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Editors
Nesrin Ecem Bayram, Aleksandar Ž . Kostic and Yusuf Can Gercek

Pollen Chemistry & Biotechnology

Editors
Nesrin Ecem Bayram
Department of Food Processing, Bayburt University, Aydıntepe
Vocational College, Bayburt, Turkey

Aleksandar Ž . Kostic
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

Yusuf Can Gercek

Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, Istanbul University, Istanbul,
Turkey

ISBN 978-3-031-47562-7 e-ISBN 978-3-031-47563-4

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47563-4

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive

license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

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Preface
Bee products have been used in medicine since ancient times. Their
usage in alternative medicine continues to this day (such as propolis,
bee pollen, bee bread, honey, etc.). Apart from this, it has been
recognized as an excellent functional food ingredient. Scientific studies
aimed at determining the phytochemical and physicochemical
compositions of bee products have revealed their potential in the
treatment of various diseases. Bee pollen, which is a mixture of pollen
from different plant species, is a bee product of agglutination of pollen
grains collected by bee workers. Bee pollen can be harvested using a
trap fixed at the entrance of the hive. Bee pollen stands out for its
content of proteins, carbohydrates, fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, and
wide range of plant secondary metabolites such as phenolic
compounds, carotenoids, phenylamides, etc. The composition of bee
pollen varies depending on its biogeographic (regional) origin,
botanical origin, and even the harvesting season. It also can be
influenced by processing and storage conditions.
The global interest and increasing consumer awareness, especially
regarding the nutritional and biological value of food, have led to a
growing interest in bee products. From this point of view, bee pollen is
of great interest in the food supplementation and food processing
industries due to its high nutritional value and bioactivity. Its inclusion
in various formulations such as pills, tablets, capsules, and powders
helps to meet the needs of many customers. Also, it can improve
bioactivity and shelf life of different food products, in particular meat,
dairy, and bakery products.
With this book, which we have edited, we aimed to present the
structure of bee pollen through a multidisciplinary approach. We
prepared this book to provide scientists with a single source on the
morphological and anatomical structure, primary and secondary
metabolites, food safety assessment, microbiome, and biotechnological
applications of bee pollen, as well as to encourage research on bee
pollen. We extend our gratitude to all the authors and the staff of
Springer Publishing for their contributions to this book.
Nesrin Ecem Bayram
Aleksandar Ž. Kostić
Yusuf Can Gerçek
Bayburt, Türkiye
Belgrade, Serbia
Istanbul, Türkiye
Contents
1 Pollen Morphology and Anatomy with Botanical Preferences
Made by Bees:​An Introduction Data
Deniz Canlı and Nesrin Ecem Bayram
2 Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins of Pollen
Rita Végh and Mariann Csó ka
3 Bee Pollen Carbohydrates Composition and Functionality
Jasna Bertoncelj, Nataša Lilek and Mojca Korošec
4 Lipids in Pollen
Aleksandar Ž . Kostić and Sofija Kilibarda
5 Macro-, Micro-, Trace, and Toxic Elements of Pollen
Pawel Pohl, Anna Dzimitrowicz, Piotr Jamroz, Anna Lesniewicz,
Anna Szymczycha-Madeja, Maja Welna and Krzysztof Greda
6 Phenolic Acids in Pollen
Aleksandar Ž . Kostić, Yusuf Can Gercek and Nesrin Ecem Bayram
7 Flavonoids in Pollen
Milica Kalaba, Ž ivoslav Tešić and Stevan Blagojević
8 Carotenoids and Vitamins of Pollen
Rodica Mă rgă oan and Mihaiela Cornea-Cipcigan
9 Important Contaminants (Mycotoxins, Pesticide Residues,
Pirolizidine Alkaloids) in Pollen
Miroslava Kačá niová , Natá lia Čmiková and Vladimíra Kň azovická
10 Other Bioactive Constituents of Pollen
José Bernal, Silvia Valverde, Adriá n Fuente-Ballesteros,
Beatriz Martín-Gó mez and Ana M. Ares
11 Microbiology of Pollen
Vladimíra Kň azovická and Miroslava Kačá niová
12 Physical and Bioprocessing Techniques for Improving
Nutritional, Microbiological, and Functional Quality of Bee Pollen
Carlos Alberto Fuenmayor, Carlos Mario Zuluaga-Domínguez and
Martha Cecilia Quicazá n
13 Good Practice of Pollen Collection-What Pollen Traps Are Better
Choice
Nebojša M. Nedić
14 Techno-Functional Properties of Pollen
Danijel D. Milinčić, Aleksandar Ž . Kostić, Slađana P. Stanojević and
Mirjana B. Pešić
15 Bee Pollen as a Source of Pharmaceuticals:​Where Are We Now?​
Rachid Kacemi and Maria G. Campos
Index
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
N. Ecem Bayram et al. (eds.), Pollen Chemistry & Biotechnology
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47563-4_1

1. Pollen Morphology and Anatomy with

Botanical Preferences Made by Bees: An
Introduction Data
Deniz Canlı1 and Nesrin Ecem Bayram2
(1) Food, Agriculture and Livestock Vocational School, Bingol
University, Bingol, Turkey
(2) Aydıntepe Vocational College, Department of Food Processing,
Bayburt University, Bayburt, Turkey

Deniz Canlı
Email: dcanli@bingol.edu.tr

Keywords Pollen – Pollen anatomy – Pollen morphology – Bee pollen –

Nectar sources

1.1 Introduction
Honey bees, which are the most important pollinators of cultivated
plants, prefer the flowers of some plant species to be more attractive.
The structure of the flower, the movement of the flower, the volatile
component content of the flower, the size of the flower, the color of the
corolla, and finally the amount and/or quality of the pollen and nectar
produced by the plant can affect the bees’ visit to the flower [1, 2]. But
the most important feature of plants that attract bees is their color.
Bees have a trichromatic visual system that enables them to see many
colors [1]. However, it was stated that the relationship between nectar
volume and secreted nectar is probably genetic. Another important
factor in the nectar preference of honey bees is the sugar concentration
in the nectar, and there is a positive correlation between bee visitation
and nectar production. However, even the best known floral sources for
honey bees, nectar production can be variable in different years and
regions depending on factors such as air temperature, humidity,
groundwater, precipitation and soil yield [2].
Some plants actually produce little or no nectar, but they attract
bees with their pollen production. Pollen is the main source of protein,
especially for young bees, and therefore some plants attract pollinators
by producing pollen [2]. The pollen content of each plant is unique to
itself, and especially the pollen shape can be described as the
fingerprint of the plants. At this point, the branch of science that studies
pollen, namely palynology, comes into play. Thanks to this branch of
science, the detection of plants visited by bees can be determined using
the distinctive characteristic morphological parameters of plant pollen.

1.2 The Pollen Grain

The pollen grain is an element that contains the male gametophyte
produced by seed plants. Pollen grains are formed by the meiosis of
pollen mother cells (PMC), which develops in sporogenous tissues in
the anthers of the androecium [3]. In the adaptation process of seed
plants to terrestrial life, dependence on water for reproduction has
been eliminated and the male gametophyte producing sperm is
protected in pollen grain [4, 5]. Pollen grain transports the sperm cells
to the ovule containing the female gametophyte. Pollen reaches the
female organ by means of various vectors (such as wind, water, or
animals).
A mature pollen grain develops over two distinct phases. The first is
microsporogenesis, whilst the following is microgametogenesis [6, 7].

1.2.1 Microsporogenesis
The development of microspores from pollen mother cells is known as
microsporogenesis. The diploid pollen mother cells originate from the
sporogenous tissue in pollen sacs are surrounded by a callose layer [3].
As a result of meiosis of pollen mother cells, 4-microspore groups
(tetrads) are formed [8]. The tetrad type is determined by the direction
of the spindle fibers pulled to the poles during meiosis [9]. Microspores
then develop into pollen grains [6].

1.2.2 Microgametogenesis
Microgametogenesis is the process by which sperm is developed by the
microspore nucleus going through two sequential mitoses. In this stage,
a vacuole occurs in the microspore center and the microspore nucleus
moves from central to eccentric position. The first pollen mitosis
happens at this position and two unequal new cells occur [10]. The
small cell is named the “generative cell” and the larger one is called the
“vegetative cell (tube cell)” [3, 6]. The generative cell is surrounded by a
membrane and floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell. It becomes
spindle-shaped and locates near the pollen wall [11]. The generative
cell divides into two male gametes (sperm) in the second pollen
mitosis. This is the final stage of microgametogenesis and mature
pollen has developed [6]. The second pollen mitosis does not always
occur in the pollen sacs of the anther. At the time of anthesis, the
number of nuclei in the pollen grain may vary, and this situation is
thought to be phylogenetically important. In many species, pollen
grains contain one generative cell during the pollination, and it divides
into two sperm cells in the pollen tube after germination. In
angiosperms, binucleate pollen grains—one tube cell and one
generative cell—are the most typical during the anthesis, whereas
trinucleate grains—one tube cell and two sperm cells—are
comparatively uncommon [11].

1.3 Pollen Morphology

Pollen grains have a 3-dimentional form and diverse greatly in shape
and sizes. The observation of multiple orientations of a pollen grain
may be needed before the morphological type is confirmed. The pollen
wall provides various taxon-specific microscopic features, which the
palynologists use for identification. For the aim of identifying and
describing the microscopic features of pollen grains, a particular
terminology that is generally accepted by palynologists is adopted. But
nevertheless, in some cases, the terminology applied by the authors
differs. The terminology used in this chapter follows the
recommendations made by Erdtman (1963), Punt et al. (2007), and
Halbritter et al. (2018) [6, 12, 13].
The main features of pollen grains that are used to identify them are
summarized below: pollen unit, size, polarity and symmetry, shape,
pollen wall, exine ornamentation, and apertures.

1.3.1 Pollen Unit

The term “pollen unit” describes the number of pollen grains that were
fused at the time of anthesis [6]. If the microspores separate from one
another and form a single unfused pollen grain, they disperse from the
anther as monads. In some plants, meiotic microspores release together
partly or without separating from each other and form dyads or tetrads
[3]. Additionally, pollen grains that are arranged in groups of more than
four are called polyads, and generally, polyads are composed of
multiples of eight united grains. If all pollen grains in a whole theca are
released together, it is called pollinium (plural pollinia) Fig. 1.1 [14].
Fig. 1.1 Pollen units

1.3.2 Pollen Size

Although pollen size is typically in the range of 25–50 μm [15]. It varies
by plant species, Zostera marina, an aquatic plant, has ribbon-like
pollen that is about 2–3 mm long [16] and Myosotis pollen is smaller
than 10 μm [17].
 It requires several measurements and statistical processing of the
results to specify the average size of a pollen species [3]. However,
taxonomically, it is a useful feature as it is stable within taxa, and in
some cases, it allows the delimitation of species that are closely related
[3]. However, the preparation method(s) applied and the degree of
hydration may have an impact on pollen size [6, 15, 18].

1.3.3 Polarity and Symmetry

Pollen grains may exist in several polarity and symmetry configurations
since pollen grains are three-dimensional structures [19]. The polarity
of the pollen is closely related to the position of the microspores within
the tetrad phase. Polarity is determined when the microspores are in
the tetrad stage. The direction of spindle fibers throughout meiosis and
cytokinesis strongly influences where the microspores are positioned
in the tetrad [6].
The zone that is closest to the tetrads center is identified as the
proximal pole, while the zone that is farthest away is the distal pole.
The polar axis of a pollen is the axis that extends from the proximal
pole to the distal pole in the tetrad. The equatorial axis is the axis that is
perpendicular to the polar axis. The proximal and distal hemispheres of
isopolar pollen are similar either in shape, apertures or ornamentation
and hemispheres are obviously distinct in heteropolar ones (Fig. 1.2)
[3, 12].
Fig. 1.2 Polarity of pollen grain
Determining the angle of view is significant for identifying the
pollen grain’s morphological features. The polar view refers to a pollen
grain observed from the pole, while the equatorial view is when it is
observed from the equator.
The majority of pollen grains have symmetry, and this property may
be used to identify the morphological type of a grain. Symmetry is
defined in the polar view of the pollen. If pollen has more than one
plane of symmetry, it is radially symmetrical or bilaterally symmetrical
if it has a single plane of symmetry [11].

1.3.4 Shape
Pollen shape is determined by the ratio of the polar axis length of the
pollen to the equatorial axis length (P/E) [20]. In angiosperms, there
are three basic pollen shapes. These are oblate, spheroidal (round) and
prolate (Fig. 1.3). In oblate pollen, the polar axis is shorter than the
equatorial axis. The polar and equatorial axes of spheroidal pollen are
almost equal in length. The polar axis of prolate pollen is longer than
the equatorial axis [21].
Fig. 1.3 Pollen shapes
The nomenclature for the pollen grain shapes (outline) in polar
view is a bit different. Amb is another name for the outline in polar
view of a pollen grain [11]. The outline in polar view can be angular
(triangular, quadrangular, polygonal, rectangular, rhomboid, etc.), non-
angular (circular or elliptical) or lobate [11, 12].

1.3.5 Pollen Wall

The pollen grain is surrounded by a wall called the sporoderm, and this
wall basically consists of two layers, exine and intine [15, 22]. Pollen
wall protects the live content of pollen grain against external
dehydrating or damaging effects (temperature, pressure, etc.).

1.3.5.1 Exine Sculpturing

The exine is the outermost layer of the pollen wall. It provides
protection of pollen grain from external factors. Also, the main
structural support for the cytoplasm is provided by exine.
Sporopollenin, a biopolymer that is resistant to acetolysis and
degradation, constitutes the majority of the exine [23–25]. Exine
typically consists of two sublayers: “ectexine (external exine)” and
“endexine (internal exine)” [26].
Pollen grain ornamentation is related to the exine elements found
on the pollen wall. The outermost layer of the ectexin “tectum”
generally exhibits various sculptural properties. This feature of the
exine plays an important role in the diagnosis of pollen taxa at the
genus/species level. The pollen of insect-pollinated plants usually has
more ornamental exines [26, 27].
Exine ornamentation type is one of the most important key
characters used in the differentiation of pollen types. But
ornamentation details may not be viewed by light microscopy (LM). It
can be observed in greater detail with a scanning electron microscope.
Two basic categories may be used to group different ornamentation
types [3]. In the first group, there are no real sculptural elements on the
exine. This category includes psilate, foveolata, perforate and fossulate
ornamentations that described below. The ornamentation types in the
first group may not be able to be determined accurately by LM due to
the low-resolution limit.
Psilate: The surface of tectum is smooth. The exine shows no
particular sculpturing.
Foveolate: The tectum surface is covered with pits of 1 μm in
diameter and the distance between the pores is greater than the pore
diameter.
Perforate: Tectum surface covered with pores/pits smaller than
1 μm.
Fossulate: Irregularly patterned grooves cover the tectum surface.
In the second group, there are real sculptural elements on the exine
surface. Six sculptural elements: spine-spinule, pilum, baculum,
verruca, gemma and clava constitute different ornamentation types as
described below (Fig. 1.4).
Fig. 1.4 Exine sculpturing types by LM
Echinate: Tectum has pointed end (spine-like) elements >1 μm long.
If spine-like elements <1 μm long, ornamentation takes the micro-
prefix and is named as microechinate.
Baculate: There are rod-shaped not pointed elements >1 μm in
length (bacula) on exine surface.
Clavate: Exine surface has club-shaped elements (clavae, sing. clava)
with diameter < height. The apical part of the clave is thicker, in
comparison to the bacula.
Reticulate: It is a net-like ornamentation type. Sculpturing elements
are arranged in a network that meshes termed lumina (sing. lumen)
and the walls are designated as muri (sing. murus). The homogeneity
of reticulum is an important taxonomic feature in reticulate
ornamentation. The homobrochate type has a reticulum uniform in
size and the heterobrochate type has a reticulum variation in size.
 Gemmate: Exine surface has non-pointed sculptural elements
(gemmae, sing. gemma) with a constricted basal part, >1 μm in
length, width and length are approximately close to each other.
Verrucate: Verruca is a wart-like sculptural element whose width is
greater than its height, >1 μm in length, and non-constricted at the
base.
Striate: Describing an ornamentation in which elongated sculptural
elements (muri) are oriented parallelly and separated by grooves.
Rugulate: Elongated sculptural elements (muri) >1 μm long are
arranged irregularly on the pollen wall.

1.3.5.2 Intine Properties

In a pollen grain, there is an intine layer underneath the exine and
above the vegetative cell membrane (pollen membrane or plasma
membran). Intine surrounds the pollen protoplasm and shows a
simpler structure compared to the exine [11, 19]. Exine is extremely
resistant, withstanding the effects of strong bases and acids as well as
heat up to 400 °C. It exists in fossilized pollen and spores. Intin layer, on
the other hand, is not resistant to high temperature, acids and
microorganism activity [19, 28]. It degrades in acetolised pollen and
spores and is not found in fossilized ones [13]. The main components of
the intine layer are cellulose and pectin [15]. Intine regulates the
maturation of the pollen grain and pollen tube germination [6].
Intine is thicker or bilayered at the apertural area in angiosperm
pollen. It is basically consisting of two sub-layers. These are the outer
intine (ektintine) and the inner intine (endintine) [6, 11].

1.3.6 Apertures
The aperture is the morphologically and anatomically differentiated
area of the pollen wall. Pollen grain germinates from the aperture area
and the pollen tube extends out of the pollen grain with the pollen
protoplasm and intine [22]. Apertures perform a harmomegathy
function by acting as regulators of pollen grain volume changes caused
on by humidity changes [29]. In pollen grains lacking apertures, pollen
tube formed where the exine is limited. Pollen grains with no aperture
are denoted by the term inaperturate [12, 22].
 Apertures could be classified into two groups depending on their
morphological characteristics. The elongated aperture with a
length/width ratio >2 and pointed ends is designated a colpus (pl.
colpi) or furrow, while the circular aperture with a length/width ratio
<2 is termed a porus (pl. pori) (Fig. 1.5) [3]. Colpus and porus are
usually situated equatorially or globally; if they are located distally, they
are referred to as a sulcus and an ulcus, respectively [11].

Fig. 1.5 Apertures (outlined by a red rectangle)

Pollen grains with porus are porate and those with colpus are
colpate. It is colporate if the pore and colpus are combined in the same
aperture. The prefixes mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa, and poly-
(>6) with the terms porate, colpate, or colporate indicate the number of
apertures [22]. For instance, a tetracolpate pollen grain is one with four
elongated apertures located equatorially. The accurate aperture
number of a pollen grain could be established from the polar view since
the number of apertures present is not always visible in the equatorial
view.
Pollen grains with apertures situated equatorially may be generally
referred to as zonoaperturate (or stephanoaperturate), as in
zonoporate or zonocolpate. If an aperture distrubutes globally on the
pollen grain surface, it is named pantoaperturate (e.g., pantoporate,
pantocolpate) [6, 11, 12].
On the aperture, there is a layer called the aperture membrane that
is a constituent of the exine. The aperture membrane could be
ornamented (covered with various exine elements) or smooth (psilate)
[6]. The pollen of some plant taxa has a cover (partially or completely)
on the aperture membrane and this is called the “operculum”. The
operculum essentially corresponds to a thick exine layer covering the
aperture [12].
Apertures may be surrounded by a zone that varies in thickness or
ornamentation; these are termed as margo (around colpus) and
annulus (around porus) [6, 12].

1.4 Botanical Preferences of Bees

The most important stage in the reproduction and survival of plants is
“pollination”, which is defined as the transfer of pollen from the anther
of a flower onto the stigma of a same (self-pollination) or different
(cross-pollination) flower. Pollination plays a vital role in maintaining
the natural balance of ecosystems [1]. In most of the plants (80%),
pollination depends on the transport of pollen by insects. Among the
insects that provide pollination, the bee plays a decisive role. Flower
visiting performance of bees is directly related to pollination
performance [30]. It has been reported that bees have varying degrees
of effectiveness on crop quality and productivity of different plants such
as apple (Malus domestica L.), coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), watermelon
(Citrullus lanatus Thunb.), tart cherry (Prunus cerasus L.), cape
gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.), sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.),
almond (Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb), avocado (Persea americana
Mill.), passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims. f. flavicarpa Deg), citrus
(Citrus sinensis L.), mango (Mangifera indica L.), guava (Psidium guajava
L.), strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa DUCH), kiwifruit (Actinidia
deliciosa (A.Chev.) C.F.Liang & A.R.Ferguson), pear (Pyrus communis L.),
cranberries (Vaccinium oxycoccos L.), cucumbers (Cucumis sativus L.),
sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum
L.), anise (Pimpinella anisum L.), black seed (Nigella sativa L.), cumin
(Cuminum cyminum L.), sunflowers (Helianthus annuus L.), coriander
(Coriandrum sativum L.), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), pumpkins
(Cucurbita maxima L.), soyabean (Glycine max L.), sesame (Sesamum
indicum L.), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), red clover seed
(Trifolium pratense L.) legume, pineland golden trumpet (Angadenia
berteroi (A.DC.) Miers), mustard (Brassica juncea L.), green grams
(Vigna radiate L.) and bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranean L.),
coffee (Coffea arabica L.), acai palm (Euterpe oleracea Martius) and
oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) [28]. The fact that bees stay away from
such plants causes these plants to not reach the fruit and seed
development stages [30].
In addition, the botanic source of honey, which is a bee product, is
determined by pollen analysis. Honey varies considerably in terms of
taste, aroma, color, and bioactive properties depending on the botanical
content, although the overall composition is similar [31]. Honeys with
specific botanical and geographic origins have grown in popularity in
recent years as customers’ concerns about food quality, accurate
labelling, and traceability have grown. Melissopalynological analysis is
the most essential method for identifying the botanical and geographic
origins of honey. Melissopalynological analyses are based on the
identification of pollen in honey by microscopic observation of its
morphological characteristics [19, 32]. Each pollen grain from different
types of plants has a unique morphology that enables microscopic
identification of them. The morphological characters such as shape and
size of the pollen grain, the number, location and arrangement of
apertures, the structure of the exine layer, surface ornamentations and
color are used to identify pollen in honey [33]. Diagnoses could be
made through several taxonomic ranks, such as family, genus, or
species, depending on how well the specific characteristics of pollen
grains could be seen under a light microscope. Therefore, these
analyses require expertise and in-depth knowledge and are also time-
consuming [32, 34–36]. The history of melissopalynological analysis
dates back to 1895, when Pfister showed that pollen found in honey can
be used to determine the geographic origin [37]. Although a few more
researchers conducted studies after Pfister, it took 50–60 years for the
microscopic analysis of honey to develop. Honey naturally contains a
large amount of pollen. During the visit of the bees to the flowers to
collect nectar, the pollen is carried to the hive by mixing with the nectar
and sticking to the body parts of the bee. Therefore, pollens in honey
are important indicators that allow us to obtain direct information
about the nectar composition of honey, the flora of the region where it
is produced, and the nutritional ecology of honey bees.
As a result of melissopalynological analyzes performed on honey
produced in different regions in different scientific reports presented in
the literature, pollen types of plants belonging to families Asteraceae,
Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Boraginaceae, Apiaceae, Brassicaceae and
Rosaceae were frequently encountered in honey samples, which is an
indication that plants belonging to these families are visited by bees as
nectar sources [38–43]. However, plants with dominant honey
production potential and pollen production potential can be counted
among the species frequently visited by bees. Some of these plants are
presented in Table 1.1.
In addition to melissopalynological analyzes, researches carried out
for the last few years to determine the plant origin of pollen grains in
bee pollen and honey have been carried out using molecular-based
methods [44–47]. In this way, a method is used in which more reliable
results are obtained in a shorter time compared to
melissopalynological analyses [48, 49]. However, both the results
obtained by the molecular method and the results obtained by the
melissopalynological method support each other, and these results
show that bees prefer certain plant species as nectar and pollen sources
[50]. In this way, by using both melissopalynological and molecular
methods, the products collected by the bee from the plant, especially
bee pollen and pollen grains in honey, can be identified and the plants
visited by the bees can be defined in detail.
Table 1.1 Some plants with dominant honey and pollen production potential [51]

Plants with dominant honey Plants with dominant pollen

production potential production potential
Arbutus andrachne L. Brassica napus L.
Arbutus unedo L. Brassica oleracea L.
Arctium minus (Hill) Bernh. Carum carvi L.
Brassica napus L. Castane sativa Miller
Plants with dominant honey
production potential
Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull
Cardus nutans L.
Castane sativa Miller
Centaurea triumfetti All.
Ceratonia siliqua L.
Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.
Citrus limonia (L.) Burn. Fil.
Cistrus nobilis Lour.
Citrus paradisii Macfad.
Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck
Coronilla varia L.
Daucus carota L.
Diospyros kaki L. F.
Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC.
Echium italicum L.
Echium plantagineum L.
Echium vulgare L.
Erica arborea L.
Eriobotrya japonica Lindley
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn.
Hedera helix L.
Hedysarum varium Wild.
Helianthus annuus L.
Helianthus tuberusus L.
Lotus corniculatus L.
Malus sylvestris Mill.
Medicago sativa L.
Plants with dominant pollen
production potential
Cistus criticus L.
Cistus salvifolius L.
Cistus laurifolius L.
Citrus limonia (L.) Burn. Fil.
Cistrus nobilis Lour.
Citrus paradisii Macfad.
Cornus mas L.
Crepis foetida L.
Daucus carota L.
Diospyros kaki L. F.
Diospyros lotus L.
Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC.
Erica arborea L.
Erica manipuliflora Salisb.
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn.
Hedera helix L.
Hedysarum varium Wild.
Lythrum salicaria L.
Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.
Papaver hybridum L.
Papaver somniferum L.
Phacelia tanacetifolia Bentham
Quercus robur L.
Rubus canescens DC.
Rubus idaeus L.
Salix alba L.
Salix caprea L.
Plants with dominant honey Plants with dominant pollen
production potential production potential
Medicago varia Martyn Salix fragilis L.
Myosotis alpestris F.W.Schimidt Salix triandra L.
Onobrychis viciifolia Scop. Taraxacum officinale Weber
Paliurus spina-christi Miller Trifolium campestre Schreb.
Phacelia tanacetifolia Bentham Trifolium hybridum L.
Pyrus communis L. Trifolium pratense L.
Rhododendron ponticum L. Trifolium repens L.
Robinia pseudoacacia L. Verbascum phlomoides L.
Rosmarinus officinalis L.
Rubus canescens DC.
Rubus idaeus L.
Salix alba L.
Salix caprea L.
Salix fragilis L.
Salix triandra L.
Salvia officinalis L.
Salvia pratensis L.
Salvia verbenaca L.
Salvia verticillate L.
Solidago virgaurea L.
Stachys annua L.
Taraxacum officinale Weber
Thymus longicaulis C. Presl.
Thymus praecox Opiz
Tilia plantyphyllos Scop.
Trifolium campestre Schreb.
Trifolium pratense L.
Plants with dominant honey Plants with dominant pollen
production potential production potential
Trifolium repens L.
Vicia cracca L.

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 VERY GOOD EGG SAUCE.

Boil four fresh eggs for quite fifteen minutes, then lay them into
plenty of fresh water, and let them remain until they are perfectly
cold. Break the shells by rolling them on a table, take them off,
separate the whites from the yolks, and divide all of the latter into
quarter-inch dice; mince two of the whites tolerably small, mix them
lightly, and stir them into the third of a pint of rich melted butter or of
white sauce: serve the whole as hot as possible.
Eggs, 4: boiled 15 minutes, left till cold. The yolks of all, whites of
2; third of pint of good melted butter or white sauce. Salt as needed.
 SAUCE OF TURKEYS’ EGGS.

(Excellent.)
The eggs of the turkey make a sauce much superior to those of
the common fowl. They should be gently boiled in plenty of water for
twenty minutes. The yolks of three, and the whites of one and a half,
will make a very rich sauce if prepared by the directions of the
foregoing receipt. The eggs of the guinea fowl also may be
converted into a similar sauce with ten minutes’ boiling. Their
delicate size will render it necessary to increase the number taken
for it.
 COMMON EGG SAUCE.

Boil a couple of eggs hard, and when quite cold cut the whites and
yolks separately; mix them well, put them into a very hot tureen, and
pour boiling to them a quarter of a pint of melted butter, stir, and
serve the sauce immediately.
Whole eggs, 2; melted butter, 1/4 pint.
 EGG SAUCE FOR CALF’S HEAD.

This is a provincial sauce, served sometimes with fish, and with

calf’s head likewise. Thicken to the proper consistence with flour and
butter some good pale veal gravy, throw into it when it boils from one
to two large teaspoonsful of minced parsley, add a slight squeeze of
lemon-juice, a little cayenne, and then the eggs.
Veal gravy, 1/2 pint; flour, 1-1/2 oz.; butter, 2 oz.; minced parsley, 1
dessertspoonful; lemon-juice, 1 teaspoonful; little cayenne; eggs, 3
to 4.
 ENGLISH WHITE SAUCE.

Boil softly in half a pint of well-flavoured pale veal gravy a few very
thin strips of fresh lemon-rind, for just sufficient time to give their
flavour to it; stir in a thickening of arrow-root, or of flour and butter,
add salt if needed, and mix with the gravy a quarter of a pint of
boiling cream. For the best kind of white sauce, see béchamel, page
107.
Good pale veal gravy, 1/2 pint; third of 1 lemon-rind: 15 to 20
minutes. Freshly pounded mace, third of saltspoonful; butter, 1 to 2
oz.; flour, 1 teaspoonful (or arrow-root an equal quantity); cream, 1/4
pint.
 VERY COMMON WHITE SAUCE.

The neck and the feet of a fowl, nicely cleaned, and stewed down
in half a pint of water, until it is reduced to less than a quarter of a
pint, with a thin strip or two of lemon-rind, a small blade of mace, a
small branch or two of parsley, a little salt, and half a dozen corns of
pepper, then strained, thickened, and flavoured by the preceding
receipt, and mixed with something more than half the quantity of
cream, will answer for this sauce extremely well; and if it be added,
when made, to the liver of the chicken, previously boiled for six
minutes in the gravy, then bruised to a smooth paste, and passed
through a sieve, an excellent liver sauce. A little strained lemon-juice
is generally added to it when it is ready to serve: it should be stirred
very briskly in.
 DUTCH SAUCE.

Put into a small saucepan the yolks of three fresh eggs, the juice
of a large lemon, three ounces of butter, a little salt and nutmeg, and
a wineglassful of water. Hold the saucepan over a clear fire, and
keep the sauce stirred until it nearly boils: a little cayenne may be
added. The safest way of making all sauces that will curdle by being
allowed to boil, is to put them into a jar, and to set the jar over the fire
in a saucepan of boiling water, and then to stir the ingredients
constantly until the sauce is thickened sufficiently to serve.
Yolks of eggs, 3; juice, 1 lemon; butter, 3 oz.; little salt and nutmeg;
water, 1 wineglassful; cayenne at pleasure.
Obs.—A small cupful of veal gravy, mixed with plenty of blanched
and chopped parsley, may be used instead of water for this sauce,
when it is to be served with boiled veal, or with calf’s head.
 FRICASSEE SAUCE.

Stir briskly, but by degrees, to the well-beaten yolks of two large or

of three small fresh eggs, half a pint of common English white sauce;
put it again into the saucepan, give it a shake over the fire, but be
extremely careful not to allow it to boil, and just before it is served stir
in a dessertspoonful of strained lemon-juice. When meat or chickens
are fricasseed, they should be lifted from the saucepan with a slice,
drained on it from the sauce, and laid into a very hot dish before the
eggs are added, and when these are just set, the sauce should be
poured on them.
 BREAD SAUCE.

Pour quite boiling, on half a pint of the finest bread-crumbs, an

equal measure of new milk; cover them closely with a plate, and let
the sauce remain for twenty or thirty minutes; put it then into a
delicately clean saucepan, with a small saltspoonful of salt, half as
much pounded mace, a little cayenne, and about an ounce of fresh
butter; keep it stirred constantly over a clear fire for a few minutes,
then mix with it a couple of spoonsful of good cream, give it a boil,
and serve it immediately. When cream is not to be had, an additional
spoonful or two of milk must be used. The bread used for sauce
should be stale, and lightly grated down into extremely small crumbs,
or the preparation will look rough when sent to table. Not only the
crust, but all heavy-looking or imperfectly baked portions of it, should
be entirely pared off, and it should be pressed against the grater only
so much as will reduce it easily into crumbs. When stale bread
cannot be procured, the new should be sliced thin, or broken up
small, and beaten quite smooth with a fork after it has been soaked.
As some will absorb more liquid than others, the cook must increase
a little the above proportion should it be needed. Equal parts of milk
and of thin cream make an excellent bread sauce: more butter can
be used to enrich it when it is liked.
Bread-crumbs and new milk, each 1/2 pint (or any other measure);
soaked 20 to 30 minutes, or more. Salt, small saltspoonful; mace,
half as much; little cayenne; butter, 1 oz.; boiled 4 to 5 minutes. 2 to
4 spoonsful of good cream (or milk): 1 minute. Or: bread-crumbs, 1/2
pint; milk and cream, each 1/4 pint; and from 2 to 4 spoonsful of
either in addition.
Obs.—Very pale, strong veal gravy is sometimes poured on the
bread-crumbs, instead of milk; and these, after being soaked, are
boiled extremely dry, and then brought to the proper consistence
with rich cream. The gravy may be highly flavoured with mushrooms
when this is done.
 BREAD SAUCE WITH ONION.

Put into a very clean saucepan nearly half a pint of fine bread-
crumbs, and the white part of a large mild onion cut into quarters;
pour to these three-quarters of a pint of new milk, and boil them very
gently, keeping them often stirred until the onion is perfectly tender,
which will be in from forty minutes to an hour. Press the whole
through a hair-sieve, which should be as clean as possible; reduce
the sauce by quick boiling should it be too thin; add a seasoning of
salt and grated nutmeg, an ounce of butter, and four spoonsful of
cream; and when it is of a proper thickness, dish, and send it quickly
to table.
Bread-crumbs, nearly 1/2 pint; white part of 1 large mild onion;
new milk, 3/4 pint: 40 to 60 minutes. Seasoning of salt and grated
nutmeg; butter, 1 oz.; cream, 4 tablespoonsful: to be boiled till of a
proper consistence.
Obs.—This is an excellent sauce for those who like a subdued
flavour of onion in it; but as many persons object to any, the cook
should ascertain whether it be liked before she follows this receipt.
 COMMON LOBSTER SAUCE.

Add to half a pint of good melted butter a tablespoonful of essence

of anchovies, a small half-saltspoonful of freshly pounded mace, and
less than a quarter one of cayenne. If a couple of spoonsful of cream
should be at hand, stir them to the sauce when it boils; then put in
the flesh of the tail and claws of a small lobster cut into dice (or any
other form) of equal size. Keep the saucepan by the side of the fire
until the fish is quite heated through, but do not let the sauce boil
again: serve it very hot. A small quantity can be made on occasion
with the remains of a lobster which has been served at table.
Melted butter, 1/2 pint; essence of anchovies, 1 tablespoonful;
pounded mace, small 1/2 saltspoonful; less than 1/4 one of cayenne;
cream (if added), 2 tablespoonsful; flesh of small lobster.
 GOOD LOBSTER SAUCE.

Select for this a perfectly fresh hen lobster; split the tail carefully,
and take out the inside coral; pound half of it in a mortar very
smoothly with less than an ounce of butter, rub it through a hair-
sieve, and put it aside. Cut the firm flesh of the fish into dice of not
less than half an inch in size; and when these are ready, make as
much good melted butter as will supply the quantity of sauce
required for table, and if to be served with a turbot or other large fish
to a numerous company, let it be plentifully provided. Season it
slightly with essence of anchovies, and well with cayenne, mace,
and salt; add to it a few spoonsful of rich cream, and then mix a
small portion of it very gradually with the pounded coral; when this is
sufficiently liquefied pour it into the sauce, and stir the whole well
together; put in immediately the flesh of the fish, and heat the sauce
thoroughly by the side of the fire without allowing it to boil, for if it
should do so its fine colour would be destroyed. The whole of the
coral may be used for the sauce when no portion of it is required for
other purposes.
 CRAB SAUCE.

The flesh of a fresh well-conditioned crab of moderate size is more

tender and delicate than that of a lobster, and may be converted into
an excellent fish sauce. Divide it into small flakes, and add it to some
good melted butter, which has been flavoured as for either of the
sauces above. A portion of the cream contained in the fish may first
be smoothly mingled with the sauce.
 GOOD OYSTER SAUCE.

At the moment they are wanted for use, open three dozen of fine
plump native oysters; save carefully and strain their liquor, rinse
them separately in it, put them into a very clean saucepan, strain the
liquor again, and pour it to them; heat them slowly, and keep them
from one to two minutes at the simmering point, without allowing
them to boil, as that will render them hard. Lift them out and beard
them neatly; add to the liquor three ounces of butter smoothly mixed
with a large dessertspoonful of flour; stir these without ceasing until
they boil, and are perfectly mixed; then add to them gradually a
quarter of a pint, or rather more, of new milk, or of thin cream (or
equal parts of both), and continue the stirring until the sauce boils
again; add a little salt, should it be needed, and a small quantity of
cayenne in the finest powder; put in the oysters, and keep the
saucepan by the side of the fire until the whole is thoroughly hot and
begins to simmer, then turn the sauce into a well-heated tureen, and
send it immediately to table.
Small plump oysters, 3 dozen; butter, 3 oz.; flour, 1 large
dessertspoonful; the oyster liquor; milk or cream, full 1/4 pint; little
salt and cayenne.
 COMMON OYSTER SAUCE.

Prepare and plump two dozen of oysters as directed in the receipt

above; add their strained liquor to a quarter of a pint of thick melted
butter made with milk, or with half milk and half water; stir the whole
until it boils, put in the oysters, and when they are quite heated
through send the sauce to table without delay. Some persons like a
little cayenne and essence of anchovies added to it when it is served
with fish; others prefer the unmixed flavour of the oysters.
Oysters, 2 dozens; their liquor; melted butter, 1/4 pint. (Little
cayenne and 1 dessertspoonful of essence of anchovies when liked.)
 SHRIMP SAUCE.

The fish for this sauce should be very fresh. Shell quickly one pint
of shrimps and mix them with half a pint of melted butter, to which a
few drops of essence of anchovies and a little mace and cayenne
have been added. As soon as the shrimps are heated through, dish,
and serve the sauce, which ought not to boil after they are put in.
Many persons add a few spoonsful of rich cream to all shell-fish
sauces. Shrimps, 1 pint; melted butter, 1/2 pint; essence of
anchovies, 1 teaspoonful; mace, 1/4 teaspoonful; cayenne, very
little.
 ANCHOVY SAUCE.

To half a pint of good melted butter add three dessertspoonsful of

essence of anchovies, a quarter of a teaspoonful of mace, and a
rather high seasoning of cayenne; or pound the flesh of two or three
fine mellow anchovies very smooth, mix it with the boiling butter,
simmer these for a minute or two, strain the sauce if needful, add the
spices, give it a boil, and serve it.
Melted butter, 1/2 pint; essence of anchovies, 3 dessertspoonsful;
mace, 1/4 teaspoonful; cayenne, to taste. Or, 3 large anchovies
finely pounded, and the same proportions of butter and spice.
 CREAM SAUCE FOR FISH.

Knead very smoothly together with a strong-bladed knife, a large

teaspoonful of flour with three ounces of good butter; stir them in a
very clean saucepan or stewpan over a gentle fire until the butter is
dissolved, then throw in a little salt and some cayenne, give the
whole one minute’s simmer, and add, very gradually, half a pint of
good cream; keep the sauce constantly stirred until it boils, then mix
with it a dessertspoonful of essence of anchovies, and half as much
chili vinegar or lemon-juice. The addition of shelled shrimps or
lobsters cut in dice, will convert this at once into a most excellent
sauce of either. Pounded mace may be added to it with the cayenne;
and it may be thinned with a few spoonsful of milk should it be too
thick. Omit the essence of anchovies, and mix with it some parsley
boiled very green and minced, and it becomes a good sauce for
poultry.
Butter, 3 oz.; flour, 1 large teaspoonful: 2 to 3 minutes. Cream, 1/2
pint; essence of anchovies, 1 large dessertspoonful (more if liked);
chili vinegar or lemon-juice, 1 teaspoonful; salt, 1/4 saltspoonful.
 SHARP MAÎTRE D’HÔTEL SAUCE.

(English Receipt.)
For a rich sauce of this kind, mix a dessertspoonful of flour with
four ounces of good butter, but with from two to three ounces only for
common occasions; knead them together until they resemble a
smooth paste, then proceed exactly as for the sauce above, but
substitute good pale veal gravy, or strong, pure-flavoured veal broth,
or shin of beef stock (which if well made has little colour), for the
cream; and when these have boiled for two or three minutes, stir in a
tablespoonful of common vinegar and one of chili vinegar, with as
much cayenne as will flavour the sauce well, and some salt, should it
be needed; throw in from two to three dessertspoonsful of finely-
minced parsley, give the whole a boil, and it will be ready to serve. A
tablespoonful of mushroom catsup or of Harvey’s sauce may be
added with the vinegar when the colour of the sauce is immaterial. It
may be served with boiled calf’s head, or with boiled eels with good
effect; and various kinds of cold meat and fish may be re-warmed for
table in it, as we have directed in another part of this volume. With a
little more flour, and a flavouring of essence of anchovies, it will
make, without the parsley, an excellent sauce for these last, when
they are first dressed.
Butter, 2 to 4 oz.; flour, 1 dessertspoonful; pale veal gravy or
strong broth, or shin of beef stock, 1/2 pint; cayenne; salt, if needed;
common vinegar, 1 tablespoonful; chili vinegar, 1 tablespoonful.
(Catsup or Harvey’s sauce, according to circumstances.)
 FRENCH MAÎTRE D’HÔTEL,[55] OR STEWARD’S SAUCE.
55. The Maître d’Hôtel is, properly, the House Steward.

Add to half a pint of rich, pale veal gravy, well thickened with the
white roux of page 108, a good seasoning of pepper, salt, minced
parsley, and lemon-juice; or make the thickening with a small
tablespoonful of flour, and a couple of ounces of butter; keep these
stirred constantly over a very gentle fire from ten to fifteen minutes,
then pour the gravy to them boiling, in small portions, mixing the
whole well as it is added, and letting it boil up between each, for
unless this be done the butter will be likely to float upon the surface.
Simmer the sauce for a few minutes, and skim it well, then add salt
should it be needed, a tolerable seasoning of pepper or of cayenne
in fine powder, from two to three teaspoonsful of minced parsley, and
the strained juice of a small lemon. For some dishes, this sauce is
thickened with the yolks of eggs, about four to the pint. The French
work into their sauces generally a small bit of fresh butter just before
they are taken from the fire, to give them mellowness: this is done
usually for the Maître d’Hôtel Sauce.