homothety, and inversion. The knowledge of geometric transformations allows us
to understand the geometric behavior of plane figures produced by them.

3.1 A Few Facts

1. In order to create a geometric figure, it is enough to have a point and a clear
mathematical way (see Fig. 3.1) in which the point moves on the plane in order
to produce this shape. We can then say that the point traverses the planar shape.
2. Two points of the plane that move in the plane in the same mathematical way
traverse the same or equal planar shapes.
3. A bijective correspondence (bijective mapping) is defined between two shapes if
there is a law that to each point of the one shape corresponds one and only one
point of the other shape, and conversely. The shapes are then called correspond-
ing.
Between two equal shapes, there is always a bijective correspondence. The con-
verse is not always true. For example, see Fig. 3.2. It is clear that the easiest way
to establish a bijective transformation between the straight line segment AB and the
crooked line segment KLM, where A, B are the projections of K, M on AB, re-
spectively, is to consider the projection of every point of KLM to the corresponding
point of AB.
The projection is unique because from every point of the plane there exists a
unique line perpendicular to AB.
If AB l, then the semi-circumference with center O and diameter AB, with A, B
excluded, can be matched to l in the following way: From the point O, we consider
half-lines Ox (see Fig. 3.3 and Fig. 3.4).
Then to each intersection point M of Ox with the semi-circumference, one can
select the unique point N which is the intersection of l with Ox, and conversely.

S.E. Louridas, M.Th. Rassias, Problem-Solving and Selected Topics in 19

Euclidean Geometry, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-7273-5_3,
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
20 3 Fundamentals on Geometric Transformations

Fig. 3.1 A few facts

(Sect. 3.1)

Fig. 3.2 A few facts

(Sect. 3.1)

Observation We shall say that two corresponding shapes are traversed similarly if
during their traversal their points are traversed in the same order.
• A circumference
(i) is traversed in the positive direction if a “moving” point traverses it anticlock-
wise.
(ii) is traversed in the negative direction if a “moving” point traverses it clock-
wise. We think of the clock as lying on the same plane as our shape (see
Fig. 3.1).

Remark Assume that we have two congruent shapes. Then we can construct a cor-
respondence between their points in the following way:

A1 A2 . . . An = B1 B2 . . . Bn , (3.1)

with

A1 A2 = B1 B2 ,
A2 A3 = B2 B3 ,
...
An−1 An = Bn−1 Bn ,
An A1 = Bn B1 ,

and assume that from their vertices A1 , B1 two points start moving at the same
speed, traversing their respective circumferences. Then at a given point in time t0
the points have covered equal paths.
3.2 Translation 21

Fig. 3.3 A few facts

(Sect. 3.1)

Fig. 3.4 A few facts

(Sect. 3.1)

Fig. 3.5 Translation

(Sect. 3.2)

3.2 Translation
−
→ →
1. Let A be a point and let −→a be a vector. Consider the vector AB = − a . Then the
point B is the translation of A by the vector −
→a.
2. Let S be a shape and let −→a be a vector. The translation S1 of the shape S is the
shape whose points are the translations of the points of S by the vector − →a . If S1
−
→
is the translation of S by a , then S2 is the opposite translation of S if S2 is the
translation of S by −− →
a (see Fig. 3.5).
3. The translation of a shape gives a shape equal to the initial shape.
22 3 Fundamentals on Geometric Transformations

Fig. 3.6 Translation

(Sect. 3.2)

4. If l1 and l2 are parallel lines, then these lines are translations of each other (see
Fig. 3.6).

−−−→
Proof Let A1 be a point on l1 and let A2 be a point on l2 . Consider the vector A1 A2 .
Let Bx be a point on l1 . We consider By to be a point such that
−−−→ −−−→
Bx By = A1 A2 . (3.2)

This implies that the point By lies on l2 , since

−−−→ −−−→
A1 A2 = Bx By

implies
A2 By A1 Bx .
Now, from the well-known axiom of Euclid (see Introduction), there exists only one
parallel line to l1 that passes through A2 , and that line is l2 . The point By is a unique
−−−→
point of l2 , corresponding to Bx with respect to the translation by the vector A1 A2 .
Therefore, the line l2 is a translation of the line l1 . 

Definition 3.1 Two translations are said to be consecutive if the first one translates
the shape S to the shape S1 and the second translates S1 to the shape S2 .

Theorem 3.1 Two consecutive translations defined by vectors of different directions

can be replaced by one translation, which is defined by one vector which is the vector
sum of the other two vectors.

−−→ −−→
Proof We consider the vectors OA1 and OA2 that have a common starting point O
and are equal to the vectors defining the translation (see Fig. 3.7). Let M be a point
of the initial shape. After the first translation, M is translated to M1 so that
−−→ −−→
MM 1 = OA1 . (3.3)

After the second translation, M1 is translated to the point M2 so that

−−−→ −−→
M1 M2 = OA2 . (3.4)
Another random document with
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necessary to mention Stichopus, remarkable for the square outline of
its transverse section, and for the restriction of the ventral tube-feet
to the radii; there is also a well-marked tapering of the anterior end,
so that this genus may be said to have a neck. Stichopus is almost
entirely confined to tropical waters, and some of its species, as also
species of the ubiquitous genus Holothuria, as well as many other
undetermined species, constitute the valuable "Trepang," which is a
delicacy much prized by the Chinese. The Trepang are caught in
various parts of the Malay Archipelago. They are cooked in sea
water to preserve them, dried in the sun, and boiled in fresh water
repeatedly, till all the salt is extracted. They are then dried and sent
to market, where they are used in making soup.

Order II. Elasipoda.

Holothuroidea with shield-shaped feelers, destitute of retractor
muscles; all the podia have more or less pointed ends,[509] but there
is a marked contrast between dorsal and ventral podia, and the
ventral surface is flattened so as to constitute a creeping sole. No
respiratory trees, at most a simple diverticulum of the intestine;
frequently the primitive external madreporite is retained, and
contains several pores.

A number of spherical sacs containing little spherical calcifications

(otocysts) are attached to the nerve-ring in some genera. Can these
be metamorphosed sphaeridia of Echinoid ancestors?

Fig. 258.—Ilyodaemon maculatus. × ⅔. (After Théel.)

The first member of this remarkable order to be discovered was

Elpidia, which was dredged in 1875 by the Swedish Arctic
Expedition, and described by Théel.[510] The majority of the known
members of the order were discovered by the dredging expedition of
H.M.S. "Challenger." The species composing it are, with one
exception, inhabitants of what may be termed the abysmal depths of
the sea. The exception alluded to (Ilyodaemon maculatus) is
confined to the belt between 100 and 150 fathoms in depth. The
well-marked sole and the absence of suckers point to a life
consisting of constant peregrinations over the soft ooze forming the
ocean floor. The ooze forms their food, and as their weight must to a
certain extent immerse them in it, we can understand why the stiff,
long dorsal podia have been specialised as respiratory organs, since
there are no respiratory trees. These respiratory podia sometimes
undergo extraordinary development; thus in Peniagone several very
long ones cohere to form a huge vertical sail, whilst in Psychropotes
one or two cohere to form a backwardly projecting tail. On the other
hand, in Ilyodaemon (Fig. 258) the dorsal podia are numerous and
slender.

Order III. Pelagothuriida.

Holothuroidea with shield-shaped feelers provided with long
ampullae which project outwards, pushing the skin before them so
as to form external appendages, connected at the base by a web.
Calcifications absent. No retractor muscles. No respiratory trees.
The external madreporite is retained, but all podia other than the
feelers have disappeared, although the radial canals have been
retained.

This order contains one species, Pelagothuria natans, which is the

only free-swimming Holothuroid known, the muscular web
connecting the freely projecting ampullae being the organ of
locomotion.

Order IV. Dendrochirota.

Holothuroidea with long repeatedly branched feelers terminating in
fine pointed twigs. No feeler-ampullae; but retractor muscles are
present, which can introvert the anterior end of the body. Respiratory
trees well developed. This order includes twelve genera and over
180 species, and, like the Aspidochirota, is of worldwide distribution.
So far as can be safely generalised from the few species whose
habits have been closely observed, it seems that this order is
adapted to catch swimming prey—it is an order of fishers. The long
branched tentacles are extended like the lines of an angler. Their
surface is coated with adhesive slime, and before long becomes
covered with small organisms which have come in contact with it.
When a feeler has captured in this way a large enough haul, it is
turned round and pushed into the mouth, which is closed on it. It is
then forcibly pulled out, during which process the prey is, so to
speak, stripped off it. Four genera (Cucumaria, Thyone,
Phyllophorus, and Psolus) and sixteen species have been recorded
from British waters.

Fig. 259.—Cucumaria crocea, carrying its young, × 1. (From Wyville Thomson.)

Cucumaria is remarkable for being the only genus of Holothuroidea

in which the body is pentagonal in cross-section. In the majority of its
species the tube-feet are confined to two rows along each radius, but
in a few there are some scattered tube-feet in addition. There are
only ten buccal tentacles. The species figured (C. crocea) is an
Antarctic one which carries the young on the back. Thyone differs in
being circular in cross-section and in having the tube-feet scattered
evenly over the whole surface. In Phyllophorus (Fig. 260) the
tentacles are more than fifteen, and are disposed in two circles, an
inner of smaller and an outer of larger tentacles. The other podia are,
as in Thyone, scattered.

Fig. 260.—Phyllophorus urna. × 1.

Fig. 261.—Psolus ephippifer. × 3. A, with feelers retracted and brood-pouch

closed; B, with feelers extended and some of the plates of the brood-pouch
removed. (From Wyville Thomson.)

Psolus is a most extraordinary genus. There is a well-marked sole,

to which the tube-feet are confined, whilst the dorsal radial canals,
and consequently all the dorsal tube-feet, are absent. The dorsal
ossicles are enlarged to form a complete mail of plates, recalling the
corona of a Sea-urchin. The two British species are small, and found
in comparatively deep water, but a fine large species is found in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, and extends into brackish water up the estuary.
The species figured (P. ephippifer) is an Antarctic one, which carries
the eggs until development is complete in a dorsal brood-pouch.
 Order V. Molpadiida.
Holothuroidea with simple, finger-shaped feelers, provided with
ampullae; retractor muscles occasionally present; respiratory trees
present. Besides the feelers, the only podia are five minute papillae
terminating the radial canals in the neighbourhood of the anus.

Fig. 262.—Trochostoma violaceum. × 1. m, Mouth.

This order includes six genera and about thirty species. Its
peculiarities seem to be due to the fact that its members are
burrowers, leading a life like an earthworm. Hence the absence of
the tube-feet, and the small, almost vestigial character of the feelers.
Trochostoma (Fig. 262) and Caudina are remarkable for the
presence of a tail. This appendage is in reality only the narrow
posterior end of the body, and is especially long in Caudina; and
observations on a species found off the coast of Maine, U.S.A.,[511]
have shown that the tail, like the siphon of a Mollusc, projects up
from the burrow to the surface in order to maintain the respiratory
current of water.

Order VI. Synaptida.

Holothuroidea with short bipinnate (i.e. feather-shaped) feelers,
provided with only vestigial ampullae, and with well-developed
retractor muscles. No other podia; radial canals absent in the adult.
Respiratory trees absent, and transverse muscles of adjacent
interradii continuous, so as to form circular muscles. Otocysts
attached to the nerve-ring as in Elasipoda.

Fig. 263.—Synapta digitata. A, animal viewed from the side, × 7⁄13; B, anterior
end, with tentacles extended, × 2.

The members of this remarkable order, like those of the preceding

one, are burrowers; but though their feelers are larger, the rest of
their anatomy has undergone much more profound modification than
that experienced by the Molpadiida. The loss of the radial canals,
which must be practically functionless in Molpadiida, is not a great
step, but the change in the mode of respiration is a greater
modification. Respiration appears to be effected by diffusion through
the body-wall, which is always comparatively thin. The circulation of
the body-cavity fluid is assisted by a number of stalked, ciliated cups
placed on the mesenteries near the line of their insertion on the
body-wall. In dealing with Asteroidea it was pointed out that the ends
of the tube-feet are the only places where numerous sense-hairs are
to be found, and which, therefore, can be called sense-organs. This
is true generally throughout Echinodermata. Now in Synaptida,
where the tube-feet are lost, the surface of the body has scattered
over it little sense-organs consisting of hillocks of ectoderm with an
aggregation of sense-cells. These may be regarded as representing
the discs of the missing tube-feet. One is involuntarily reminded by
the ciliated cups and scattered sense-organs of the ciliated urns and
sense-organs of the Sipunculidae, which lead a similar life; and
taking into consideration the general superficial likeness in
appearance of the two groups, the epigram is almost justified that "if
the Synaptida were not extremely careful they would become
Gephyrea."

This order is represented in British waters by three species of the

genus Synapta, which is remarkable for possessing, as ossicles,
only the peculiar anchors attached to anchor plates. The present
author has dug up the commonest species (S. inhaerens) from its
burrows in the sand at low water in the Clyde. These animals seem
to seek their food at the surface; the feather-shaped feelers are used
to seize small algae and zoophytes, of which the food apparently
consists. If seized, S. inhaerens readily amputates the posterior part
of the body, whilst the head with its feelers immediately buries itself.
The other genera of the order (except Anapta) are characterised by
the possession of wheels with spokes as their characteristic ossicle,
as the names Trochodota, Trochoderma, Acanthotrochus bear
witness.

The only fossil remains of Holothuroidea consist of isolated ossicles

—wheels, gratings, anchors, etc.—which first make their appearance
in the Carboniferous limestone and tell us practically nothing of the
evolution of the group. From a comparison with one another of the
living families, certain conclusions can be drawn. The Aspidochirote
feeler and the method of using it recall forcibly the shape and
function of the buccal tube-feet of Spatangoidea. It is probably safe
to assume that it is the primitive form from which the other forms of
feeler have been derived. Secondly, the anal respiration and the
curious internal madreporite have been developed in correlation with
one another, and are like nothing found elsewhere among the
Eleutherozoa. Hence we may with high probability assume a
Protoholothuroid stock with shield-shaped feelers but devoid of
respiratory trees, and with an external madreporite. From this stock
the Elasipoda developed by migrating into deeper water, whilst the
Pelagothuriida sprang from the same root by taking to swimming; the
Aspidochirota constituting the main line. The Dendrochirota were
developed from a stock with respiratory trees and internal
madreporite—in a word, from Aspidochirota. From them the
Synaptida and the Molpadiida have developed as offshoots at
different periods through taking to a burrowing life. These
relationships are shown by the following diagram:—

CHAPTER XX

ECHINODERMATA (CONTINUED): PELMATOZOA—CRINOIDEA = SEA-LILIES

—THECOIDEA—CARPOIDEA—CYSTOIDEA—BLASTOIDEA

SUB-PHYLUM II. PELMATOZOA

The Pelmatozoa differ from the Eleutherozoa in several important
respects. They are fixed (at any rate in the young stage) by the
centre of the aboral surface, and this portion of the body usually
takes on the form of a stem supported by a definite series of
ossicles, so that we can discriminate a "calyx"—the main part of the
body—from the "stem." Further, the podia and the ambulacral
grooves seem to be always covered with powerful cilia, which are
employed in producing a current which sweeps small organisms to
the mouth. The podia are never locomotor in function; their use is
similar to that of the tentacles on the lophophore of Polyzoa and
Brachiopoda.

The living Pelmatozoa are very few in number compared with the
extinct forms. It may with justice be said that the group is nearly
extinct; indeed, out of its five classes one alone, and that the most
highly specialised class, survives till the present day. Now we have
already seen that, in the case of the Eleutherozoa, if the annectant
fossil types were taken into consideration, the definition of the
classes would be difficult, so that it is not to be wondered at if the
classes of the Pelmatozoa are also somewhat difficult to define; and
it must be added that this difficulty is not only due to the fact that
intermediate types occasionally occur, but also to our ignorance of
the functions of many structures found in fossil types, speculations
regarding which are to be received with caution. Bearing in mind,
then, the provisional nature of the classification, we may give the
diagnoses of the principal divisions as follows:—

Class I. Crinoidea.—Pelmatozoa provided typically with a well-

marked stem; calyx consisting of an aboral "patina" of two or three
circles of plates, and a flexible "tegmen" or oral surface with small
plates or none; radial canals supported by long branched arms,
which are developed as direct prolongations of the uppermost circle
of plates in the patina.

Class II. Thecoidea (Jaekel) = Edrioasteroidea (Bather).—

Pelmatozoa without a stalk, fixed to the substratum by the whole
aboral surface. The radial canals run out over the oral surface in
grooves, which are closed by specially modified plates; but there are
no arms of any kind.

Class III. Carpoidea (Jaekel).—Pelmatozoa with a well-developed

stalk. The radial canals and their branches are devoid of a skeleton,
and either produce no modifications at all on the skeleton of the
calyx, or at most are supported by short horn-like outgrowths of
some of its plates.

Class IV. Cystoidea.—Pelmatozoa which typically possess a well-

developed stalk, a sac-like calyx contracted at the mouth and
covered with plates, some of which are pierced with pores or slits;
the radial canals, though they may for part of their course run over
the surface in grooves, have their terminal portions supported by free
unbranched arms ("fingers").

Class V. Blastoidea.—Pelmatozoa provided with a well-developed

stalk and ovoid bud-like calyx. From the mouth the radial canals run
backwards over the calyx, as in Echinoidea, but they give rise to
numerous lateral branches, which are supported by free unbranched
arms ("fingers"). Special respiratory organs occur on the interradial
areas in the form of parallel folds called "hydrospires."

CLASS I. CRINOIDEA
This is the only class which has living representatives. There are
twelve recent genera, of which eight retain the stalk throughout life;
the remaining four lose it when adult, retaining only a stump, termed
the "centro-dorsal," covered with fixing organs ("cirri"). The stalked
forms are confined to considerable depths, and can only be obtained
by deep dredging, whereas many of the stalkless forms are
comparatively common. We shall select as type for special
description the common Feather-star, Antedon rosacea (bifida),
which can be dredged in depths of ten fathoms off the south-west
coast of England.
 Fig. 264.—Oral view of Antedon rosacea. × 3. a, Arm; a.g, ambulacral groove;
an, anus; c, calyx; m, mouth; p, pinnules.

The animal consists of a small flattened calyx, from which radiate out
ten long delicate arms, each fringed with a double series of short
branches called "pinnules." In the centre of the aboral surface can be
seen the centre-dorsal plate (Fig. 265, c), a knob-like stump of the
broken-off stem, covered with small whip-like outgrowths called
"cirri," by means of which the animal is anchored to the substratum
(Fig. 265, cir). When Antedon is disturbed it relaxes its hold, and
swims by graceful muscular movements of the arms. These are
arranged in five pairs, and the corresponding members (right and
left) of all the pairs are bent and relaxed together. On coming to rest
the animal reattaches itself by means of the cirri. These are
composed of cylindrical ossicles joined to one another by muscles,
and they can thus act as efficient grasping organs. In the centre of
the oral surface, which is termed the "tegmen," and is soft, flexible,
and without visible calcifications, is situated the mouth, surrounded
by five short triangular flaps called "oral valves." In the intervals
between these valves, grooves radiate from the mouth which
bifurcate at the points of origin of each pair of arms, and are
continued over their surfaces. These grooves correspond to the
ambulacral grooves of Asteroidea, and to the epineural canals of the
other classes of Eleutherozoa. At each side of each groove are to be
found a series of podia in the form of delicate finger-like processes,
which serve only for respiration and for producing a current of water,
their surfaces, like that of the grooves between them, being covered
with powerful cilia. The anus is at the extremity of a little knob called
the anal papilla, situated in one of the interradii (Fig. 264, an).

As in Ophiuroidea, the ectoderm cells have disappeared over the

whole surface of the body, except the grooves and the podia, the
only trace of their former existence being a cuticle with adherent
nuclei. Pedicellariae are unknown in all Pelmatozoa; and spines
have only been described from one fossil species of Crinoid.
Beneath the cuticle is the dermis, having the composition described
in the case of Asterias rubens; this on the aboral side of the calyx
gives rise to the "patina," consisting of plates, in part movable on one
another, in part immovably fused together. Those visible from the
outside are (1) the centro-dorsal ossicle, from which the cirri spring;
(2) five columns of ossicles termed radials (Fig. 266, R1, R2, R3);
each column consists of three radials, extending from the centro-
dorsal to the origin of a pair of arms. The uppermost radial in each
column bears two facets for the articulation of these arms. Each arm
is supported by a series of "brachial ossicles" (Br).

Fig. 265.—View of Antedon rosacea from aboral surface, × 4. c, Centro-dorsal;

cir, cirrus; R1, R2, R3, the three radial plates of one column; syz, syzygy.

It is evident, both from the number of ambulacral grooves and of the

columns of radials, that Antedon has only five radii, and each pair of
arms must be regarded as having arisen by the bifurcation of a
primitive arm. This is proved to be true by a study of the
development, and it can further be shown that the arms fork
repeatedly; but in these further bifurcations one fork remains short,
and forms a pinnule, whilst the other continues the arm. Thus the
arm, instead of being a single axis, is really a series of axes—in a
word, it is a "sympodium."

If in the case of any bifurcation the two forks were to develop equally,
the number of arms in that ray would be doubled, and this actually
happens in the case of other species of Antedon.

Digestive System.—The mouth leads through a short vertical

oesophagus into an enlarged stomach, which lies horizontally curved
around the axis of the calyx. The stomach is succeeded by a short
intestine, which leads into the anal papilla. Both oesophagus and
stomach are ciliated, and the food consists of minute organisms,
swept into the mouth by the current produced by the cilia covering
the ambulacral grooves and podia; the ten arms may indeed be
compared to a net spread out in the water to catch swimming prey.

The water-vascular system consists of a ring closely surrounding

the mouth, from which radial canals are given off which underlie the
ambulacral grooves and bifurcate with them. The podia have no
ampullae, but muscular strands traverse the cavities of the radial
canals, and that of the ring-canal, and by their action water can be
forced into the podia, which are thus extended. Numerous stone-
canals hang down from the ring-canal, and open freely into the
coelom; they do not, as in Holothuroidea (where the same
arrangement occurs), end in sieve-like madreporites. The tegmen,
i.e. the ventral surface of the calyx, is pierced by a number of
isolated pores lined by ciliated cells, which suck in water. In the
oldest Pelmatozoa there seems to have been a regular madreporite.
In the larva of Antedon there is but one pore-canal, which, as in most
Eleutherozoa, leads into a special section of the coelom, the "axial
sinus," embedded in the body-wall, with which also the single stone-
canal communicates; but later the division between the axial sinus
and the rest of the coelom breaks down, and then the pore-canals
and stone-canals become multiplied independently of each other
(Fig. 266, m.p, p.c, and st.c).
Nervous System.—In the young stalked form the nervous system,
as in other Echinoderms, consists of a ring round the mouth, from
which radial cords are given off which run under the ambulacral
grooves (Fig. 266, nerv.rad.v).

The fibres of this nervous system are, as in Asteroidea, immediately

beneath the bases of the ectoderm cells. A large band of fibres is
given off to each podium, which is covered with minute elevations,
each with pointed sense-hairs in the centre. As the animal grows,
another nervous system makes its appearance, which is developed
from the coelomic wall, the cells of certain tracts of which multiply
and bud off ganglion cells from which the fibres grow out.

Fig. 266.—Diagrammatic longitudinal section through one arm and the opposite
interradius of Antedon. ax, Central canal of centro-dorsal, with prolongation
of genital stolon; B, rosette, consisting of coalesced basals; Br1, Br2, Br3,
Br4, the first four brachial ossicles; chamb, chambered organ; coel.coe,
coelomic canal of arm; gen.coe, genital canal of arm; gen.r, genital rachis;
gen.st, genital stolon; m.p, madreporic pores; musc.long, longitudinal
muscle; nerv.rad.d, dorsal radial nerve; nerv.rad.v, ventral radial nerve; p.c,
pore-canal; pod, podium; R1-R3, 1st to 3rd radials; st.c, stone-canal;
sub.coe, sub-tentacular canal of arm; w.v.r, radial water-vessel.

This "aboral nervous system," as it is called, has its centre in the

"chambered organ" (Fig. 266, chamb), which is embedded in the
centro-dorsal ossicle, and is roofed over by a plate called the
"rosette." This represents the five coalesced "basals," a ring of plates
which in other forms alternate with the lowest radials, and it
intervenes between these and the centro-dorsal. The chambered
organ consists of a ring of five vesicles, which have originated as
pouches of the aboral coelom (Fig. 266, chamb). The walls of these
vesicles develop nervous matter; from them radiate out five great
cords, deeply embedded in the plates of the patina. These cords
rapidly fork, and one division of each of two adjacent cords enters
the lowest radial. In the third radial all the cords are connected by a
commissure which runs completely round the calyx. Each of the
cords in the third radial forks again, and one branch of each cord
enters each of the two arms connected with it, and the two branches
entering an arm coalesce to form a single cord. In the arms, as in the
calyx, the cords are deeply embedded in the ossicles, but branches
extend to the ventral surface of the arms and here unite to form two
longitudinal cords, one on each side of the groove. In the tegmen
these cords are connected by an outer nerve-ring, branches from
which join the ectodermal nerve-ring already described.

The researches first of W. B. Carpenter[512] and then of Marshall[513]

have proved that it is the aboral nervous system which really controls
the movements of the animal. If the chambered organ is destroyed
by cautery, the whole movements of the animal are paralysed; but it
will carry out its characteristic swimming movements just as well if
the whole tegmen with the ambulacral nerve-ring and the whole of
the alimentary canal are torn away. The commissure in the third
radials co-ordinates the movements of the arms. If it is cut they move
independently of one another. The position of the radial cords inside
the ossicles is gradually acquired. At first they are gutter-like
evaginations of the coelom; by upgrowth of their sides the gutters
become canals, and are then surrounded by calcified tissue. The cirri
have each a cord traversing them which originates from the
chambered organ.

Coelom.—In the young stalked form the coelom consists of the

water-vascular system ("hydrocoel"), and underlying it an oral
coelom, separated from an aboral coelom by a horizontal mesentery.
As the animal grows, this horizontal mesentery becomes largely
absorbed, and the coelom becomes everywhere traversed by
cellular cords (trabeculae), which are later calcified.
Both oral and aboral coelom become, like the hydrocoel, bent into
hoops, and along the axis of the aboral coelom a cord of germ-cells
is developed, which constitutes the "genital stolon." The chambered
organ is developed from the aboral coelom, and in the centre of its
five chambers a median pocket grows down into the centro-dorsal,
along the side of which is an extension of the genital stolon. In the
arms the mesentery separating the extensions of the oral and aboral
coelom persists; the oral extension consists of two parallel canals
called "subtentacular" (Fig. 267, s.c), whilst the aboral space is
termed the "coeliac" canal (Fig. 267, c.c). In the tip of the pinnule,
that is to say at the extremity of a ramification of the arm, the coeliac
and subtentacular canals communicate. As portions of the lining of
both canals are ciliated, a circulation of the coelomic fluid is thus
kept up. The genital stolon gives rise at the level of the remnant of
the horizontal mesentery in the disc to a circular genital rachis,
whence cords pass down the arms in the tissue separating
subtentacular and coeliac canals (Fig. 267, g.r). Each cord is
contained in a special tube, the "genital canal," which is probably
developed in the same way as the aboral sinus of the Eleutherozoa,
i.e. as a special sheltering outgrowth of the coelom (Fig. 267, g.c). In
the pinnule the rachis swells out into a genital organ, from which a
short duct is developed when the organ is mature. The eggs are
large (3 mm. in diameter), and adhere for a considerable period of
their development to the pinnules.

Fig. 267.—Diagrammatic transverse section of arm of Antedon. To compare it

with the section of an Ophiuroid arm it is inverted from its natural position.
br, Brachial ossicle; c.c, coeliac canal; c.p, covering plate; g.c, genital canal;
 g.r, genital rachis; n.r.d, dorsal nerve-cord; n.r.v, ventral nerve-cord; pod,
podium; s.c, subtentacular canal; w.v.r, radial water-vessel.

The muscles of Antedon are of two kinds. Those of the water-

vascular system are, as in Eleutherozoa, basal outgrowths of the
cells forming the walls of the system. The muscles moving the joints
of the arms appear to be modifications of connective-tissue cells.
When the brachials are isolated their terminal faces, strikingly long,
recall those of Ophiuroid vertebrae. There is a ventral groove for the
coelomic canal. Above this groove the face is divided by ridges into
four areas for attachment of the muscles. Dorsal to this is the pit for
the strong ligament which binds the ossicles together; then comes
the canal for the aboral nerve-cord, whilst dorsal to this is the pit for
what is called the "dorsal elastic ligament." The theory underlying
this name is that the muscles bend the arms ventrally, and the
ligament by its elasticity restores them to their places; but there
seems reason to believe that the "ligament" is really a dorsal muscle.
It is particularly to be noted that similar muscles occur between the
first and second radials, proving that the primary arm really begins
with the first radial. The second and third radials, as also the first two
ossicles and certain others of each arm, are closely united by
calcified fibres, and this kind of union is called a "syzygy" (Fig. 265,
syz). The cirri have all their ossicles united by muscular attachment,
and can move rapidly.

The blood system (see pp. 449-451) forms a ring consisting of a

network of strings round the oesophagus. This is termed the "labial
plexus." From this cords can be traced to the wall of the stomach
and to the surface of the genital stolon. The assertion that radial
strands intervene between the ectodermic nerve-cord and the radial
water-vascular canal, though usually made, does not appear to be
justified, since what is termed the vessel appears to be a crevice
formed by shrinkage in preservation.

The process of respiration is doubtless largely carried out by the

podia, but it must be assisted by the constant instreaming of fresh
sea-water through the pore-canals. The process of excretion has
not been directly observed in Antedon, but structures called "sacculi"
may be connected with this function. These are spherical masses of
amoebocytes embedded in the tegmen. During life they are
colourless, but after death they become coloured, showing that they
secrete a peculiar compound. These sacculi abound in the disc, and
a row of them is to be found at each side of the ambulacral groove in
the arms. When, as in tropical species, the groove is supported by
side-plates, these are notched for the reception of the sacculi.

Turning now to survey the group Crinoidea as a whole, lack of space

forces us to confine our attention mainly to the living forms. These
differ amongst themselves chiefly in the following points: (1) the
condition of the stem; (2) the structure of the calyx; (3) what is
intimately connected with this, the method of branching of the arms;
and (4) the length of the alimentary canal.

Condition of the Stem.—This is represented by a centro-dorsal

stump in Antedon and most of its allies, but in Actinometra it
becomes a flat plate, and in some species in old age all the cirri drop
off. In Uintacrinus and Marsupites (fossil genera) there is no trace of
cirri. In Pentacrinidae there is a long stem, pentagonal in cross-
section, in which alternate ossicles carry whorls of cirri; in
Rhizocrinidae the stem consists of compressed ossicles, elliptical in
section, bearing cirri only at the rooting tip, whilst in Hyocrinus the
stem is made up of cylindrical ossicles, cirri being apparently absent.
Finally, in Holopus the stem is represented by an uncalcified leathery
outgrowth from the calyx.

Skeleton of Calyx and Arm.—In living Crinoidea, with the doubtful

exceptions of Holopus and Hyocrinus, the calyx is supposed to be
built up originally of four whorls of plates, viz. "infra-basals," "basals,"
"radials," and "orals," the last named forming the skeleton of the oral
valves round the mouth. In the two exceptions named there is no
certain evidence of the existence of infra-basals. In living forms the
infra-basals coalesce with the uppermost joint of the stem; the
basals remain large and conspicuous, though they are fused into a
ring in Rhizocrinidae, Atelecrinus, and Thaumatocrinus, whilst in
Pentacrinidae this ring is nearly, and in Antedon and its allies
completely, hidden when the calyx is viewed from the outside. In
Hyocrinus the basals are represented by three ossicles. The lowest
radials are an important element in the patina in every case, but the
upper radials, the incipient portions of the arms, may be incorporated
in the calyx (Pentacrinus, Antedon) or may be free (Rhizocrinidae
and Hyocrinus); in Metacrinus there are five to eight radials in each
column, all incorporated.

The oral plates are very large in Hyocrinus, Holopus, and

Thaumatocrinus, small in Rhizocrinus, vestigial or absent in
Bathycrinus, and completely absorbed in Antedon. In addition to
these main elements, in many species small accessory plates are
developed (a) at the sides of the ambulacral groove, over which they
can close down (many species of Antedon, Hyocrinus, Holopus,
Rhizocrinidae, some species of Pentacrinidae); these are "covering
plates," and correspond in function to the adambulacrals of
Asteroidea; (b) supporting the sides of the groove and corresponding
to the ambulacrals of Asteroidea;[514] these are "side-plates," and
the covering plates articulate with them; (c) on the surface of the
tegmen; these are the interradial plates, which in Thaumatocrinus
alone among recent forms, but in many fossil forms, are continued
into the patina, where they separate the radial plates.

Mode of Branching of the Arms.—All modern Crinoids have

pinnules, and this, as has already been explained, is due to a
suppressed dichotomy. The extent of the suppression determines
the number of arms, which varies within the same genus.

Alimentary Canal.—In Hyocrinus there is no dilatation which could

be called a stomach; in Actinometra the mouth is excentric, and the
anal papilla occupies the centre of the tegmen. The intestine is
elongated, and describes several turns round the papilla before
ending in the anus.
The classification of Crinoidea cannot properly be considered
without taking account of fossil forms, but to do so at all adequately
is impossible on account of limitations of space. Less regret may be
felt because the three specialists in this branch, viz. Bather in
England, Springer in America, and Jaekel in Germany, come to
fundamentally different conclusions on the subject. If we confine our
attention to living forms we may, with P. H. Carpenter,[515] select the
stem as the basis of classification. As the method of gaining food is
the same in all cases, the Crinoidea have probably split on the
method of attachment to the substratum. These families—it is
impossible, in view of the greater range of variety in fossils, to dignify
them with the name of orders—are as follow:—

Fam. 1. Hyocrinidae.—Stem long and persistent; cirri absent; stem

ossicles cylindrical—ligaments uniting them not specialised. Arms
(five) short, but with extremely long pinnules. Patina composed of
long exposed basals and a ring of five spade-shaped radials. Five
large persistent orals. Interradials and covering plates present. One
species (Hyocrinus bethellianus, Figs. 268, 269) dredged up in the
Southern Pacific Ocean.