1 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

The device in which there is a controlled motion of electron through vacuum, gases or
through solids is called electronic devices.
The branch of electronics which deals with vacuum or gas filled devices like diode,
triode, tetrode and pentode is called tube electronics.
The branch of electronics which deals with semiconductor devices is called solid state
electronics.

Band theory of solid:

Band theory solid is the accurate method of classification of solids.
Electrons of each isolated atom have discrete energy levels. When two similar atoms are
brought closer, then there is an interaction between the valence electrons of these two atoms.
As a result the energy level splits into two slightly different energy levels. The atoms in the
solid are so close to each other that the energy level produced after splitting will appear as a
continuous. These closely spaced energy level forms energy band. This is the basis of Band
theory of solid.
The energy band which is completely filled at zero Kelvin is called valance Band.
The energy band with highest energy is called conduction band. The gap between valence
band and conduction band is called band gap or Energy gap or Forbidden energy band.

Valence band:
The energy band which is completely filled with electrons at zero Kelvin is called valence
band.
Note: In an atom, the valence band has electrons of highest energy.
Conduction Band:
The highest energy band which is partially filled at room temperature but completely empty
at zero Kelvin is called conduction band.
Forbidden band : The separation between valance energy band and conduction energy band
is known as forbidden energy band.
Note: No electrons are found in forbidden band.
Classification of solids :
On the basis of band theory of solids, the solids are classified into,
1) Conductors 2) Semiconductors & 3) Insulator.
Conductors:
Solids in which the valance band and conduction band overlap on each other are called
conductors.
Conductors are the substances, whose electrical resistivity is very low
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Ex: Aluminum, copper etc.,

Semi conductors:
Solids in which valance band and conduction band are separated by a small energy gap are
called semiconductors.

Note: In semiconductor valance band is completely filled and conduction band is completely
empty.
Example: 1) Germanium E.G = 0.7 e V at 0o K
2) Silicon E.G = 1.1 e V at 0o K

3) Electrical resistivity of semiconductor vary as

Insulators:
Solids in which valence band and conduction band are separated by a wide energy gap are
called insulators.

Insulators are the substances whose electrical resistivity is very high

Example: Diamond.
Germanium as a semiconductor :
Germanium is a tetravalent crystal, it has four valence electrons.
Therefore at absolute temperature all the four valence electrons
of germaniums atom forms four pairs of covalent bond with
their neighboring atoms hence no valence electrons is free
and germanium acts as insulator. But at a temperature greater
than the absolute zero valence electron become free due to the
rupture of covalent bond These electrons are utilized for
conduction Therefore the germanium acts as conductor.
In this way germanium acts as semiconductor.

Holes:
When electrons become free due to the rupture of covalent band, they leave behind positively
charged vacancies. These vacancies are called holes.
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Holes move opposite to the direction electrons. Therefore they are taken as positive
charges carries.
Conduction is not possible in a pure semiconductor :
In a pure semiconductor always equal number of electrons and holes are produced therefore
after recombination no electrons or no holes will be left free for conduction. Hence
conduction is not possible in a pure semiconductor. Pure semiconductor cannot be used for
semi conducting devices.
Doping :-
Doping is the process of adding calculated quantity of impurity to a pure
semiconductor. The impurity added is called dopant and the resulting semiconductor is
called extrinsic semiconductor.
Types of semiconductor:
Semiconductor are of two types, they are,
1) Intrinsic semiconductor or pure semiconductor:-
A pure semi conductor in which consists of equal number of holes and electrons is
called as intrinsic semiconductor.
Note 1.Conductivity is very less in pure semiconductor.
2) Extrinsic semiconductor:-
The semiconductor which conducts due to impurities added to it is called Extrinsic
semiconductor. It is an impure semiconductor.

Difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor

1.It is a pure semiconductor 1. It is an impure semiconductor

2.Equal number of holes and
electron are present
3.Conductivity is very less in
this semiconductor
4.Electrical conductivity in this
semiconductor depends on
temperature.
2. Holes number and electron number
is not equal
3.Conductivity in this semiconductor
is high.
4. Electrical conductivity in this semiconductor
depends on temperature and impurity added.

Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types, they are,

1. n – type semiconductor.
2. p – type semiconductor

n – type semiconductor :

A pure semiconductor doped with a pentavalent impurity, is called

n – type semiconductor.
Example : [impurity added]
Phosphorous [P] ,Arsenic [Ar] ,Antimony, Bismuth.
Here each impurity atom has five valence electrons,
four of them are utilized for bonding with neighboring
Germanium atoms and the 5th one is loosely bound.
These loosely bound electrons can be made free very
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easily and it does not create any hole, also equal number
of electrons and holes are produced due to the rupture of covalent bonds at temperature
greater than the absolute zero. Consequently electrons become majority charge carries and
holes becomes minority charge carriers.

p – type semiconductor :

A pure semiconductor doped with a trivalent impurity is called

p – type semiconductor.
Example : [impurity added] Aluminum [Al] Boron Gallium,
Indium.
Here each impurity atom has three valence electrons hence
it needs one electron for bonding. Therefore it takes one
electron from a nearby semiconductor atom and create
hole in that atom, also equal number of electrons holes are
produced due to the rupture of bonds at a temperature
greater than the absolute zero. Consequently electron
becomes minority charge carries and hole becomes majority charge carries.

Note:- 1.When a pure semiconductor is doped with a pentavalent impurity, each impurity
atom donates one surplus electron and hence the impurity is called donor impurity.

2.When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity, each impurity atom
accepts one electron for bonding and hence the impurity. is called acceptor impurity.

Difference between n-type and p-type semiconductor

n - type semiconductors p - type semiconductor

1. Doped with pentavalent impurity. 1. Doped with Trivalent impurity.

2. Electrons are majority charge carriers
3. Majority Charge carriers moves in
conduction band
4. Type of impurity added is donor
Ex : Phosphorus, Arsenic
2. Holes are majority charge Carriers.
3. Majority Charge carries moves in
valence band
4. Type of impurity added is acceptor
Ex : Boron, Indium

5. Number of valence electron of impurity 5. Number of valence electron of impurity

atom is five. atom is three.
6. Holes are minority charge carriers 6. Electrons are minority charge carriers

p-n Junction :

A junction formed between p – type materials and n – type

material is called p-n junction. It is obtained by doping a trivalent impurity at one end and
pentavalent impurity at opposite end of a semiconductor.
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When a p-n junction is formed there will be a density gradient of charge carries across the
junction. Hole diffuse from p- region to n – region and electrons diffuse from n–
region to p – region. Therefore positive charges are built up on the n – region and a negative
charges are built up in p – region at the junction. This develops a potential difference at the
junction and this potential difference is called junction potential difference or barrier
potential. The junction P.d is the order of 0.1 to 0.3V.

This junction potential difference opposes the motion of charges from one region to another.
At the junction a region which is completely depleted of mobile charge carries is formed
which is called depletion region.
Note :-
1. The thickness of depletion region is of order of 10-6 m.
2. When no external voltage is applied across the junction then the p – n junction is
said to be unbiased.
p – n junction under forward bias:

If the p- region is connected to the positive terminal and n – region is connected to the
negative terminal of a battery, the p – n junction is said to be forward biased. When it is
forward biased the applied potential difference opposes the junction potential difference and
for the value of applied potential difference greater than junction potential difference electron
in the n-region and holes in p-region are repelled by the applied voltage and move towards
the junction. On crossing the junction the electrons and holes combine. Therefore forward
current will flow due to diffusion of majority charge carriers. Further a small increase in
applied voltage causes large increase in forward current therefore p-n junction offers a low
resistance.
The resistance of the diode in forward bias is defined as the ratio of small change in voltage

to the small change in current

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p – n junction under reverse biased:

If the p-region is connected to the negative terminal and n – region is connected to the
positive terminal, then the p-n junction is reverse biased. When pn – junction is reverse
biased, the applied potential difference is in the direction of junction potential difference.
The majority charge carrier in p – region and n-region move away from the junction and also
thickness of depletion layer increases. Therefore for any value of applied potential
difference the p –n junction doesn’t conduct and hence it offers a high resistance.
Note :-
1. A small current will flow in p – n junction under reverse biased condition due to
minority charge carries.
2. It is observed that the p – n junction has the property of conduction only in one
direction.
3.As the reverse voltage is increased a large current results at a particular voltage called
Breakdown Voltage.
Forward characteristics: the graphical representation of variation of applied forward bias
voltage and forward current through the pn junction is called forward characteristics.

Cut in voltage (Vk): In forward bias ,the voltage at which the current begins to conduct
rapidly is called knee voltage.

Rectification :
Rectification is a process of converting AC into DC. The rectifiers are used to convert
AC into DC are diodes.
Diode :
A p – n junction device which conducts in only one direction is called diode.
symbolically diode is represented as follows,

A p–n junction diodes is used as a rectifier. Semiconductor diodes

have the following advantages over diode valves.

• No heater filament is required

• They have long life.
• They are small in size
• They are economical and high efficient
• They consume lesser power.
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Half wave Rectifier:

Half wave rectifier is a circuit, which gives output only during one half cycle of the input AC.
The circuit of a typical half wave rectifier is shown in the diagram. It consists of a
transformer a diode D and a load resistance R L. The AC to be rectified is applied to the
primary of the transformer. This induces an AC of same frequency in the secondary of the
transformer. During the first half of the cycle diode D becomes forward biased and conducts
but during negative half of the cycle D becomes reverse biased and does not conducts.
Consequently a pulsating DC is obtained as output and it is measured across the load
resistance RL.
Note:
1). The DC value of half wave rectifier output is 1/ times the peak value of output.
Vdc = 1/ V0 = 0.318 V0 .
2). The output frequency of HWR is same as frequency of input AC.

Full wave rectifier:

Full wave rectifier is the circuit , which gives output during both the half cycle of the
input A.C. The diagram of full wave rectifier is shown. It consists of a center tap transformer,
two diodes D1 and D2 and a load resistance RL. The A.C to be rectified is applied to primary
of the transformer. This induces an A.C of same frequency in the secondary of the
transformer. During positive half cycle of the A.C diode D1 becomes forward biased and D2
becomes reverse biased. Hence only D1 conducts. Thus current flows through the RL during
negative half cycle A.C diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 becomes reverse biased.
Therefore only D2 conducts. This current flows through RL. Consequently a continuous
steady DC is obtained as output.

Note: 1). The O/P frequency of full wave rectifier is twice the frequency of input AC

2). An electronic power supply system convert AC input voltage to an almost perfect DC
o/p voltage includes a rectifier and a filter.
3) AC components present in a DC o/p is filtered by using inductors and capacitors.
4) Maximum efficiency of half wave rectifier is 40.6
5) Maximum efficiency of full wave rectifier is 81.2
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Digital Electronics
Electronics is broadly classified into two groups .Those are,

1. Analog Electronics :- In this type of electronics data is represented by a continuous

varying signals called analog signals.

Digital Electronics :- Digital Electronics deals with circuits which make use of only two
values of voltages [High or Low] [1 or 0]

Advantages of digital system:

• They are less expensive

• They are accurate.
• Easy to manipulate.
• They are less affected by noise.
• Information storage in easy.
Binary System :- A system which has only two states, is called binary system.
In binary system only two values are used 0 and 1 [low or high].

Each digital or binary number is called Bit.

Boolean Algebra:- George Boole developed algebra to solve the logic problems. This
algebra is known as Boolean algebra. This algebra allows only two values 0 and 1 [Binary
number]

Note :- Boolean algebra uses three operations on its variables. These are

OR operation represented by [+] sign

AND operation represented by [.] sign

NOT operation represented by [-] bar over a variable

Logic Gates :- A logic gate is a digital electronic circuit which perform logical function.
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Logical gate has one or more inputs and only one output. The input as well as output can
have only two states [0 or 1]

Types of Logic gates

There are three basic logic gates, they are

1. OR gate
2. AND gate
3. NOT gate
Note:- Function of logic gate is either defined by truth table [Which shows possible input
combinations and corresponding output] or by Boolean expression.

OR Gate :-
An OR gate is a digital logic circuit whose output is ‘1’ sate if any or all its inputs are
in ‘1’ state Symbol of a two input OR gate is as shown below,

Truth table
A B Y=
A+B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

Note :-

1.OR gate can be represented by Boolean equation Y = A+B [ read as Y = A or B]

2.OR gate is similar to a circuit which contains a parallel combination of two

switches

AND Gate :-
AND gate is a digital Electronics gate whose output is ‘1’ state if and only if all its
inputs are in ‘1’ state.

Symbol of two input AND gate is as shown below,

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Truth table
A B Y=A .B

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Note :-
1. AND gate can be represented by Boolean operation Y = A.B [ A and B]
2. AND gate is t a circuit which contains a series combination of two switches

NOT Gate :- [Inverter]

A NOT gate is a digital logic circuit which has only one input and one output and the
output is always the compliment of the input.

If the input A is ‘1’ the output is ‘0’ and if input is ‘0’ and the output is ‘1’. Therefore
NOT gate is an inverter.

Symbol of NOT gate

Truth table

A Y= Ā

0 1

1 0

Note :-

NOT gate is equivalent to the above circuits. When the switch is closed the lamp is
off and when switch is open lamp glows.
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NAND gate :-
A NAND gate is a digital logic circuit in which an AND gate is combined to a NOT
gate. The output of NAND gate assume ‘1’ state when all or any of its inputs assume 0
state.

The Boolean equation for a NAND gate is Y = A+B

Symbol of NAND gate

Truth table

A B Y=A.B

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

Note :- NAND gate is called as Universal gate.

NOR gate :- A NOR gate is a digital logic circuit in which OR gate is combined to a NOT
gate . The output of NOR gate assumes ‘1’ state when all of its inputs assume 0 state.

The Boolean equation for a NOR gate is

Y = A+B

Symbol of NOR gate

Truth table
A B Y=A+B

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

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