Practical Civil Engineering 1st Edition

Jayasree P K Balan K Rani V

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Practical Civil Engineering
Practical Civil Engineering

P.K. Jayasree, K Balan and V Rani

First edition published 2021
by CRC Press
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Contents
Authors ...................................................................................................................................................................................xxxix

Chapter 1 Introduction to Civil Engineering ........................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Scope of Civil Engineering .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Responsibilities and Role of a Civil Engineer .............................................................................................. 1
1.3 History of Civil Engineering ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.4 Branches of Civil Engineering ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.1 Structural Engineering .................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.2 Building Construction ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.3 Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering..................................................................................... 3
1.4.4 Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering ................................................................................. 4
1.4.5 Environmental Engineering ............................................................................................................ 4
1.4.6 Transportation Engineering ............................................................................................................ 4
1.4.7 Construction Technology and Management .................................................................................... 5
1.4.8 Earthquake Engineering ................................................................................................................. 5
1.4.9 Materials Engineering ..................................................................................................................... 5
1.4.10 Urban and Municipal Engineering .................................................................................................. 5
1.4.11 Town Planning................................................................................................................................. 5
1.4.12 Coastal Engineering ........................................................................................................................ 5
1.4.13 Surveying......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.4.14 Photogrammetry and Mapping ....................................................................................................... 6
1.4.15 Estimating and Costing ................................................................................................................... 6
1.5 Civil Engineering for Infrastructure Development of a Country ...................................................................... 6
1.6 Civil Engineering Structures ........................................................................................................................ 6
1.6.1 Building ........................................................................................................................................... 6
1.6.2 Bridges............................................................................................................................................. 7
1.6.3 Dams ............................................................................................................................................... 7
1.6.4 Roads ............................................................................................................................................... 8
1.6.5 Runways .......................................................................................................................................... 8
1.6.6 Railways .......................................................................................................................................... 8
1.6.7 Water Tanks..................................................................................................................................... 8
1.6.8 Retaining Walls ............................................................................................................................... 9
1.6.9 Towers ............................................................................................................................................. 9
1.6.10 Chimneys......................................................................................................................................... 9
1.6.11 Pipelines ........................................................................................................................................ 10
1.6.12 Canals ............................................................................................................................................ 10
1.7 Codes and Specifcations ............................................................................................................................ 10
1.7.1 Functions of Codes ........................................................................................................................ 11
1.7.2 ASTM International ...................................................................................................................... 11
1.7.3 British Standards ........................................................................................................................... 11
1.7.4 Eurocodes ...................................................................................................................................... 11
1.7.5 Australian Standards ..................................................................................................................... 11

Chapter 2 Units, Measurements, and Symbols ...................................................................................................................... 13

2.1 Systems of Measurements .......................................................................................................................... 13
2.1.1 The C.G.S. System ........................................................................................................................ 13
2.1.2 The M.K.S. System ....................................................................................................................... 13
2.1.3 The F.P.S. System .......................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 The S.I. System ........................................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.1 Fundamental Units ........................................................................................................................ 13
2.2.1.1 Meter .............................................................................................................................. 13

v
vi Contents

2.2.1.2 Kilogram........................................................................................................................ 13
2.2.1.3 Second............................................................................................................................ 13
2.2.2 Derived Units ................................................................................................................................ 13
2.3 Rules for SI Units ....................................................................................................................................... 14
2.4 Measures of Length .................................................................................................................................... 14
2.5 Measures of Weights .................................................................................................................................. 15
2.6 Measures of Surface Area .......................................................................................................................... 15
2.7 Cubic Measures .......................................................................................................................................... 15
2.8 Power, Work, Energy, and Heat .................................................................................................................. 16
2.8.1 Unit of Heat ................................................................................................................................... 16
2.8.2 Unit of Force.................................................................................................................................. 16

Chapter 3 Preliminary Mathematics ...................................................................................................................................... 19

3.1 Mathematical Signs, Symbols, and Abbreviations ..................................................................................... 19
3.2 Mensuration ................................................................................................................................................ 19
3.2.1 Mensuration of Areas .................................................................................................................... 19
3.2.1.1 Circle.............................................................................................................................. 19
3.2.1.2 Square ............................................................................................................................ 20
3.2.1.3 Triangle .......................................................................................................................... 20
3.2.1.4 Semicircle ...................................................................................................................... 20
3.2.1.5 Arc of a Circle ............................................................................................................... 20
3.2.1.6 Sector of a Circle ........................................................................................................... 21
3.2.1.7 Segment of a Circle........................................................................................................ 21
3.2.1.8 Polygons ......................................................................................................................... 21
3.2.2 Mensuration of Volumes ............................................................................................................... 22
3.2.2.1 Cube ............................................................................................................................... 22
3.2.2.2 Cuboid............................................................................................................................ 22
3.2.2.3 Pyramid ......................................................................................................................... 22
3.2.2.4 Circular Cone................................................................................................................. 22
3.2.2.5 Wedge ............................................................................................................................ 22
3.2.2.6 Sphere ............................................................................................................................ 23
3.2.2.7 Hemisphere .................................................................................................................... 23
3.2.2.8 Spherical Sector ............................................................................................................. 23
3.2.2.9 Spherical Zone ............................................................................................................... 23
3.2.2.10 Spherical Wedge ............................................................................................................ 24
3.2.2.11 Hollow Sphere or Spherical Shell .................................................................................. 24
3.2.2.12 Cylindrical Ring or Torus .............................................................................................. 24
3.3 Algebraic Formulae .................................................................................................................................... 25
3.3.1 Exponent Rules.............................................................................................................................. 25
3.3.2 Powers of Ten ................................................................................................................................ 25
3.3.3 Simple Algebra .............................................................................................................................. 25
3.3.4 Formulae for Abridged Multiplication .......................................................................................... 25
3.3.5 Quadratic Equations ...................................................................................................................... 26
3.3.6 Cubic Equations ............................................................................................................................ 26
3.4 Trigonometry .............................................................................................................................................. 26
3.4.1 Trigonometric Functions ............................................................................................................... 26
3.4.2 Trigonometric Relations ................................................................................................................ 27
3.4.3 Functions of the Sum and Differences of Two Angles.................................................................. 27
3.4.4 Functions of ½ A ........................................................................................................................... 27
3.4.5 Functions of 2A ............................................................................................................................. 27
3.4.6 Products and Powers of Functions ................................................................................................ 27
3.4.7 Sums and Differences of Functions .............................................................................................. 28
3.4.8 Rule for the Change of Trigonometrical Ratios ............................................................................ 28
3.5 Solution of Triangles .................................................................................................................................. 28
3.5.1 Relation between Angles and Sides of Plane Triangles ................................................................ 28
3.5.1.1 Law of Sines .................................................................................................................. 28
Contents vii

3.5.1.2 Law of Cosines .............................................................................................................. 29

3.6 Matrix ......................................................................................................................................................... 29
3.6.1 Transpose of a Matrix ................................................................................................................... 29
3.6.2 Types of Matrix ............................................................................................................................. 29
3.6.2.1 Square Matrix ................................................................................................................ 29
3.6.2.2 Rectangular Matrix........................................................................................................ 30
3.6.2.3 Null Matrix or Zero Matrix ........................................................................................... 30
3.6.2.4 Triangular Matrix .......................................................................................................... 30
3.6.2.5 Diagonal Matrix............................................................................................................. 30
3.6.2.6 Scalar Matrix ................................................................................................................. 30
3.6.2.7 Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix ...................................................................................... 30
3.6.2.8 Row Matrix .................................................................................................................... 30
3.6.2.9 Column Matrix .............................................................................................................. 30
3.6.2.10 Nilpotent Matrix ............................................................................................................ 30
3.6.2.11 Symmetrical Matrix ...................................................................................................... 30
3.6.2.12 Skew Symmetrical Matrix ............................................................................................. 31
3.6.2.13 Orthogonal Matrix ......................................................................................................... 31
3.6.3 Submatrix ...................................................................................................................................... 31
3.6.4 Determinant of a Matrix ............................................................................................................... 31
3.6.5 Minor of a Matrix.......................................................................................................................... 31
3.6.6 Cofactor of a Matrix ...................................................................................................................... 31
3.6.7 Adjoint of a Matrix ........................................................................................................................ 31
3.6.8 Equality of Two Matrices .............................................................................................................. 31
3.6.9 Matrix Operations ......................................................................................................................... 31
3.6.9.1 Matrix Addition ............................................................................................................. 31
3.6.9.2 Matrix Multiplication .................................................................................................... 32
3.6.9.3 Inverse of a Matrix ........................................................................................................ 32
3.7 Calculus ...................................................................................................................................................... 32
3.7.1 Limits ............................................................................................................................................ 32
3.7.1.1 Functions of Single-Variable Limits .............................................................................. 32
3.7.1.2 Right Hand and Left Hand Limits ................................................................................. 32
3.7.1.3 Theorems on Limits....................................................................................................... 32
3.7.1.4 Some Useful Limits ....................................................................................................... 32
3.7.1.5 L’Hospital’s Rule ............................................................................................................ 32
3.7.2 Differentiability ............................................................................................................................. 32
3.7.2.1 Rules of Differentiation ................................................................................................. 32
3.7.2.2 Some Standard Derivatives............................................................................................ 33
3.7.2.3 Differentiation by Substitution ...................................................................................... 33
3.7.2.4 Mean Value Theorems ................................................................................................... 33
3.7.2.5 Partial Derivatives ......................................................................................................... 33
3.7.3 Integration ..................................................................................................................................... 34
3.7.3.1 Some Standard Integrations........................................................................................... 34
3.7.3.2 Defnite Integral ............................................................................................................. 34
3.7.3.3 Improper Integral ........................................................................................................... 35
3.7.3.4 Multiple Integrals........................................................................................................... 35
3.7.3.5 Change of Order of Integration ..................................................................................... 36
3.7.3.6 Triple Integrals............................................................................................................... 36
3.7.4 Fourier Series ................................................................................................................................ 36
3.7.4.1 Dirichlet’s Condition ..................................................................................................... 36
3.7.4.2 Fourier Series in the Interval (a, b)................................................................................ 36
3.7.5 Series ............................................................................................................................................. 36
3.7.5.1 Sequences ...................................................................................................................... 36
3.7.5.2 Series.............................................................................................................................. 36
3.7.5.3 Series Tests .................................................................................................................... 37
3.7.6 Vector ............................................................................................................................................ 37
3.7.6.1 Unit Vector ..................................................................................................................... 37
3.7.6.2 Null Vector..................................................................................................................... 37
viii Contents

3.7.6.3 Product of Two Vectors ................................................................................................. 37

3.7.6.4 Differentiation of Vector................................................................................................ 37
3.7.6.5 Vector Calculus .............................................................................................................. 37
3.7.6.6 Divergence ..................................................................................................................... 38
3.7.6.7 Curl ................................................................................................................................ 38
3.7.7 Line Integral .................................................................................................................................. 38
3.7.8 Surfaces ......................................................................................................................................... 39
3.7.8.1 Smooth Surfaces ............................................................................................................ 39
3.7.8.2 Orientable and Nonorientable Surfaces ......................................................................... 39
3.7.8.3 Surface Integral ............................................................................................................. 39
3.7.8.4 Flux across a Surface ..................................................................................................... 39
3.7.9 Volume Integral ............................................................................................................................. 39
3.7.10 Stroke’s Theorem........................................................................................................................... 40
3.7.11 Green Theorem ............................................................................................................................. 40
3.7.12 Gauss’s Divergence Theorem (Relation between Surface and Volume Integrals) ........................ 40

Chapter 4 Engineering Mechanics ......................................................................................................................................... 41

4.1 Statics of Particle: Forces on a Plane.......................................................................................................... 41
4.1.1 Types of System of Forces............................................................................................................. 41
4.1.1.1 Coplanar Force System .................................................................................................. 41
4.1.1.2 Concurrent Force System............................................................................................... 41
4.1.1.3 Collinear Force System ................................................................................................. 41
4.1.1.4 Parallel Force System .................................................................................................... 41
4.1.2 Resultant of Forces ........................................................................................................................ 41
4.1.2.1 Parallelogram Law of Forces ......................................................................................... 42
4.1.2.2 Triangle Law of Forces .................................................................................................. 42
4.1.2.3 Polygon Law of Forces .................................................................................................. 42
4.1.2.4 Resultant of Coplanar Concurrent Force Systems ......................................................... 43
4.1.3 Equilibrium of Coplanar Forces.................................................................................................... 43
4.1.3.1 Lami’s Theorem ............................................................................................................. 43
4.1.3.2 Conditions for the Equilibrium of Coplanar Concurrent Force Systems ...................... 43
4.2 Moment of a Force...................................................................................................................................... 43
4.2.1 Varignon’s Theorem ...................................................................................................................... 44
4.3 Couple ......................................................................................................................................................... 44
4.4 Statics of Particle: Noncoplanar Concurrent Forces in Space .................................................................... 44
4.4.1 Resultant of Concurrent Force Systems in Space ......................................................................... 45
4.4.2 Equilibrium of Concurrent Space Forces ...................................................................................... 45
4.5 Statics of Rigid Body: Nonconcurrent, Coplanar Forces on a Plane Rigid Body ...................................... 45
4.5.1 Conditions of Equilibrium of Coplanar Nonconcurrent Force Systems ....................................... 45
4.5.2 Free Body Diagram ....................................................................................................................... 45
4.5.3 Principle of Transmissibility ......................................................................................................... 46
4.5.4 Principle of Superposition of Forces ............................................................................................. 46
4.6 Types of Supports ....................................................................................................................................... 46
4.6.1 Roller Supports .............................................................................................................................. 46
4.6.2 Hinged Supports ............................................................................................................................ 46
4.6.3 Fixed Supports .............................................................................................................................. 46
4.6.4 Pinned Supports ............................................................................................................................ 47
4.7 Types of Beams .......................................................................................................................................... 47
4.7.1 Simply Supported Beam................................................................................................................ 47
4.7.2 Fixed Beam ................................................................................................................................... 47
4.7.3 Cantilever Beam............................................................................................................................ 47
4.7.4 Continuously Supported Beam...................................................................................................... 47
4.7.5 Overhanging Beams ...................................................................................................................... 47
4.8 Types of Loads ........................................................................................................................................... 48
4.8.1 Point Loads .................................................................................................................................... 48
4.8.2 Uniformly Distributed Load.......................................................................................................... 48
Contents ix

4.8.3 Uniformly Varying Load............................................................................................................... 48

4.8.4 Support Reactions ......................................................................................................................... 48
4.9 Friction ....................................................................................................................................................... 48
4.9.1 Static Friction ................................................................................................................................ 48
4.9.2 Kinetic Friction/Dynamic Friction ............................................................................................... 48
4.9.2.1 Sliding Friction .............................................................................................................. 48
4.9.2.2 Rolling friction .............................................................................................................. 48
4.9.3 Laws of Friction ............................................................................................................................ 49
4.9.3.1 Law 1 ............................................................................................................................. 49
4.9.3.2 Law 2 ............................................................................................................................. 49
4.9.3.3 Law 3 ............................................................................................................................. 49
4.9.3.4 Law 4 ............................................................................................................................. 49
4.9.3.5 Law 5 ............................................................................................................................. 49
4.9.4 Coeffcient of Friction ................................................................................................................... 49
4.9.5 Calculation of Frictional Force on a Body .................................................................................... 49
4.9.6 Angle of Friction ........................................................................................................................... 49
4.9.7 Angle of Repose ............................................................................................................................ 50
4.9.8 Cone of Friction............................................................................................................................. 50
4.9.9 Wedge Friction .............................................................................................................................. 50
4.9.10 Ladder Friction .............................................................................................................................. 50
4.10 Properties of Surfaces and Solids ............................................................................................................... 51
4.10.1 Center of Gravity ........................................................................................................................... 51
4.10.2 Centroid ......................................................................................................................................... 51
4.10.3 Axis of Reference .......................................................................................................................... 51
4.10.4 Axis of Symmetry ......................................................................................................................... 51
4.10.5 CG of Solid Bodies........................................................................................................................ 51
4.10.6 Centroid of Area ............................................................................................................................ 51
4.10.7 Theorems of Pappus–Guldinus ..................................................................................................... 52
4.10.7.1 Theorem1 ....................................................................................................................... 52
4.10.7.2 Theorem 2...................................................................................................................... 52
4.10.8 Moment of Inertia.......................................................................................................................... 53
4.10.8.1 Radius of Gyration......................................................................................................... 53
4.10.8.2 Perpendicular Axis Theorem......................................................................................... 53
4.10.8.3 Parallel Axis Theorem ................................................................................................... 53
4.10.8.4 Moment of Inertia of Composite Areas ......................................................................... 54
4.10.9 Instantaneous Center ..................................................................................................................... 54
4.11 Kinetics of Particle ..................................................................................................................................... 54
4.11.1 Work .............................................................................................................................................. 54
4.11.1.1 Work Done by Friction Force ........................................................................................ 54
4.11.1.2 Work Done by a Spring ................................................................................................. 54
4.11.1.3 Work Done by Torque .................................................................................................... 55
4.11.1.4 Work Done by a Force on a Moving Body .................................................................... 55
4.11.1.5 Work Done by a Variable Force..................................................................................... 55
4.11.2 Power ............................................................................................................................................. 55
4.11.3 Energy ........................................................................................................................................... 55
4.11.3.1 Potential Energy ............................................................................................................ 55
4.11.3.2 Kinetic Energy ............................................................................................................... 55
4.11.4 Work-Energy Principle .................................................................................................................. 56
4.11.5 Impulse and Momentum ............................................................................................................... 56
4.11.5.1 Law of Conservation of Momentum .............................................................................. 56
4.11.6 Collision of Elastic Bodies ............................................................................................................ 56
4.11.6.1 Newton’s Law of Collision of Elastic Bodies ................................................................ 56
4.11.7 Types of collision .......................................................................................................................... 57
4.11.7.1 Direct Collision of Two Bodies ..................................................................................... 57
4.11.7.2 Direct Impact of a Body with a Fixed Plane ................................................................. 57
4.11.7.3 Indirect Impact of Two Bodies ...................................................................................... 57
4.11.7.4 Indirect Impact of a Body with a Fixed Plane ............................................................... 58
x Contents

4.12 Kinematics of a Particle ............................................................................................................................. 59

4.12.1 Plane Motion ................................................................................................................................. 59
4.12.1.1 Translation ..................................................................................................................... 59
4.12.1.2 Rotation.......................................................................................................................... 59
4.12.1.3 General Plane Motion .................................................................................................... 59
4.12.2 Kinetics of Rigid Bodies under Combined Translational and Rotational Motion ........................ 59
4.12.3 Principle of Conservation of Energy ............................................................................................. 59

Chapter 5 Mechanics of Structures and Their Analysis ........................................................................................................ 61

5.1 Simple Stress .............................................................................................................................................. 61
5.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 61
5.1.2 Stress ............................................................................................................................................. 61
5.1.3 Stress on an Oblique Plane Due to Axial Loading ....................................................................... 61
5.2 Simple Strain .............................................................................................................................................. 61
5.2.1 Stress–Strain Diagram .................................................................................................................. 62
5.2.1.1 Proportional Limit ......................................................................................................... 62
5.2.1.2 Elastic Limit .................................................................................................................. 63
5.2.1.3 Elastic and Plastic Ranges ............................................................................................. 63
5.2.1.4 Yield Point ..................................................................................................................... 63
5.2.1.5 Ultimate Strength .......................................................................................................... 63
5.2.1.6 Rupture Strength ............................................................................................................ 63
5.2.1.7 Modulus of Resilience ................................................................................................... 63
5.2.1.8 Modulus of Toughness ................................................................................................... 63
5.2.2 Axial Deformation ........................................................................................................................ 63
5.2.3 Shearing Deformation ................................................................................................................... 63
5.2.4 Poisson’s Ratio............................................................................................................................... 64
5.2.5 Biaxial Deformation ...................................................................................................................... 64
5.2.6 Triaxial Deformation ..................................................................................................................... 64
5.2.7 Thermal Stress .............................................................................................................................. 64
5.3 Statically Determinate Members ................................................................................................................ 65
5.3.1 Determinacy and Stability ............................................................................................................ 65
5.3.2 Statically Indeterminate Members ................................................................................................ 65
5.3.3 Truss Structures............................................................................................................................. 65
5.4 Relationship between Elastic Constants ..................................................................................................... 65
5.5 Principal Planes and Principal Stresses ..................................................................................................... 65
5.5.1 Principal Axis................................................................................................................................ 66
5.5.2 Maximum and Minimum Normal Stress ...................................................................................... 66
5.5.3 Maximum Shear Stress ................................................................................................................. 66
5.6 Mohr’s Circle Method................................................................................................................................. 66
5.6.1 Equation of the Mohr Circle.......................................................................................................... 67
5.7 Combined Stresses...................................................................................................................................... 67
5.7.1 Stresses Developed through Axial Load Combinations and Bending Moments .......................... 67
5.7.2 Direct Shear in Association with Torsion ..................................................................................... 67
5.7.3 Stresses Produced Due to Combined Action of Bending and Torsion .......................................... 68
5.8 Physical Properties of Materials and Their Measuring Parameters ........................................................... 68
5.8.1 Brittleness ...................................................................................................................................... 68
5.8.2 Ductility......................................................................................................................................... 68
5.8.3 Elasticity........................................................................................................................................ 68
5.8.4 Hardness ........................................................................................................................................ 68
5.8.5 Malleability ................................................................................................................................... 68
5.8.6 Modulus of Resilience................................................................................................................... 68
5.8.7 Plasticity ........................................................................................................................................ 69
5.8.8 Proof Resilience ............................................................................................................................ 69
5.8.9 Relative Density ............................................................................................................................ 69
5.8.10 Resilience ...................................................................................................................................... 69
5.8.11 Secant Modulus ............................................................................................................................. 69
Contents xi

5.8.12 Specifc Modulus of Elasticity ...................................................................................................... 69

5.8.13 Stiffness ......................................................................................................................................... 69
5.8.14 Tenacity ......................................................................................................................................... 69
5.8.15 Toughness ...................................................................................................................................... 69
5.9 Shear Forces and Bending Moments .......................................................................................................... 69
5.9.1 Transverse Loading ....................................................................................................................... 69
5.9.2 Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) .......................................... 69
5.9.3 Sign Convention ............................................................................................................................ 69
5.9.4 SFD and BMD for Different Cantilever and Simply Supported Beams ....................................... 70
5.9.5 Relation between Load, Shear, and Bending Moment .................................................................. 70
5.10 Bending Stresses in Beams ........................................................................................................................ 70
5.10.1 Assumptions in the Theory of Simple Bending ............................................................................ 70
5.10.2 Theory of Simple Bending ............................................................................................................ 73
5.10.3 Position of Neutral Axis ................................................................................................................ 74
5.10.4 Moment of Resistance ................................................................................................................... 74
5.10.5 Section Modulus ............................................................................................................................ 74
5.11 Shearing Stresses in Beams........................................................................................................................ 74
5.11.1 Shear Flow..................................................................................................................................... 77
5.11.2 Built-Up Beams ............................................................................................................................. 77
5.12 Defections .................................................................................................................................................. 77
5.12.1 Correlation between Slope, Defection, and Radius of Curvature ................................................ 77
5.12.2 Moment Area Method ................................................................................................................... 78
5.12.2.1 Sign Rules ...................................................................................................................... 78
5.12.3 Conjugate Beam Method ............................................................................................................... 80
5.13 Indeterminate Structures ............................................................................................................................ 80
5.13.1 Force Method ................................................................................................................................ 80
5.13.2 Displacement Method.................................................................................................................... 80
5.14 Fixed Beams ............................................................................................................................................... 81
5.14.1 Method of Superposition ............................................................................................................... 81
5.14.2 Double Integration Method ........................................................................................................... 81
5.14.3 Moment Area Method ................................................................................................................... 81
5.14.3.1 Mohr’s First Theorem (Mohr I) ..................................................................................... 82
5.14.3.2 Mohr’s Second Theorem (Mohr II) ............................................................................... 82
5.15 Continuous Beams ...................................................................................................................................... 82
5.15.1 Three-Moment Theorem ............................................................................................................... 82
5.16 Torsion ........................................................................................................................................................ 83
5.16.1 Terms Related to Torsion............................................................................................................... 83
5.16.1.1 Torsional Shearing Stress (τ) ......................................................................................... 83
5.16.1.2 Angle of Twist................................................................................................................ 83
5.16.1.3 Power Transmitted by the Shaft..................................................................................... 83
5.16.1.4 Equivalent Torque .......................................................................................................... 84
5.16.2 Composite Shafts........................................................................................................................... 84
5.16.2.1 Composite Shafts in Series ............................................................................................ 84
5.16.2.2 Composite Shafts in Parallel ......................................................................................... 85
5.16.3 Shaft Couplings ............................................................................................................................. 86
5.17 Thin Cylinders ............................................................................................................................................ 87
5.17.1 Failure of Thin Cylinders .............................................................................................................. 87
5.17.2 Applications of Thin Cylinders ..................................................................................................... 87
5.17.3 Thin Cylinders Subjected to Internal Pressure ............................................................................. 87
5.17.3.1 Hoop Stress on Thin Cylinders ..................................................................................... 88
5.17.3.2 Radial Stress on Thin Cylinders .................................................................................... 88
5.17.3.3 Longitudinal Stress on Thin cylinders .......................................................................... 88
5.18 Thick Cylinders .......................................................................................................................................... 88
5.19 Columns and Struts .................................................................................................................................... 89
5.19.1 Euler’s Theorem of Columns ........................................................................................................ 89
5.20 Springs ........................................................................................................................................................ 90
5.20.1 Closed Coiled Helical Springs ...................................................................................................... 90
xii Contents

5.20.1.1 Under Axial Load, W..................................................................................................... 91

5.20.1.2 Under Axial Torque Load, T.......................................................................................... 91
5.20.2 Open Coiled Helical Spring .......................................................................................................... 91
5.21 Strain Energy .............................................................................................................................................. 91

Chapter 6 Principles of Surveying ......................................................................................................................................... 93

6.1 Basic Principles of Surveying..................................................................................................................... 93
6.1.1 Objectives of Surveying ................................................................................................................ 93
6.1.2 Need of Surveying ......................................................................................................................... 93
6.1.3 General Principle of Surveying ..................................................................................................... 93
6.1.4 Scales ............................................................................................................................................. 93
6.1.4.1 Plain Scale ..................................................................................................................... 93
6.1.4.2 Diagonal Scale ............................................................................................................... 93
6.1.4.3 Vernier Scale.................................................................................................................. 94
6.1.4.4 Scale of Chords .............................................................................................................. 94
6.2 Classifcation of Surveying ......................................................................................................................... 94
6.2.1 Primary Classifcation ................................................................................................................... 94
6.2.1.1 Plane Surveying ............................................................................................................. 94
6.2.1.2 Geodetic Surveying ....................................................................................................... 94
6.2.2 Secondary Classifcation ............................................................................................................... 94
6.3 Values of a Quantity ................................................................................................................................... 94
6.3.1 True Value of a Quantity ............................................................................................................... 94
6.3.2 Observed Value of a Quantity ....................................................................................................... 94
6.3.3 Most Probable Value of a Quantity ............................................................................................... 94
6.3.4 Principle of Least Square .............................................................................................................. 95
6.4 Errors .......................................................................................................................................................... 95
6.4.1 Sources of Errors ........................................................................................................................... 95
6.4.1.1 Instrumental Errors ....................................................................................................... 95
6.4.1.2 Personal Errors .............................................................................................................. 95
6.4.1.3 Natural Errors ................................................................................................................ 95
6.4.2 Types of Surveying Errors............................................................................................................. 95
6.4.2.1 Mistakes ......................................................................................................................... 95
6.4.2.2 Accidental Errors ........................................................................................................... 95
6.4.2.3 Systematic or Cumulative Errors ................................................................................... 95
6.4.2.4 Compensating Errors ..................................................................................................... 95
6.4.3 Most Probable Error ...................................................................................................................... 95
6.5 Vertical Control .......................................................................................................................................... 95
6.6 Measurement of Distance ........................................................................................................................... 96
6.6.1 Methods of Linear Surveying........................................................................................................ 96
6.6.1.1 Direct Measurement ...................................................................................................... 96
6.6.1.2 Measurement by Optical Means .................................................................................... 96
6.6.1.3 Electronic Method ......................................................................................................... 96
6.7 Contouring .................................................................................................................................................. 96
6.7.1 Terms related to Contouring.......................................................................................................... 96
6.7.2 Characteristics of Contours........................................................................................................... 96
6.8 Traverse Surveying ..................................................................................................................................... 98
6.8.1 Procedure for Traverse Calculations ............................................................................................. 98
6.8.1.1 Balancing Angles of Closed Traverses .......................................................................... 98
6.8.1.2 Closure of Latitudes and Departures ............................................................................. 99
6.9 Hydrographic Surveying............................................................................................................................. 99
6.9.1 Horizontal Controls ....................................................................................................................... 99
6.9.2 Vertical Controls ........................................................................................................................... 99
6.9.3 Sounding and the Methods Employed in Sounding ...................................................................... 99
6.9.3.1 Sounding Boat ............................................................................................................... 99
6.9.3.2 Fathometer ..................................................................................................................... 99
6.10 Curves ......................................................................................................................................................... 99
Contents xiii

6.10.1 Simple Curve ................................................................................................................................. 99

6.10.1.1 Elements of a Simple Curve .......................................................................................... 99
6.10.1.2 Methods of Setting Out of Single Circular Curve ....................................................... 100
6.10.2 Compound Curve ........................................................................................................................ 100
6.10.3 Transition Curves .........................................................................................................................101
6.10.3.1 Requirement of Transition Curve .................................................................................101
6.11 Earthworks.................................................................................................................................................101
6.11.1 Computation of Areas ..................................................................................................................101
6.11.1.1 Areas of Skeleton ..........................................................................................................101
6.11.1.2 Considering the Area along Boundaries...................................................................... 102
6.11.2 Computation of Volume .............................................................................................................. 102
6.11.2.1 Method of Cross Sections ............................................................................................ 102
6.11.2.2 Trapezoidal Formula .................................................................................................... 104
6.11.2.3 Prismoidal Formula ..................................................................................................... 104
6.11.3 Methods of Contours for Volume Computation .......................................................................... 104
6.11.4 Prismoidal Correction for Volume .............................................................................................. 104
6.11.5 Curvature Correction for Volumes .............................................................................................. 104
6.11.5.1 Equivalent Areas.......................................................................................................... 104
6.11.5.2 Pappus Theorem .......................................................................................................... 104
6.12 Geodetic Surveying .................................................................................................................................. 104
6.12.1 Triangulation ............................................................................................................................... 105
6.12.1.1 Objectives of Triangulation ......................................................................................... 105
6.12.1.2 Classifcation of Triangulation System ........................................................................ 105
6.12.2 Curvature and Refraction ............................................................................................................ 105
6.12.3 Intervisibility and Height of Stations .......................................................................................... 106
6.12.3.1 Distance between Stations ........................................................................................... 106
6.12.3.2 Relative Elevations of Stations .................................................................................... 106
6.13 Photogrammetry ....................................................................................................................................... 107
6.13.1 Terrestrial Photogrammetry........................................................................................................ 107
6.13.2 Aerial Photogrammetry............................................................................................................... 107
6.13.3 Orthophotos ................................................................................................................................. 107
6.14 Modern Surveying Equipment ................................................................................................................. 107
6.14.1 EDM Instruments ........................................................................................................................ 107
6.14.1.1 Infrared Wave Instruments .......................................................................................... 107
6.14.1.2 Light Wave Instruments............................................................................................... 107
6.14.1.3 Microwave Instruments ............................................................................................... 107
6.14.2 Total Station ................................................................................................................................ 108
6.14.3 Automatic Level .......................................................................................................................... 108
6.15 Modern Surveying Methods ..................................................................................................................... 108
6.15.1 Remote Sensing ........................................................................................................................... 108
6.15.2 Geographical Information System .............................................................................................. 108
6.15.3 Global Positioning System .......................................................................................................... 108
6.15.3.1 GPS Baseline ............................................................................................................... 109
6.15.3.2 Kinematic GPS ............................................................................................................ 109
6.15.3.3 Continuously Operating Reference Stations .................................................................110
6.15.3.4 Heights from GPS .........................................................................................................110

Chapter 7 Building Materials................................................................................................................................................111

7.1 Principal Properties of Building Materials ...............................................................................................111
7.1.1 Physical Characters ......................................................................................................................111
7.1.2 Mechanical Properties..................................................................................................................111
7.2 Structural Clay Products ...........................................................................................................................111
7.2.1 Properties .....................................................................................................................................111
7.3 Rocks and Stones .......................................................................................................................................111
7.3.1 Requirements of Good Building Stones .......................................................................................112
7.3.2 Tests on Stones .............................................................................................................................112
xiv Contents

7.3.3 Common Building Stones ............................................................................................................112

7.4 Wood and Wood Products .........................................................................................................................112
7.4.1 Problems of Using Wood as a Building Material.........................................................................113
7.4.2 Minimizing the Problems of Wood ..............................................................................................113
7.4.3 Seasoning of Timber ....................................................................................................................114
7.5 Materials for Making Concrete .................................................................................................................114
7.5.1 Materials Used in RCC Work.......................................................................................................114
7.5.2 Types of Concrete.........................................................................................................................115
7.6 Mortars ......................................................................................................................................................115
7.6.1 Properties of a Good Mortar ........................................................................................................115
7.6.2 Preparation of Cement Mortar .....................................................................................................115
7.6.3 Precautions in Using Mortar ........................................................................................................116
7.6.4 Tests for Mortar............................................................................................................................116
7.7 Paints, Enamels, Varnishes .......................................................................................................................116
7.7.1 Painting ........................................................................................................................................116
7.7.2 Characteristics of an Ideal Paint ..................................................................................................116
7.7.3 Pigment Volume Concentration Number (PVCN) .......................................................................116
7.7.4 Components of Paint ....................................................................................................................116
7.7.5 Types of Paint ...............................................................................................................................117
7.7.6 Defects in Painting .......................................................................................................................118
7.7.7 Varnish .........................................................................................................................................118
7.7.8 The Qualities of a Good Varnish .................................................................................................118
7.7.9 Distempering ................................................................................................................................118
7.7.9.1 Properties ......................................................................................................................118
7.7.10 Ingredients of a Distemper ...........................................................................................................118
7.8 Tar, Bitumen, Asphalt ................................................................................................................................118
7.8.1 Tar.................................................................................................................................................118
7.8.2 Bitumen ........................................................................................................................................119
7.8.3 Forms of Bitumen.........................................................................................................................119
7.8.4 Properties of Bituminous Materials .............................................................................................119
7.8.5 Asphalt .........................................................................................................................................119
7.8.6 Forms of Asphalt ..........................................................................................................................119
7.9 Miscellaneous Materials............................................................................................................................119
7.9.1 Abrasives ......................................................................................................................................119
7.9.2 Adhesives .....................................................................................................................................119
7.9.3 Asbestos .......................................................................................................................................119
7.9.4 Cork ..............................................................................................................................................119
7.9.5 Fly Ash ........................................................................................................................................ 120
7.9.6 Gypsum ....................................................................................................................................... 120
7.10 Metals and Alloys ..................................................................................................................................... 120
7.10.1 Ferrous Metals............................................................................................................................. 120
7.10.2 Nonferrous Metals ....................................................................................................................... 120
7.10.3 Other Brass Alloys ...................................................................................................................... 121
7.10.4 Other Bronze Alloys.................................................................................................................... 121
7.11 Ceramic Materials .................................................................................................................................... 122
7.12 Polymeric Materials ................................................................................................................................. 122
7.12.1 Characteristics of Polymers......................................................................................................... 122
7.13 Polymer Fiber Composites........................................................................................................................ 122
7.14 Geosynthetics ........................................................................................................................................... 123
7.15 Soil Stabilizers.......................................................................................................................................... 125
7.15.1 Stabilizing Agents ....................................................................................................................... 125
7.16 Sustainable Construction Materials.......................................................................................................... 126

Chapter 8 Building Construction Technology and Management......................................................................................... 129

8.1 Basics of Construction Technology .......................................................................................................... 129
8.1.1 What is Construction Technology? ............................................................................................. 129
Contents xv

8.1.2 Scope of Construction Technology and Management................................................................. 129

8.1.3 Impact of Construction Technology............................................................................................ 129
8.1.3.1 Positive Construction Impact for a Worker.................................................................. 129
8.1.3.2 Positive Impact on Surroundings ................................................................................. 129
8.1.3.3 Positive Impact on the Country ................................................................................... 129
8.1.3.4 Negative Impact of Construction for a Worker ............................................................ 130
8.1.3.5 Impact on Environment: Cutting of Trees ................................................................... 130
8.1.3.6 Wrapping Up................................................................................................................ 130
8.2 Planning for and Controlling Construction .............................................................................................. 130
8.2.1 Community Development ........................................................................................................... 130
8.2.2 Managing Community Development .......................................................................................... 130
8.2.3 The Role of Management ............................................................................................................ 130
8.2.4 Teamwork .................................................................................................................................... 130
8.2.5 Accountability ............................................................................................................................. 130
8.3 Construction Safety ...................................................................................................................................131
8.3.1 Safety Importance ........................................................................................................................131
8.3.2 Designing for Safety.....................................................................................................................131
8.3.3 Role of Various Parties in Designing for Safety ..........................................................................131
8.4 The Construction Process ......................................................................................................................... 132
8.4.1 Initiating the Project .................................................................................................................... 132
8.4.2 Designing the Project .................................................................................................................. 132
8.4.3 Design Methodology ................................................................................................................... 132
8.4.4 Functional Design ....................................................................................................................... 134
8.4.5 Preliminary Design ..................................................................................................................... 134
8.4.6 Design Development ................................................................................................................... 134
8.4.7 Construction Documents and Bidding ........................................................................................ 134
8.4.8 Types of Contractors ................................................................................................................... 135
8.4.9 Types of Contracts ....................................................................................................................... 135
8.4.10 Managing Construction Projects................................................................................................. 136
8.4.11 Preparing the Site ........................................................................................................................ 136
8.4.12 Geotechnical Report Related to Site Soil Properties .................................................................. 137
8.4.13 Construction Site Clearing and Excavation ................................................................................ 137
8.4.14 Grading of Construction Project Site .......................................................................................... 137
8.4.15 Building the Project..................................................................................................................... 137
8.4.16 Completing the Final Inspection ................................................................................................. 138
8.4.17 Closing the Contract .................................................................................................................... 138
8.5 Construction Tools and Equipment .......................................................................................................... 138
8.5.1 Tools ............................................................................................................................................ 138
8.5.2 Building Construction Equipment............................................................................................... 139
8.6 Construction Scheduling .......................................................................................................................... 139
8.6.1 Purpose of Scheduling ................................................................................................................ 139
8.6.2 Methods of Scheduling ............................................................................................................... 140
8.6.3 Scheduling Workers .....................................................................................................................141
8.6.4 Obtaining Materials .....................................................................................................................141
8.6.5 Obtaining Equipment ...................................................................................................................141
8.6.6 Obtaining Permits ........................................................................................................................141
8.7 Beginning Construction ........................................................................................................................... 142
8.7.1 Site Preparation ........................................................................................................................... 142
8.7.1.1 Establishing Site Preparation ....................................................................................... 142
8.7.1.2 Providing Access to Site .............................................................................................. 142
8.7.1.3 Clearing the Site .......................................................................................................... 142
8.7.1.4 Locating a Structure .................................................................................................... 142
8.7.1.5 Locating Temporary Buildings.................................................................................... 142
8.7.1.6 Securing the Site ...........................................................................................................143
8.7.2 Earthwork and Foundation ...........................................................................................................143
8.7.3 Damp Proofng of Foundation Walls............................................................................................143
8.7.4 Building the Super Structure........................................................................................................143
xvi Contents

8.7.4.1 Floor..............................................................................................................................143
8.7.4.2 Walls ............................................................................................................................ 144
8.7.4.3 Roof and Ceiling Framing ........................................................................................... 144
8.7.4.4 Installing Fascia and Sheathing ................................................................................... 144
8.8 Installation of Plumbing and Sanitary Fittings ........................................................................................ 144
8.8.1 Plumbing Systems ....................................................................................................................... 144
8.8.1.1 Piping System .............................................................................................................. 145
8.8.1.2 Materials for Residential and Light Commercial Piping System ................................ 146
8.8.2 Sanitary Fittings ...........................................................................................................................147
8.9 Installation of HVAC and Communication Systems .................................................................................147
8.9.1 Temperature Control .....................................................................................................147
8.9.2 Humidity Control ..........................................................................................................147
8.9.3 Cleaning Air .................................................................................................................147
8.10 Electrical Power System ........................................................................................................................... 148
8.11 Landscaping.............................................................................................................................................. 148

Chapter 9 Concrete Technology ........................................................................................................................................... 149

9.1 Fresh Concrete.......................................................................................................................................... 149
9.1.1 Properties of Fresh Concrete ....................................................................................................... 149
9.1.1.1 Consistency .................................................................................................................. 149
9.1.1.2 Setting of Concrete ...................................................................................................... 149
9.1.1.3 Workability .................................................................................................................. 149
9.1.1.4 Bleeding and Segregation in Concrete ........................................................................ 149
9.1.1.5 Hydration in Concrete.................................................................................................. 150
9.1.1.6 Air Entrainment ........................................................................................................... 150
9.2 Rheology of Concrete ............................................................................................................................... 150
9.3 Hardened Concrete ................................................................................................................................... 150
9.3.1 Properties of Hardened Concrete ................................................................................................ 150
9.3.1.1 Strength ........................................................................................................................ 150
9.3.1.2 Creep ............................................................................................................................ 151
9.3.1.3 Durability..................................................................................................................... 151
9.3.1.4 Shrinkage ..................................................................................................................... 151
9.3.1.5 Modulus of Elasticity ................................................................................................... 151
9.3.1.6 Water Tightness ........................................................................................................... 151
9.3.2 Factors Affecting Properties of Hardened Concrete ................................................................... 151
9.3.2.1 W/C Ratio .................................................................................................................... 151
9.3.2.2 Type and Amount of Cement ....................................................................................... 151
9.3.2.3 Type and Amount of Aggregate .................................................................................. 151
9.3.2.4 Weather Condition ....................................................................................................... 151
9.4 Prestressed Concrete ................................................................................................................................ 151
9.5 Proportioning of Concrete Mixes ............................................................................................................. 151
9.5.1 Types of Mixes ............................................................................................................................ 151
9.5.2 Mix Proportion Designations ...................................................................................................... 152
9.5.3 Methods of Proportioning Concrete............................................................................................ 152
9.5.3.1 Arbitrary Method......................................................................................................... 152
9.5.3.2 Fineness Modulus Method ........................................................................................... 152
9.5.3.3 Minimum Void Method ............................................................................................... 152
9.5.3.4 Maximum Density Method.......................................................................................... 152
9.5.3.5 W/C Ratio Method ....................................................................................................... 152
9.6 Production of Concrete............................................................................................................................. 152
9.6.1 Manufacturing Process ............................................................................................................... 153
9.6.2 Transport to Work Site ................................................................................................................ 153
9.6.3 Placing and Compacting ............................................................................................................. 153
9.6.4 Curing.......................................................................................................................................... 153
9.6.5 Quality Control............................................................................................................................ 153
9.7 Underwater Concreting ............................................................................................................................ 153
Contents xvii

9.8 Concreting under Extreme Climatic Conditions ...................................................................................... 153

9.8.1 Hot Weather Concreting .............................................................................................................. 153
9.8.2 Cold Weather Concreting ............................................................................................................ 154
9.9 Special Concretes and High Performance Concretes............................................................................... 154
9.9.1 Light Weight Concrete ................................................................................................................ 154
9.9.2 Aerated Concrete......................................................................................................................... 154
9.9.3 High-Density Concrete................................................................................................................ 154
9.9.4 Mass Concrete ............................................................................................................................. 154
9.9.5 Ready-Mix Concrete ................................................................................................................... 154
9.9.6 Polymer Concrete ........................................................................................................................ 155
9.9.6.1 Polymer-Impregnated Concrete ................................................................................... 155
9.9.6.2 Polymer Cement Concrete ........................................................................................... 155
9.9.6.3 Polymer Concrete ........................................................................................................ 155
9.9.7 Shotcrete ...................................................................................................................................... 155
9.9.8 Prepacked Concrete..................................................................................................................... 155
9.9.9 Vacuum Concrete ........................................................................................................................ 155
9.9.10 Pumped Concrete ........................................................................................................................ 155
9.9.11 High-Performance Concrete ....................................................................................................... 155

Chapter 10 Reinforced Concrete Structures .......................................................................................................................... 157

10.1 Fundamentals of Reinforced Concrete ..................................................................................................... 157
10.1.1 Design Philosophies for Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures .......................................... 157
10.1.2 Basic Defnitions ......................................................................................................................... 157
10.2 Design of Singly Reinforced Sections ...................................................................................................... 158
10.2.1 Limiting Depth of Neutral Axis .................................................................................................. 158
10.2.2 Analysis of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections ................................................................. 158
10.2.2.1 Concrete Stress Block in Compression ........................................................................ 158
10.2.2.2 Depth of Neutral Axis ................................................................................................. 159
10.2.2.3 Ultimate Moment of Resistance .................................................................................. 159
10.2.2.4 Limiting Moment of Resistance .................................................................................. 159
10.2.2.5 Safety at Ultimate Limit State in Flexure.................................................................... 159
10.2.3 Modes of Failure: Types of Section............................................................................................. 159
10.2.4 Computation of Moment of Resistance ....................................................................................... 160
10.2.5 Design Type of Problems ............................................................................................................ 160
10.3 Design of Doubly Reinforced Sections .....................................................................................................161
10.3.1 Basic Principle..............................................................................................................................161
10.3.2 Determination of fsc and fcc ......................................................................................................... 162
10.3.3 Minimum and Maximum Steel ................................................................................................... 163
10.3.4 Types of Problems and Steps of Solution .................................................................................... 163
10.4 Shear in Reinforced Concrete................................................................................................................... 164
10.4.1 Modes of Failure ......................................................................................................................... 164
10.4.2 Shear Stress ................................................................................................................................. 165
10.4.3 Design Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete .......................................................................... 165
10.4.4 Critical Section for Shear ............................................................................................................ 166
10.4.5 Enhanced Shear Strength of Sections Close to Supports ............................................................ 166
10.4.6 Minimum Shear Reinforcement ................................................................................................. 167
10.4.7 Design of Shear Reinforcement .................................................................................................. 167
10.4.8 Shear Reinforcement for Sections Close to Supports ................................................................. 168
10.5 Bond, Development Length, and Splicing of Reinforcement ................................................................... 168
10.5.1 Design Bond Stress τbd ................................................................................................................ 168
10.5.2 Development Length ................................................................................................................... 168
10.5.3 Checking of Development Lengths of Bars in Tension............................................................... 169
10.5.4 Reinforcement Splicing ............................................................................................................... 169
10.6 Continuous Beams .....................................................................................................................................170
10.6.1 Analysis of Continuous Beam ......................................................................................................170
10.7 Torsion in Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) Elements ........................................................................171
xviii Contents

10.7.1 Analysis for Torsional Moment in a Member.............................................................................. 172

10.7.2 Approach of Design for Combined Bending, Shear and Torsion ............................................... 172
10.7.3 Critical Section ............................................................................................................................ 172
10.7.4 Shear and Torsion ........................................................................................................................ 172
10.7.5 Reinforcement in Members Subjected to Torsion ....................................................................... 172
10.7.6 Requirement of Reinforcement ....................................................................................................173

Chapter 11 Steel Structures ....................................................................................................................................................175

11.1 Steel as a Structural Material ....................................................................................................................175
11.2 Plastic Analysis and Design ......................................................................................................................175
11.2.1 Basics of Plastic Analysis .............................................................................................................175
11.2.2 Principles of Plastic Analysis .......................................................................................................175
11.2.2.1 Collapse Mechanisms ...................................................................................................176
11.2.2.2 Combined Mechanism ..................................................................................................176
11.2.2.3 Number of Independent Mechanisms .......................................................................... 177
11.2.2.4 Theorems of Plastic Analysis ...................................................................................... 177
11.2.2.5 Methods of Plastic Analysis ........................................................................................ 177
11.3 Introduction to Limit State Design ........................................................................................................... 177
11.3.1 Limit State of Strength ................................................................................................................ 177
11.3.2 Limit State of Serviceability ........................................................................................................178
11.3.3 Partial Safety Factors ...................................................................................................................178
11.3.4 Design Criteria ............................................................................................................................ 179
11.4 Simple Connections—Riveted, Bolted, and Pinned Connections ........................................................... 179
11.4.1 Riveted Connections ................................................................................................................... 179
11.4.1.1 Types of Rivet Joints .................................................................................................... 180
11.4.2 Bolted Connections ......................................................................................................................181
11.4.2.1 Types of Bolts .............................................................................................................. 182
11.4.2.2 Types of Bolted Joints .................................................................................................. 182
11.4.2.3 Bearing-Type Connections .......................................................................................... 182
11.4.2.4 Slip-Critical Connection .............................................................................................. 184
11.4.3 Pin Connections .......................................................................................................................... 185
11.4.3.1 Shear Capacity............................................................................................................. 185
11.4.3.2 Bearing Capacity ......................................................................................................... 185
11.4.3.3 Flexural Capacity......................................................................................................... 185
11.4.4 Simple Welded Connections ....................................................................................................... 186
11.4.4.1 Types of Welds............................................................................................................. 186
11.4.4.2 Weld Symbols .............................................................................................................. 186
11.4.4.3 Welding Process .......................................................................................................... 186
11.4.4.4 Weld Defects ................................................................................................................ 186
11.4.4.5 Inspection of Welds ..................................................................................................... 187
11.4.5 Design of Welds .......................................................................................................................... 188
11.4.5.1 Design of Butt Welds ................................................................................................... 188
11.4.5.2 Design of Fillet Welds ................................................................................................. 189
11.4.5.3 Design of Plug and Slot Welds .................................................................................... 190
11.5 Tension Members.......................................................................................................................................191
11.5.1 Types of Tension Members...........................................................................................................191
11.5.2 Net Cross Sectional Area ............................................................................................................ 192
11.5.3 Design of Tension Members ........................................................................................................ 194
11.5.3.1 Design Strength Due to Yielding................................................................................. 194
11.5.3.2 Design Strength Due to Rupture.................................................................................. 194
11.5.3.3 Design Strength Due to Block Shear ........................................................................... 195
11.5.4 Lug Angles .................................................................................................................................. 195
11.6 Compression Members ............................................................................................................................. 196
11.6.1 Euler’s Buckling Theory ............................................................................................................. 196
11.6.2 Types of Sections......................................................................................................................... 197
11.6.3 Strength of Axially Loaded Compression Members................................................................... 198
Contents xix

11.6.4 Effective Length of Compression Member ................................................................................. 198

11.6.5 Maximum Slenderness Ratio ...................................................................................................... 198
11.6.6 Angle Struts ................................................................................................................................. 198
11.6.7 Compression Members Composed of Back-to-Back Components ............................................. 199
11.6.8 Lacings and Battens for Built-Up Compression Members .......................................................... 199
11.6.8.1 Lacings......................................................................................................................... 199
11.6.8.2 Battens ......................................................................................................................... 200
11.7 Beams ....................................................................................................................................................... 202
11.7.1 Behavior of Steel Beams ............................................................................................................. 202
11.7.1.1 Bending (Flexure) ........................................................................................................ 202
11.7.1.2 Shear ............................................................................................................................ 203
11.7.1.3 Bearing ........................................................................................................................ 203
11.7.1.4 Defection ..................................................................................................................... 204
11.7.1.5 Other Beam Failure Criteria ........................................................................................ 204
11.7.2 Laterally Supported Beam .......................................................................................................... 205
11.7.2.1 Holes in the Tension Zone ........................................................................................... 205
11.7.2.2 Shear Lag Effects......................................................................................................... 205
11.7.2.3 Biaxial Bending ........................................................................................................... 205
11.7.3 Laterally Unsupported Beams..................................................................................................... 206
11.7.3.1 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of Beams .......................................................................... 206
11.7.3.2 Design Bending Strength ............................................................................................. 206
11.7.3.3 Effective Length of Compression Flanges................................................................... 207
11.8 Members under Combined Axial Load and Moment .............................................................................. 207
11.8.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 207
11.8.2 Local Capacity Check ................................................................................................................. 207
11.8.3 Members Subjected to Combined Bending and Axial Forces .................................................... 208
11.8.4 Overall Member Strength Check .................................................................................................210
11.9 Column Bases and Caps ............................................................................................................................210
11.9.1 Slab Base ......................................................................................................................................210
11.9.2 Gusset Plate ................................................................................................................................. 212
11.10 Plate Girder............................................................................................................................................... 212
11.10.1 Elements of Plate Girder ........................................................................................................... 212
11.10.2 Design Component of Plate Girder ........................................................................................... 213
11.10.3 Self-Weight and Economic Depth ............................................................................................. 213
11.10.3.1 Moment of Inertia of the Whole Section .................................................................. 213
11.10.4 Design of Web Plate ...................................................................................................................214
11.10.5 Web Stiffeners ............................................................................................................................214
11.10.6 Design of Flange ........................................................................................................................214
11.10.7 Curtailment of Flange Plates......................................................................................................214
11.10.8 Web Splices ................................................................................................................................214
11.10.9 Flange Splices ........................................................................................................................... 215
11.10.10 Welded Plate Girder .................................................................................................................. 215
11.10.10.1 Web ........................................................................................................................ 215
11.10.10.2 Flange .....................................................................................................................216
11.10.10.3 Economic Depth .....................................................................................................216
11.10.10.4 Self-Weight of the Girder .......................................................................................216
11.10.10.5 Design of Flange ....................................................................................................216
11.10.10.6 Welds Connecting Flange with Web.......................................................................216
11.10.10.7 Design of Intermediate Stiffeners...........................................................................216
11.10.10.8 Design of Bearing Stiffener ....................................................................................217
11.11 Roof Trusses ..............................................................................................................................................217
11.11.1 Components of a Roof Truss ........................................................................................................217
11.11.2 Types of Roof Trusses ..................................................................................................................218
11.11.3 Geometry of the Roof Truss .........................................................................................................218
11.11.4 Truss Member Sections ................................................................................................................219
11.11.5 Types of Connections ...................................................................................................................219
11.11.6 Loads on Roof Trusses .................................................................................................................219
xx Contents

11.11.7 Economical Spacing of Roof Trusses ......................................................................................... 220

11.11.8 Design of a Roof Truss ................................................................................................................ 221

Chapter 12 Fluid Mechanics .................................................................................................................................................. 223

12.1 Pressure and Its Measurement .................................................................................................................. 223
12.1.1 Pressure Terminology.................................................................................................................. 223
12.1.2 Units of Pressure ......................................................................................................................... 223
12.1.3 Pascal’s Law ................................................................................................................................ 223
12.1.4 Measurement of Pressure ............................................................................................................ 223
12.2 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Surfaces ............................................................................................. 225
12.2.1 General Submerged Plane ........................................................................................................... 225
12.2.2 Horizontal Submerged Plane....................................................................................................... 225
12.2.3 Inclined Submerged Surface ....................................................................................................... 225
12.2.4 Vertical Submerged Surface ........................................................................................................ 225
12.2.5 Curved Submerged Surface......................................................................................................... 225
12.3 Buoyancy and Flotation ............................................................................................................................ 225
12.3.1 Conditions of Equilibrium of Floating and Submerged Bodies .................................................. 227
12.3.1.1 Stability of a Submerged Body .................................................................................... 227
12.3.1.2 Stability of Floating Body ........................................................................................... 227
12.4 Fluid Kinematics ...................................................................................................................................... 227
12.4.1 Continuity Equation .................................................................................................................... 228
12.4.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration ............................................................................................ 229
12.4.1.2 Velocity Potential Function ......................................................................................... 229
12.4.1.3 Stream Function........................................................................................................... 230
12.4.2 Types of Flow .............................................................................................................................. 230
12.4.2.1 Eularian and Lagrangian Flow .................................................................................... 230
12.4.2.2 Steady vs. Unsteady Flow ............................................................................................ 230
12.4.3 Streamlines, Streaklines, Pathlines............................................................................................. 230
12.4.3.1 Streamline.................................................................................................................... 230
12.4.3.2 Stream Tube ................................................................................................................. 231
12.4.3.3 Pathline ........................................................................................................................ 231
12.4.3.4 Streakline ..................................................................................................................... 231
12.4.3.5 Timeline ....................................................................................................................... 231
12.4.4 Free and Forced Vortex Flow ...................................................................................................... 231
12.4.4.1 Free Vortex Flow ......................................................................................................... 231
12.4.4.2 Forced Vortex Flow ..................................................................................................... 231
12.5 Dimensional Analysis............................................................................................................................... 233
12.5.1 Dimensions and Units ................................................................................................................. 233
12.5.2 Dimensional Homogeneity .......................................................................................................... 233
12.6 Model Analysis ......................................................................................................................................... 234
12.6.1 Model........................................................................................................................................... 234
12.6.2 Type of Forces Acting on the Moving Fluid ............................................................................... 234
12.6.3 Dimensionless Numbers .............................................................................................................. 234
12.6.4 Dynamic Similarity..................................................................................................................... 235
12.7 Fluid Dynamics ........................................................................................................................................ 235
12.7.1 Euler’s Equation .......................................................................................................................... 236
12.7.2 Bernoulli’s Equation from Euler’s Equation ............................................................................... 236
12.7.2.1 Bernoulli’s Equation for Real Fluid ............................................................................. 236
12.8 Fluid Flow Measurements ........................................................................................................................ 236
12.8.1 Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation ........................................................................... 236
12.8.1.1 Venturimeter ................................................................................................................ 237
12.8.1.2 Nozzle .......................................................................................................................... 238
12.8.1.3 Orifce Meter or Orifce Plate ...................................................................................... 238
12.8.1.4 Pitot Tube ..................................................................................................................... 240
12.9 Flow through Pipes................................................................................................................................... 241
12.9.1 Head Loss Due to Friction in the Pipe ........................................................................................ 241
Contents xxi

12.9.1.1 Darcy’s Equation for Round Pipes............................................................................... 241

12.9.1.2 Darcy’s Equation for Noncircular Pipes ...................................................................... 241
12.9.1.3 The Chezy Equation .................................................................................................... 241
12.9.1.4 Laminar Flow .............................................................................................................. 242
12.9.1.5 Choice of Friction Factor f........................................................................................... 242
12.9.1.6 Minor Energy (Head) Losses....................................................................................... 242
12.10 Viscous Flow ............................................................................................................................................ 243
12.10.1 Real Fluids .................................................................................................................................. 243
12.10.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flow....................................................................................................... 243
12.10.3 Pressure Loss Due to Friction in a Pipeline ................................................................................ 244
12.10.4 Pressure Loss During Laminar Flow in a Pipe ........................................................................... 244
12.11 Flow Past Immersed Bodies ..................................................................................................................... 244
12.11.1 Force Exerted by a Flowing Fluid on a Body ............................................................................. 244
12.11.1.1 Drag Force.................................................................................................................. 244
12.11.1.2 Lift Force.................................................................................................................... 244
12.11.1.3 Expressions for Drag and Lift .................................................................................... 245
12.11.1.4 Pressure Drag and Friction Drag ............................................................................... 245
12.11.1.5 Lifting Force .............................................................................................................. 246
12.11.1.6 Drag Force.................................................................................................................. 246
12.11.1.7 Thrust Power to Overcome Drag Force ..................................................................... 246
12.11.2 Boundary Layer ........................................................................................................................... 246
12.11.2.1 Potential Flow or Irrotational Flow Region ............................................................... 246
12.11.2.2 Factors Affecting the Growth of Boundary Layers ................................................... 246
12.11.2.3 Thicknesses of the Boundary Layer........................................................................... 246
12.12 Compressible Flow ................................................................................................................................... 246
12.12.1 Thermodynamic Relations .......................................................................................................... 247
12.12.2 Mach Number .............................................................................................................................. 247

Chapter 13 Engineering Hydrology ....................................................................................................................................... 249

13.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 249
13.1.1 Importance of Hydrology ............................................................................................................ 249
13.1.2 Hydrological Cycle ...................................................................................................................... 250
13.1.2.1 Catchment or Descriptive Representation of Hydrological Cycle ............................... 250
13.1.3 Some Important Defnitions ........................................................................................................ 250
13.2 Precipitation.............................................................................................................................................. 251
13.2.1 Forms of Precipitation ................................................................................................................. 251
13.2.2 Necessary Conditions for Occurrence of Precipitation ............................................................... 252
13.2.3 Types of Precipitation.................................................................................................................. 252
13.2.4 Water Budget Equation for a Catchment ..................................................................................... 253
13.2.5 Rain Gauging (Measurement of Rainfall) .................................................................................. 254
13.2.5.1 Types of Recording or Automatic Rain Gauges .......................................................... 255
13.2.5.2 Factors Governing Selection of Site for Rain Gauge Stations ..................................... 256
13.2.5.3 Optimum Number of Rain Gauges .............................................................................. 257
13.2.6 Mean Precipitation over an Area................................................................................................. 257
13.3 Abstraction from Precipitations................................................................................................................ 258
13.3.1 Interception.................................................................................................................................. 258
13.3.2 Depression Storage ...................................................................................................................... 258
13.3.3 Watershed Leakage ..................................................................................................................... 259
13.3.4 Evaporation.................................................................................................................................. 259
13.3.4.1 Dalton’s Law of Evaporation ....................................................................................... 259
13.3.4.2 Measurement of Evaporation ....................................................................................... 259
13.3.5 Transpiration and Evapotranspiration ......................................................................................... 261
13.3.5.1 Evapotranspiration or Consumptive Use of Water ...................................................... 262
13.3.6 Infltration.................................................................................................................................... 263
13.3.6.1 Infltration Capacity..................................................................................................... 263
13.3.6.2 Infltration Rate............................................................................................................ 263
xxii Contents

13.3.6.3 Infltration Capacity Curve .......................................................................................... 263

13.3.6.4 Horton’s Equation ........................................................................................................ 263
13.3.6.5 Field Measurement of Infltration Rate........................................................................ 263
13.4 Stream Flow Measurement ....................................................................................................................... 264
13.4.1 Stage ............................................................................................................................................ 265
13.4.2 Measurement of Velocity ............................................................................................................ 266
13.4.3 Direct Method of Discharge Measurement ................................................................................. 267
13.4.4 Indirect Method of Discharge Measurement .............................................................................. 268
13.5 Runoff ....................................................................................................................................................... 269
13.5.1 Computation of Runoff................................................................................................................ 270
13.6 Hydrographs ............................................................................................................................................. 272
13.6.1 Components of Hydrograph ........................................................................................................ 272
13.6.1.1 Factors Affecting Flood or Storm Hydrograph ........................................................... 273
13.6.1.2 Time Parameters Used in Hydrograph Analysis ......................................................... 273
13.6.2 Base Flow Separation .................................................................................................................. 273
13.6.2.1 Method 1: Straight-Line Method ................................................................................. 274
13.6.2.2 Method 2: Two-Lines Method ..................................................................................... 274
13.6.2.3 Method 3: Curves Extension Method .......................................................................... 274
13.6.3 Computation of Direct Runoff or Rainfall Excess from Storm Hydrograph .............................. 274
13.6.3.1 Procedure ..................................................................................................................... 274
13.6.4 Unit Hydrograph .......................................................................................................................... 274
13.6.4.1 Assumptions of Unit Hydrograph Theory ................................................................... 274
13.6.4.2 Uses of Unit Hydrograph ............................................................................................. 274
13.6.4.3 Limitations of Unit Hydrograph .................................................................................. 274
13.7 Floods ....................................................................................................................................................... 274
13.7.1 Types of Flood ............................................................................................................................. 275
13.7.2 Estimation of Flood Peak ............................................................................................................ 275
13.8 Flood Routing ........................................................................................................................................... 276
13.8.1 Uses of Flood Routing ................................................................................................................. 276
13.8.2 Types of Flood Routing ............................................................................................................... 276
13.8.3 Factors Used in Flood Routing.................................................................................................... 276
13.8.4 Basic Equation Used in Flood Routing ....................................................................................... 276

Chapter 14 Water Resources Engineering ............................................................................................................................. 279

14.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 279
14.1.1 Need for Planning and Management ........................................................................................... 279
14.2 Water Resources Sustainability ................................................................................................................ 279
14.2.1 Driving Forces and Pressures...................................................................................................... 279
14.2.2 State of Our Natural Water Resources ........................................................................................ 279
14.2.3 Impacts ........................................................................................................................................ 280
14.2.4 Responses .................................................................................................................................... 280
14.2.5 The Benefts................................................................................................................................. 280
14.3 Flow and Hydrostatic Forces .................................................................................................................... 280
14.3.1 Defnition of a Fluid .................................................................................................................... 280
14.3.2 Bernoulli’s Equation .................................................................................................................... 281
14.3.3 Hydrostatic Forces ....................................................................................................................... 282
14.4 Pressurized Pipe Flow .............................................................................................................................. 282
14.4.1 General Characteristics of Pipe Flow ......................................................................................... 282
14.4.2 Fully Developed Flow ................................................................................................................. 282
14.4.3 Moody Chart ............................................................................................................................... 283
14.5 Open Channel Flow .................................................................................................................................. 284
14.5.1 Types of Open Channel ............................................................................................................... 285
14.5.1.1 Prismatic and Nonprismatic Channels ........................................................................ 285
14.5.1.2 Rigid and Mobile Boundary Channels ........................................................................ 285
14.5.2 Flow Regimes .............................................................................................................................. 285
14.5.2.1 Steady and Unsteady Flows ......................................................................................... 285
Contents xxiii

14.5.2.2 Uniform and Nonuniform Flows ................................................................................. 285

14.5.2.3 Gradually Varied and Rapidly Varied Flow ................................................................ 286
14.5.2.4 Spatially Varied Flow .................................................................................................. 286
14.5.3 Channel Geometry ...................................................................................................................... 286
14.5.4 Velocity Distribution in Open Channel ....................................................................................... 287
14.5.5 Wide-Open Channels .................................................................................................................. 287
14.5.6 Specifc Energy ........................................................................................................................... 288
14.5.7 Critical Flow ................................................................................................................................ 289
14.5.8 Momentum in Open Channel ...................................................................................................... 290
14.5.9 Specifc Force .............................................................................................................................. 291
14.6 Groundwater Flow .................................................................................................................................... 292
14.6.1 Groundwater Flow ....................................................................................................................... 292
14.6.2 Groundwater Flow Equation ....................................................................................................... 293
14.6.2.1 Mass Balance ............................................................................................................... 293
14.6.2.2 Diffusion Equation (Transient Flow) ........................................................................... 293
14.6.2.3 Laplace Equation (Steady-State Flow)......................................................................... 294
14.6.2.4 Two-Dimensional Groundwater Flow ......................................................................... 294
14.6.3 Summary of Differential Equations for Groundwater Flow ....................................................... 295
14.6.3.1 Confned Flow ............................................................................................................. 295
14.6.3.2 Unconfned Flow (Water-Table Aquifers) .................................................................... 295
14.6.3.3 Aquifers with Vertical Accretion to Flow ................................................................... 296
14.7 Water Distribution .................................................................................................................................... 296
14.7.1 Water Distribution on Earth ........................................................................................................ 296
14.7.2 Water Distribution System .......................................................................................................... 297
14.7.3 Components of a Network ........................................................................................................... 297
14.7.4 Layouts of Distribution Network ................................................................................................. 297
14.7.4.1 Dead-End System ........................................................................................................ 297
14.7.4.2 Grid Iron System ......................................................................................................... 298
14.7.4.3 Circular or Ring System .............................................................................................. 299
14.7.4.4 Radial System .............................................................................................................. 299
14.7.5 Hydraulic Design ......................................................................................................................... 299
14.7.5.1 Dead-End Method........................................................................................................ 300
14.7.5.2 Hardy-Cross Method ................................................................................................... 300
14.7.5.3 Equivalent Pipe Method .............................................................................................. 301
14.8 Water for Hydroelectric Generation ......................................................................................................... 301
14.8.1 Hydroelectric Power .................................................................................................................... 301
14.8.2 Types of Hydroelectric Projects .................................................................................................. 302
14.8.2.1 Run-of-River Schemes ................................................................................................. 302
14.8.2.2 Storage Schemes .......................................................................................................... 303
14.8.2.3 Pumped-Storage Schemes ........................................................................................... 303
14.8.2.4 Tidal Power Development Schemes............................................................................. 303
14.8.3 Hydropower Potential .................................................................................................................. 304
14.9 Flood Control............................................................................................................................................ 305
14.9.1 Causes of Floods ......................................................................................................................... 306
14.9.1.1 Natural Causes ............................................................................................................. 306
14.9.1.2 Man-Made Causes ....................................................................................................... 306
14.9.2 Effects of Floods ......................................................................................................................... 306
14.9.2.1 Primary Effects............................................................................................................ 306
14.9.2.2 Secondary Effects ........................................................................................................ 306
14.9.2.3 Tertiary and Long-Term Effects .................................................................................. 306
14.9.2.4 Benefts of Floods ........................................................................................................ 306
14.9.3 Methods of Flood Control ........................................................................................................... 306
14.9.3.1 Dams............................................................................................................................ 306
14.9.3.2 Water-Gate ................................................................................................................... 306
14.9.3.3 Diversion Canals .......................................................................................................... 306
14.9.3.4 Self-Closing Flood Barrier .......................................................................................... 306
14.9.3.5 Coastal Defenses.......................................................................................................... 306
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14.9.3.6 River Defenses ............................................................................................................. 307

14.9.3.7 Levees .......................................................................................................................... 307
14.10 Storm Sewers and Detention .................................................................................................................... 307
14.10.1 Storm Sewer ................................................................................................................................ 307
14.10.1.1 Inlet............................................................................................................................ 307
14.10.1.2 Catch Basin................................................................................................................ 307
14.10.1.3 Piping ........................................................................................................................ 307
14.10.1.4 Outlet ......................................................................................................................... 307
14.10.2 Environmental Impacts of Storm Sewers.................................................................................... 307
14.10.2.1 Water Quantity .......................................................................................................... 307
14.10.2.2 Water Quality ............................................................................................................ 308
14.10.2.3 Reducing Stormwater Flows ..................................................................................... 308
14.10.2.4 Mosquito Breeding .................................................................................................... 308
14.10.3 Hydraulic Design of Storm Sewers ............................................................................................. 308
14.10.4 Stormwater Detention.................................................................................................................. 309
14.10.4.1 Dry Detention Basins ................................................................................................ 309
14.10.4.2 Wet Retention Ponds ................................................................................................. 309
14.10.4.3 Maintenance Considerations ..................................................................................... 309
14.11 Street and Highway Drainage and Culverts ..............................................................................................310
14.11.1 Street and Highway Drainage ......................................................................................................310
14.11.1.1 Draining the Roadway and Road Side .......................................................................310
14.11.1.2 Drainage within Pavement Layers .............................................................................310
14.11.1.3 Road Way Drainage in Fill .........................................................................................310
14.11.1.4 Highway Drainage of Runoff in Cut ..........................................................................310
14.11.1.5 Road-Way Drainage in Urban Areas ..........................................................................310
14.11.1.6 Highway Runoff Drainage in Rural Areas.................................................................310
14.11.1.7 Cross-Drainage Structures and Works .......................................................................311
14.11.2 Culverts ........................................................................................................................................311
14.11.2.1 Materials Used for Culvert Construction ...................................................................311
14.11.2.2 Location of Culverts ...................................................................................................311
14.11.2.3 Types of Culverts........................................................................................................311
14.11.2.4 Hydraulic Design Considerations for Culverts...........................................................311
14.11.2.5 Terminology ...............................................................................................................312
14.11.2.6 Types of Flow Control ................................................................................................312
14.11.2.7 Culvert Design Procedure ..........................................................................................313
14.12 Design of Spillways and Energy Dissipation for Flood Control Storage ..................................................313
14.12.1 Spillways ....................................................................................................................................313
14.12.2 Spillway Components.................................................................................................................313
14.12.3 Classifcation of Spillways .........................................................................................................313
14.12.4 Various Aspects Involved in a Spillway Design .........................................................................314
14.12.5 Spillway Design Flood ...............................................................................................................314
14.12.6 Estimation of Spillway Design Flood ........................................................................................314
14.12.7 Spillway Design .........................................................................................................................314
14.12.7.1 Discharge Characteristics ......................................................................................... 314
14.12.7.2 The Spillway Crest Profle........................................................................................ 315
14.12.7.3 Spillway Toe ..............................................................................................................316
14.12.8 Energy Dissipation .....................................................................................................................316
14.12.9 Classifcation of Energy Dissipation ..........................................................................................316
14.12.10 Principal Types of Energy Dissipators.......................................................................................317
14.12.11 Ananlysis of Parameters ............................................................................................................317
14.12.12 Stilling Basin .............................................................................................................................318
14.12.12.1 Elements of Stilling Basin.......................................................................................319
14.12.13 Design of Hydraulic Jump Stilling Basin Type Energy Dissipators..........................................319
14.12.14 Defector Buckets ......................................................................................................................319
14.13 Sedimentation and Erosion Hydraulics .................................................................................................... 320
14.13.1 Sedimentation.............................................................................................................................. 320
14.13.2 Effects of Sedimentation ............................................................................................................. 321
Contents xxv

14.13.2.1 From Increased Sedimentation ................................................................................. 321

14.13.2.2 Decreased Sedimentation .......................................................................................... 321
14.13.3 Control of Sedimentation ............................................................................................................ 321
14.13.4 Erosion......................................................................................................................................... 321
14.13.5 Erosive Forces ............................................................................................................................. 322
14.13.5.1 Ice .............................................................................................................................. 322
14.13.5.2 Wind .......................................................................................................................... 322
14.13.5.3 Water ......................................................................................................................... 322
14.13.5.4 Human Activities....................................................................................................... 322
14.13.6 Ecological and Economic Impacts .............................................................................................. 322
14.13.7 Preventive Measures and Erosion Control .................................................................................. 323
14.14 Water Resources Management for Sustainability .................................................................................... 323
14.14.1 Water Resource Management for Agriculture ............................................................................ 324
14.14.2 Urban Water Management........................................................................................................... 324
14.14.3 Future of Water Resources .......................................................................................................... 325
14.15 Reservoir and Stream Flow Routing ........................................................................................................ 325
14.15.1 Reservoir ..................................................................................................................................... 325
14.15.2 Types of Reservoirs ..................................................................................................................... 325
14.15.2.1 Valley Dammed Reservoir ........................................................................................ 325
14.15.2.2 Bank-Side Reservoirs ................................................................................................ 326
14.15.2.3 Service Reservoirs ..................................................................................................... 326
14.15.3 Classifcation of Reservoirs ......................................................................................................... 326
14.15.3.1 Storage or Conservation Reservoirs .......................................................................... 326
14.15.3.2 Flood Control Reservoirs .......................................................................................... 326
14.15.3.3 Retarding Reservoirs ................................................................................................. 326
14.15.3.4 Detention Reservoirs ................................................................................................. 326
14.15.3.5 Distribution Reservoir ............................................................................................... 326
14.15.3.6 Balancing Reservoirs ................................................................................................ 326
14.15.3.7 Conservation Reservoir ............................................................................................. 326
14.15.3.8 Multipurpose Reservoir............................................................................................. 326
14.15.4 Zones of Storage .......................................................................................................................... 326
14.15.5 Reservoir Capacity ...................................................................................................................... 327
14.15.5.1 Graphical Method ..................................................................................................... 327
14.15.5.2 Analytical Method..................................................................................................... 327
14.15.6 Reservoir Yield ............................................................................................................................ 328
14.15.7 Determination of Yield of a Reservoir ........................................................................................ 328
14.15.8 Stream Flow Routing .................................................................................................................. 328
14.15.9 Classifcation of Flood Routing ................................................................................................... 329
14.15.9.1 Reservoir Routing...................................................................................................... 329
14.15.9.2 Channel Routing........................................................................................................ 329
14.15.10 Types of Flow Routing ............................................................................................................. 329
14.15.10.1 Lumped or Hydrological Routing .......................................................................... 329
14.15.10.2 Distributed or Hydraulic Routing ........................................................................... 329
14.15.11 Reservoir Routing ..................................................................................................................... 330
14.15.11.1 Pul’s Method .......................................................................................................... 330
14.15.11.2 Goodrich Method ................................................................................................... 330
14.15.12 Channel Routing: Muskingum Method .................................................................................... 330
14.15.12.1 Required Input for Muskingum Routing .................................................................331
14.15.12.2 Routing Procedure Using Muskingum Method ......................................................331
14.15.13 Flood Routing by Saint Venant Equations .................................................................................331
14.16 Water Withdrawals and Uses .................................................................................................................... 332
14.16.1 Water Withdrawals ...................................................................................................................... 332
14.16.2 The Water-Use Cycle................................................................................................................... 332
14.16.3 Categories of Water Use .............................................................................................................. 332
14.16.4 Future Water Use ......................................................................................................................... 333
xxvi Contents

Chapter 15 Soil Mechanics .................................................................................................................................................... 335

15.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 335
15.2 Formation of Soil ...................................................................................................................................... 335
15.3 Soil Structure and Clay Minerals ............................................................................................................. 335
15.3.1 Types of Soil Structure ................................................................................................................ 335
15.3.2 Basic Structural Units of Clay Minerals ..................................................................................... 336
15.3.3 Types of Clay Minerals ............................................................................................................... 337
15.4 Basic Defnitions and Relationships ......................................................................................................... 338
15.4.1 Basic Defnitions ......................................................................................................................... 338
15.4.2 Some Important Relationships .................................................................................................... 340
15.5 Index Properties of Soils .......................................................................................................................... 341
15.5.1 Particle Size Analysis .................................................................................................................. 341
15.5.1.1 Grain Size Distribution ................................................................................................ 341
15.5.2 Consistency of Soil ...................................................................................................................... 343
15.5.2.1 Shrinkage Parameters .................................................................................................. 344
15.5.3 Basic Defnitions ......................................................................................................................... 345
15.6 Soil Classifcation ..................................................................................................................................... 346
15.7 Permeability.............................................................................................................................................. 350
15.7.1 Hydraulic Head............................................................................................................................ 350
15.7.2 Darcy’s Law................................................................................................................................. 350
15.7.2.1 Seepage Velocity...........................................................................................................351
15.7.2.2 Value of Hydraulic Conductivity (k).............................................................................351
15.7.2.3 Empirical Relation for k................................................................................................351
15.7.3 Determination of Coeffcient of Permeability ..............................................................................351
15.7.3.1 Constant Head Permeability Test .................................................................................351
15.7.3.2 Falling Head Permeability Test ................................................................................... 352
15.7.3.3 Pumping Tests.............................................................................................................. 352
15.7.3.4 Capillary Rise in Soil .................................................................................................. 353
15.7.4 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils ...................................................................................... 353
15.7.5 Permeability of Stratifed Soil Deposits ...................................................................................... 354
15.8 Seepage Analysis ...................................................................................................................................... 354
15.8.1 Seepage Pressure ......................................................................................................................... 355
15.8.2 Quick Sand Condition ................................................................................................................. 355
15.9 Stress Distribution in Soil......................................................................................................................... 355
15.9.1 Geostatic Stresses ........................................................................................................................ 355
15.9.2 Vertical Stress due to Concentrated Load ................................................................................... 356
15.9.2.1 Assumptions ................................................................................................................ 356
15.9.2.2 Limitations of Boussinesq’s Solution........................................................................... 357
15.9.3 Pressure Distribution Diagrams .................................................................................................. 357
15.9.4 Vertical Stress due to a Uniform Line Load ............................................................................... 357
15.9.5 Vertical Stress due to Strip Load................................................................................................. 357
15.9.6 Vertical Stress Distribution below Uniformly Loaded Circular Area ........................................ 358
15.9.7 Vertical Stress under a Corner of a Rectangular Area ................................................................ 359
15.9.8 Vertical Stress at Any Point on a Rectangular Area ................................................................... 359
15.9.9 Westergaard’s Solution ................................................................................................................ 361
15.9.10 Approximate Methods ................................................................................................................. 361
15.10 Compaction............................................................................................................................................... 362
15.10.1 Standard Proctor Test .................................................................................................................. 362
15.10.1.1 Compaction Curve ....................................................................................................... 363
15.10.2 Modifed Proctor Test .................................................................................................................. 363
15.10.3 Factors Affecting Compaction .................................................................................................... 364
15.10.4 Relative Compaction and Compaction Control ........................................................................... 364
15.11 Consolidation of Soils .............................................................................................................................. 364
15.11.1 Types of Consolidation ................................................................................................................ 365
15.11.2 Consolidation of Undisturbed Specimen .................................................................................... 365
15.11.2.1 Overconsolidation Ratio .............................................................................................. 365
Contents xxvii

15.11.3 Consolidation Test ....................................................................................................................... 365

15.11.3.1 Computation of Void Ratio ........................................................................................ 366
15.11.3.2 Consolidation Test Results ......................................................................................... 367
15.11.4 Basic Defnitions ......................................................................................................................... 367
15.11.4.1 Determination of Coeffcient of Consolidation .......................................................... 368
15.11.5 Settlement Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 369
15.12 Shear Strength .......................................................................................................................................... 370
15.12.1 Stress at a Point: Mohr’s Circle of Stress .................................................................................... 370
15.12.2 Mohr: Coulomb Theory .............................................................................................................. 370
15.12.3 Modifed Mohr: Coulomb Theory............................................................................................... 371
15.12.4 Different Types of Tests and Drainage Conditions ..................................................................... 371
15.12.4.1 Direct Shear Test ........................................................................................................ 372
15.12.4.2 Triaxial Compression Test ......................................................................................... 373
15.12.4.3 Unconfned Compression Test.................................................................................... 377
15.12.4.4 Vane Shear Test .......................................................................................................... 378
15.13 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall ........................................................................................................ 378
15.13.1 Terminology ................................................................................................................................ 378
15.13.2 Applications of MSE Walls ......................................................................................................... 380
15.13.3 Types of Systems ......................................................................................................................... 380
15.13.4 Facing Systems Used in MSE Walls ........................................................................................... 380
15.13.5 Types of Reinforcements Used in MSE Walls ............................................................................ 381
15.14 Soil Nailing............................................................................................................................................... 381
15.14.1 Concept of Soil Nailing ............................................................................................................... 382
15.14.1.1 Ground Condition Best Suited for Soil Nailing ......................................................... 382
15.14.1.2 Ground Condition Not Suited for Soil Nailing .......................................................... 382
15.14.2 Various Types of Soil Nailing ..................................................................................................... 382
15.14.3 Elements of Soil Nail .................................................................................................................. 382
15.15 Lateral Stress and Retaining Wall ............................................................................................................ 382
15.15.1 Different Types of Lateral Earth Pressure .................................................................................. 383
15.15.1.1 Variation of Pressure .................................................................................................. 383
15.15.2 Earth Pressure at Rest ................................................................................................................. 384
15.15.3 Rankine’s Earth Pressure Theory ............................................................................................... 385
15.15.3.1 Active Earth Pressure................................................................................................. 385
15.15.3.2 Passive Earth Pressure ............................................................................................... 385
15.15.3.3 Rankine’s Earth Pressure when the Surcharge is Inclined ........................................ 386
15.15.3.4 Rankine’s Earth Pressure in Cohesive Soil ................................................................ 386
15.15.3.5 Active State ................................................................................................................ 387
15.15.3.6 Passive State ............................................................................................................... 387
15.15.4 Retaining Wall ............................................................................................................................ 387
15.15.4.1 Forces on Retaining Walls ......................................................................................... 388
15.16 Stability of Slopes and Landslides ........................................................................................................... 389
15.16.1 Different Defnitions of Factor of Safety..................................................................................... 390
15.16.2 Stability of an Infnite Slope of Cohesionless Soils .................................................................... 390
15.16.3 Stability of an Infnite Slope of Cohesive Soils .......................................................................... 391
15.16.4 Stability Charts............................................................................................................................ 391
15.16.4.1 Uses of Stability Chart ............................................................................................... 391
15.16.5 Improving Stability of Slopes...................................................................................................... 392
15.16.6 Landslides.................................................................................................................................... 393
15.16.6.1 Classifcation of Earth Movement .............................................................................. 393
15.16.6.2 Causes of Landslides .................................................................................................. 394
15.16.7 Effects of Landslides ................................................................................................................... 395
15.16.7.1 Preventive Measures for Landslides .......................................................................... 395

Chapter 16 Foundation Engineering ...................................................................................................................................... 397

16.1 Geotechnical Investigation and Report .................................................................................................... 397
16.1.1 Stages in Subsurface Explorations .............................................................................................. 397
xxviii Contents

16.1.2 Depth of Exploration ................................................................................................................... 397

16.1.3 Borings for Exploration ............................................................................................................... 398
16.1.3.1 Auger Boring ............................................................................................................... 399
16.1.3.2 Washing Boring ........................................................................................................... 399
16.1.3.3 Rotatory Drilling ......................................................................................................... 400
16.1.3.4 Percussion Drilling ...................................................................................................... 400
16.1.3.5 Core Drilling................................................................................................................ 400
16.1.4 Subsoil Investigation Report ....................................................................................................... 400
16.2 In-Situ Soil Tests ...................................................................................................................................... 402
16.2.1 Standard Penetration Test ............................................................................................................ 402
16.2.2 Cone Penetration Test.................................................................................................................. 404
16.3 Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundation ................................................................................................ 405
16.3.1 Basic Defnitions ......................................................................................................................... 405
16.3.2 Mode of Shear Failure ................................................................................................................. 406
16.3.3 Terzaghi’s Method of Analysis .................................................................................................... 406
16.3.3.1 Terzaghi’s Failure Criterion ......................................................................................... 406
16.3.3.2 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Equation ........................................................................ 407
16.3.4 Factors Affecting Ultimate Bearing Capacity ............................................................................ 408
16.3.5 Effect of Water Table in Bearing Capacity ................................................................................. 408
16.3.5.1 Teng’s Reduction Factor............................................................................................... 408
16.4 Deep Foundation ...................................................................................................................................... 409
16.4.1 Classifcation of Piles .................................................................................................................. 409
16.4.2 Method of Determining Bearing Capacity of Piles .....................................................................410
16.4.3 Group Action of Piles ...................................................................................................................412
16.4.4 Settlement of Pile Group ..............................................................................................................413
16.4.5 Negative Skin Friction..................................................................................................................413
16.4.6 Types of Caissons .........................................................................................................................414

Chapter 17 Traffc and Transportation Engineering ...............................................................................................................415

17.1 Properties of Traffc Engineering Elements ..............................................................................................415
17.1.1 Human Variables Infuencing Transportation ..............................................................................415
17.1.1.1 Variability .....................................................................................................................415
17.1.1.2 Basic Qualities ..............................................................................................................415
17.1.1.3 Response Time..............................................................................................................415
17.1.1.4 Visual Keenness and Driving .......................................................................................415
17.1.1.5 Walking.........................................................................................................................415
17.1.2 Other Characteristics....................................................................................................................416
17.1.3 Vehicle Factors .............................................................................................................................416
17.1.3.1 Design Vehicles ............................................................................................................416
17.1.3.2 Vehicle Measurements ..................................................................................................416
17.1.3.3 Weight, Axle Confguration..........................................................................................416
17.1.3.4 Turning Radius and Turning Path.................................................................................416
17.1.3.5 Visibility .......................................................................................................................416
17.1.3.6 Acceleration Characteristics .........................................................................................416
17.1.3.7 Braking Performance....................................................................................................417
17.1.4 Road Factors .................................................................................................................................417
17.1.4.1 Road Surface.................................................................................................................417
17.1.4.2 Lighting.........................................................................................................................417
17.1.4.3 Roughness .....................................................................................................................417
17.1.4.4 Pavement Colors ...........................................................................................................417
17.1.4.5 Night Visibility .............................................................................................................417
17.1.4.6 Geometric Aspects .......................................................................................................417
17.2 Highway Geometric Design ......................................................................................................................418
17.2.1 Factors Infuencing the Geometric Designs .................................................................................418
17.2.1.1 Design Speed ................................................................................................................418
17.2.1.2 Topography ...................................................................................................................418
Another random document with
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 Liina ilostui ja yritti jo lähtemään kertomaan sitä ilo-uutistansa
Kaisalle. Mutta samassa johtui hänelle mieleen, että Kaisahan olikin
siellä ahkerassa työssä eikä varmaankaan pitäisi lukua hänen
ilostaan, käskisi ehkä sittekin vain kirjaa hakemaan, kuten aina
ennenkin oli tehnyt, milloin ei tahtonut leikkiä. Tämän ajatuksen
johdosta hän pysähtyi juoksustaan ovelle ja sanoi valittavalla
äänellä:

"Mutta Kaisa ei viitsi leikkiä, patistaa vain yhä jankuttamaan."

Rovasti arvasi Kaisan olevan työn puuhassa, kuten ahkera

emännöitsijä ainakin, ja toisaalta myöskin huomasi Liinalla olevan
ikävän yksinään, ilman ikäistänsä leikkikumppania. Hänelle johtui
mieleen, että lähimmän naapuritalon Notkolan Kalle olisi juuri sopiva
huvittelijaksi: siivo poika ja ijältäänkin vasta kahdeksan vuoden mies.

"Älä nyt huoli häiritä Kaisaa", sanoi hän lepytellen ja lohdutellen.

"Odotahan huomiseen ja lue nyt tänään kiltisti yksinäsi, jos huvittaa."

"Eipä minulla ole muuta kirjaa kuin aapinen; sen minä osaan jo
ulkoa."

"Ota salin kaapista!"

Siitäkös Liina vielä enemmän ilostui. Se kaappi oli juuri ollutkin

ainoa kielletty paikka; isä vain joskus oli sen avannut, näytelläkseen
kuvia sen korukantisista kirjoista, joita kaikkia hän ei itsekään ollut
lukenut, vanhemmat lapset kun olivat siihen koonneet paljon omin
päinsäkin.

Liina juoksi kaapin luo, tempasi oven auki ja pysähtyi arvelemaan,

minkä tuosta nyt ottaisi. Ennen oli hänen mielensä aina tehnyt erästä
suurta kirjaa, jonka saranat kokonaan kullalta hohtivat. Mutta nytpä
olikin mielessä muuta; lukeminen, tuo uusi taito, tuntui viehättävän
enemmän kuin korean katseleminen. Tyttönen sieppasi sivulta
pienen kirjasen ja istahti kaapin viereen, avasi saaliinsa ja ryhtyi
lukemaan. Kankeasti se ensin kävi, vaan kertomus oli vilkas ja Liina
kiintyi siihen kokonaan.

Illan suussa rovasti läksi kävelemään ja astui Notkolaan, tapasi

isännän ja kysyi, eikö Kalle saisi tulla pappilaan leikkikumppaniksi
Liinalle. Isäntä, vähän vastusteli, että olisihan sillä Kallella työtä
kotonakin, ell'ei muuta, niin pikku Pekko-veljensä soudattelemista ja
hoitelemista; mutta tahtoen olla pahastuttamatta rovastia, joka sen
virkamahtavuutensa lisäksi oli vielä likeinen naapurikin, suostui hän
viimein, että Kalle sai käydä pappilassa, milloin vain suinkin kotoa
jouti, ja siihen lupaan rovasti tyytyi, vaikka tullessaan olikin aikonut
toista.

Illallisen aikana ruvettiin kaihoamaan Liinaa. Kaisa oli jo kauan

kummastellut, niihin tyttö joutui, kun ei ollut enää vastuksina, ja
vaikka hän onnen useinkin oli mielessään toivotellut: "jospa tuosta
kerrankin pääsisi rauhaan!", alkoi hän nyt, oltuaan vähän aikaa
rauhassa, jo aivan hätäytyä, kunnes mennessään salin kautta
kutsumaan rovastia ruoalle ja samalla ilmoittamaan, että Liina oli
kateissa, huomasi hänet lukien istumassa. "Täälläkö sinä…" yritti
hän torumaan. "Isä antoi luvan", puolustihe Liina, silmiään
kääntämättä, ja siihen Kaisa rauhoittui. Rovastille hän vielä yritti
huomauttamaan, että "osaako se jo nyt omin neuvoin lukea?" ja
"eikö olisi parempi luettaa vielä katkismusta?"; mutta kun rovasti
siihen vastasi vain "hm", täytyi Kaisan luopua opastamisaikeistaan,
ainakin mikäli ne rovastia tarkoittivat.
 Tyttönen oli tällä välin kirjastaan saanut koko joukon uusia tuttavia.
Hän mieltyi heihin koko sydämmestään ja leikki heidän kanssansa
ihan kuin tosissaan, niin että hän tuskin vain olisi malttanut
syömäänkään lähteä, vaikka kyllä jo tuntui nälkä olevan. Onneksi se
sattumalta aivan viaton pikku lastenkirjakin samalla loppui juuri
paraiksi.

Miten Liinan yö kului, on turha kertoa; sen arvaa jokainen, ken

lapsena on illalla kuullut jännittävän sadun tai muun kertomuksen
taikkapa itse lukenut sen: Liina näki koko tapauksen ilmi elävänä
uudestaan, olipa vielä itsekin mukana.

Tytön ennestäänkin vilkas mielikuvitus oli päästetty lentoon,

vapaasti liitelemään.

Isosti Liina riemastui, kuin Kalle seuraavana päivänä ensi kerran

tuli muutamaksi tunniksi ihan kuin varta vasten jatkamaan hänen
yöllisiä uniansa. Kyllä heillä iloa riitti.

Mutta Kalle tietysti ei joutanut päiviä päästänsä pappilassa

oleksimaan. Ensi päivänä hän kun, päästyään herrasleikin makuun,
ei muistanut palata siihen aikaan, kuin kotona odoteltiin, annettiin
hänelle toria ja uhattiin olla enää laskemalta koko pappilaan, jos ei
paremmin pitänyt ajasta vaaria. Ja Kalle oli siksi järkevä, että päätti
ennemmin nauttia vapautta vähitellen kuin kerrassaan ahmimalla
lopettaa sen. Eikä hänen sitte tätä muka viisasta päätöstään
tarvinnut katuakaan, sillä hauska, ihmeen hauska hänestä
pappilassa oli. Liina osasi siellä peuhata niin hullunkurisen
vallattomasti, eikä kukaan kiellellyt, jos Kalle itsekin joskus yltyi
pauhaamaan hurjemmastikin.
 Tästä olostaan pappilan "ryökkinän" seurakumppanina kasvoi
Kalle mielestään aika sankariksi. Muiden talonpoikais-lasten
seurasta hän vähitellen kokonaan luopui eikä ollut millänsäkään
heidän pilkastansa, pitipä päin vastoin kunnianaankin tuota "pappilan
Kalle"-nimitystä, jota he hänelle hokivat. Ahkeraan hän kotona oli
työn puuhassa, mutta mieli yhä enemmin paloi pappilaan.

Paljopa sentään oli Liinalla aikaa yksinkin olla. Siitä asti, kuin Kalle
alkoi käydä häntä huvittelemassa, hän ei enää kiusannut palvelijoita,
ei, heidän huvittelunsa ei ollenkaan enää viehättänyt, eivät he olleet
niin sukkelat hyppimään kuin Kalle. Oli hänellä nyt sentään jo
toinenkin keino saada aikaansa kulumaan ja ikäväänsä haihtumaan:
hän lueskeli, kirjan toisensa perästä, ensin pienimpiä, sitte vähitellen
yhä suurempia. Itse hän aina salin kaapista otti, mikä kirja milloinkin
sattui käteen.

Palvelijat tietysti olivat hyvillään, että saivat olla tytöltä rauhassa,

kaikki muut paitsi Kaisa, joka hellästi rakasti Liinaa. Ensi päivinä hän
ei tytön poissa oloa luotansa suuresti huomannutkaan, tuntui niin
helpolta rauha hänestäkin ja suloiselta, tieto, että lapsella oli hauska
ikäisensä kumppanin seurassa. Mutta kun Liina ei kumppanin poissa
ollessakaan enää turvautunut Kaisaan, alkoi tämä vanha palvelija
ikävystyä ja itsekseen toivotella tyttöä luoksensa vaikkapa kiusaakin
tekemään. Leikkihuvittelua hän mielellään soi tytölle, vaan nuo kirjat,
jotka lapsen kokonaan vieroittivat pois hänestä, niitä hän alkoi
kadehtia, ja samassa rupesi hänestä tuntumaan koko tuo Liinan
luvun into oudolta, luonnottomalta ja vaaralliselta, vaikka hän ei
osannutkaan oikein selittää, minkä tähden siltä tuntui.

Oudosteli sitä vähän rovastikin, mutta toisekseen ajatteli, että

eihän hyvien kirjain lukeminen voinut pahaksi olla, ja hän
umpimähkään luotti, että hänellä toki ei "huonoja" kirjoja ollutkaan.
Onnettomuudeksi hän nyt ei sattunut muistamaan omaa entistä
ohjettansa, jota oli vanhemmille lapsilleen koettanut painaa mieleen:
kaikki, kuin soveltuu kehittyneille aikaihmisille, jotka kykenevät
itsekin asioita arvostelemaan, ei sovellu lapsilla eikä
kehittymättömille aikaihmisillekään, jotka ottavat asiat
noudatettaviksi esimerkeiksi aivan sellaisinaan, kuin ne heille
esiytyvät joko tosi elämässä laikku kertomuksien kautta
mielikuvituksessa. Kenties rovasti ei tuota tullut ajatelleeksi sen
tähden, että luuli Liinaa vielä liian lapseksi ymmärtämään mitään
varsinaisesta kirjain sisällyksestä; mitäpä tuosta, jos hän sisälukua
harjoittelikin mistä kirjasta hyvänsä.

Siinä rovasti pahasti pettyi. Ei Liina sisälukua harjoitellut, se alkoi

piankin käydä rentonaan, ja aikaa myöten Liina ehti lukea koko
joukon kirjoja, niiden seassa hempeätekoisia pikku romaanejakin,
jotka olivat täynnä rakkauden liverrystä ja estävien vehkeiden surua.
Ihmeen nopeasti hänen mielikuvituksensa oppi luomaan kerrotut
kuvaukset eläviksi. Tosin kirjoissa sattui eteen monta hänen
ymmärrykselleen vielä liian vaikeatakin asiaa, mutta ne saivat jäädä
käsittämättä, ei hän niiden miettimiseen joutanut pysähtymään, hän
tahtoi vain loikkia uusien tuttujen kanssa yhä uusilla kisakentillä.
Toisia asioita hän käsitti omalla lapsellisella tavallaan, vaan eläviksi
ne siltä tulivat. Niinpä kerrottu rakkaus oli hänestä vain hyvin hyvää
tuttavuutta ja henkilöt, aikaihmisetkin, vain lapsia, jotka mielellään
leikkivät yhdessä ja huvikseen suutelivat toisiansa. Tietysti Liinasta
tuntuivat sulalta häijyydeltä ne vehkeet, joilla muut syrjäiset henkilöt
estivät kertomusten "suuria lapsia" viattomasta leikistä. Hän itki
näiden sorrettujen kanssa ja kuohui vihasta noita häiritsijöitä
kohtaan, ja se se juuri erittäin harmitti, että heitä ei käynyt komentaa,
kuten Liina oli tottunut tekemään, vaikka ne ihka elävinä olivat
tuossa aivan silmäin edessä. Tämä oli niin kiusallista, että Liina
välistä itsekseen puristi nyrkkiä ja puri hammasta kiukusta sekä
purskahti itkemään, kun ei mikään muu auttanut. Itku tosin lievitti
aina kerrakseen, mutta seuraavalla kerralla pakkautui harmi vain sitä
katkerampana kiusaamaan.

Isäänsä Liinalla ei ollut niin suurta luottamusta, että olisi tätä

mielipahaansa hänelle mennyt kertomaan. Kaisalle hän kerran tai
pari yritti valittamaan, mutta emännöitsijä ei ollut sellaisia kirjoja
koskaan lukenut eikä käsittänyt Liinan tarkoitusta, sanoi vain: "mitä
siinä nyt hulluttelet!" tai "ole hulluttelematta!" ja siitä lähtein piti Liina
surunsa itsekseen, puhumalta niistä kellekään muille kuin Kallelle,
joka ihmeissään suu auki kuunteli Liinan vilkkaita kertomuksia
leikistä levätessä.

Täten olivat asiat olleet lähes kaksi vuotta.

Johtuipa sitte Limalle eräänä päivänä mieleen tehdä Kallelle

samoin kuin kertomusten "suuret" tytöt leikkitovereillensa,
nähdäkseen vain, tuliko kukaan sitä estämään. Hän yritti
suutelemaan Kallea, tietysti muiden näkemättä, kuten oli lukenut
"suurten" lasten tehneen. Mutta olipa hän sentään vielä niin
tottumaton salailemisvehkeihin, että ryhtyi tuohon koetukseen
keskellä pappilan pihaa. Kalle vastusteli, kotonansa kun oli
tottumaton moisiin hyväilyihin, mutta sai Liina kuitenkin pitkän
temmellyksen jälkeen suudelluksi häntä poskelle ja nenään.

Rovasti katseli tuota kaikkea kammarinsa ikkunasta, olematta

ensin milläänkään. Vaan viimein hänelle välähti mieleen: "entäpä, jos
nuo rakastuvat toisiinsa, kun vielä leikkivät muutamia vuosia!" Se
ajatus ajoi rovastin muhkeana rappusille. Hän kutsui Kallen eteensä,
käski häntä heti menemään kotiinsa sekä kielsi koskaan enää
tulemasta pappilaan. Siinä rovastilta unohtui toinen oma ohjeensa
käyttämättä; neuvo ensi kerralla ja kurita vasta sitte, jos ei neuvo
auta!

"Liinahan se…" koetti Kalle puolustautua, mutta rovasti vain

jyrkästi viittasi maantielle päin. Niinpä Kallen ei auttanut muuta
arvella kuin lähteä hitaasti astua lönkyttämään kohti porttia, jonne
hänen toinen yhtä hyvä leikkikumppaninsa, suuri Musti-koira,
nähtyään rovastin äkäisenä, häntä äristen seurasi.

Liina tillahti itkemään, kun näet arvasi hupaisten leikkien nyt

loppuneen. Mutta rovasti ei sittekään enää huutanut Kallea takaisin,
kuten Liina toivoi isänsä tekevän hänen itkunsa tähden.

Näin äkisti päättyi Liinan ja Kallen seurustelu, ja Notkolan isäntä

oli siksi ylpeä mies, että, kun kuuli poikansa ajetuksi pois pappilasta,
hänkin kielsi häntä sinne enää koskaan menemästä ja itsekseen
päätti näyttää rovastille, että mies se Kallestakin tulee, ikään kuin ei
muka joka pojasta pitäisi tuleman mies eikä joka isä olisi velvollinen
kasvattamaan poikaansa mieheksi paraan taidon ja kyvyn mukaan.

Tuolla uhalla pantiin Kalle syksyn tullen kansakouluun. Ollen

hyväpäinen eikä ijältäänkään enää mikään pikku lapsen huima kävi
hän sen lävitse määräajassa ja pääsi sitte muutamaksi vuodoksi
oppikouluunkin.

Mutta eipä Notkolan isäntä sentään aikonut pojastansa varsinaista

lukumiestä, vaan kunnon maanviljelijää, hänellä kun oli hyvä ja
isonlainen tila. Hyvin oli Kallesta vastahakoista keskeyttää
oppikouluunsa ja lähteä Kurkijoelle. Pappilassa alkanut
herrastuminen kasvoi kasvamistaan, niin että jo alkoi tuntua ikävällä
antautua tuolle ruumiillisen työn alalle. Totteli hän kuitenkin, kun isä
muuten uhkasi kerrassaan katkaista kotoa juoksevan rahasuonen ja
pakottaa pojan pysymään kauniisti kotona.

II.

Silloin kuin Kalle karkoitettiin pappilasta, olisi Liinakin kyllä jo ollut

kouluijässä, vaan eipä rovasti raaskinut luopua ainoasta elämänsä
sulostuttajasta niin pitkäksi ajaksi. Sen tähden hankittiin
syksymmällä opettajatar kotiin.

Ennen hänen tuloansa ehti Liina kylliksensä ikävöidä Kallea.

Hänen aikanansa olivat kirjat niin hupaisesti leikityttäneet ja
lennätelleet häntä ja loitsineet hänen mielikuvituksena eteen yhä
uusia kuvauksia, joissa Kallekin jo ehti esiytyä kyllä kymmenenkin
muotoisena, milloin uljaana ritarina, milloin tonttu-ukkona ja milloin
repaleisena paimenpoikana, ja kaikkien niiden uusien tuttavain
seurassa oli sanomattoman hupainen ja hauska. Sitte Kallen
karkoituksen jälkeen oli ensimmältä kaikki niin kelvottoman ikävää ja
kolkkoa, että pitkään aikaan ei tehnyt mieli lukeakaan.

Viimein kyllästyttyään ikävöimiseen ryhtyi hän taas katselemaan

salin kaapin aarteita ja varsinkin kuvia. Siinä hänelle sattumalta
joutui käteen Piplian historia, mutta hyvin pahaan aikaan. Katsellen
kuvia selaili hän lehtiä. Kiintyivätpä siinä silmät erääsen kohtaan,
jossa kerrottiin Jaakobista ja Esausta, mitenkä Jaakob petti isänsä ja
vanhemman veljensä ja miten Rebekka oli avullisena hänen
vehkeensä toimeenpanossa. Nykyisessä kiukkuisessa
mielentilassaan Liina käsitti meille opiksi annetun ja muistiin
kirjoitetun tapauksen vain hupaiseksi seikkailuksi. Hän itsekseen
nauroi Iisakin neuvottomuutta, ja tuollainen lystikäs petos tuntui
oikein viehättävältä. Mitäpä hän tiesi sen syvemmistä aiheista ja
siinäkö hänellä oli aikaa muistaa kymmentä käskyä tai edes sitäkään
niistä, jossa kielletään valehtelemasta, tai sitä, jossa käsketään
vanhempia kunnioittamaan. Jopa ne ehkä olivat perin unhottuneetkin
koko käskyt siitä asti, kuin hän lakkasi Kaisan johdolla lukemasta, no
kun olivat silloinkin tulleet muistiin ainoastaan ulkoläksynä, sillä
eihän Kaisalla ollut taitoa tehdä niin syvällistä viisautta eläväksi.

Tuo Jaakobin onnistunut seikkailu kiihdytti Liinan uteliaisuutta.

Hän lueskeli sieltä täällä, etsien toisia yhtä hauskoja tapauksin. Niitä
ei sattunut löytymään ja sen tähden Liina, katseltuaan kuvat, pisti
koko kirjan pois ennen luettujen ja katseltujen joukkoon sekä luopui
sillä kertaa enemmästä haeskelemisesta.

Illempana Liina sitte hämmästytti isäänsä kysymyksellä, minkä

tähden
Isak ei huomannut karvaisia nahkoja Jaakobin käsistä ja kaulasta.

Rovasti, ollen syvissä mietteissään saarnan valmistuksessa,

vastasi ajattelematta vain lyhyeen:

"Se oli Jumalan tahto. Et sinä vielä sitä käsitä. Kunhan uusi täti
tulee, niin hän kyllä selittää."

Liinan täytyi tyytyä siihen vastaukseen, mutta mieleen jäi hänelle

kuitenkin hämärä ajatus, että Jumalakin toisinaan "tahtoo" petosta.

Sitte Liina luki erään pikku kirjan, jossa vallaton poika itse
hullunkurisesti kertoi, mitä kaikkia kepposia hän teki. Ne tarttuivat
Liinan mieleen kuin tappurat tervaan, eihän hänellä siinä ollut aikaa
ottaa huomioonsa kirjan oikeaa tarkoitusta, joka oli pahankurisuuden
vitsominen, ei, hän päin vastoin itsekseen jo edeltä päin riemuitsi,
miten hauska tulee kiusata uutta tätiä, jota nyt odoteltiin. Ei hän
sentään tuota riemuinnut häijyydestä, vaan yksinomaan huvin
halusta.

Joutuipa viimein päivä, jona opettajattaren piti illan suussa

tuleman. Liina oli suuressa odotuksen touhussa uteliaisuus kun näet
voitti kaikki muut halut, yksin kirjainkin katselemisen ja sitä paitsi
tuntui ihan kuin erityistä vetoa tekemään jotakin erityistä kepposta,
jolle saisi kyllikseen nauraa ja ilakoida.

Viimein saapui täti ja Liina juoksi isänsä edellä ottamaan häntä

vastaan. Hyvät ystävät heistä heti näytti tulevan ja rovasti oli
hyvillään, kun Liina niin paikalla rupesi tutuksi opettajattarelle. Mutta
tyttönen katseli häntä tutun silmillä ainoastaan siitä syystä, että oli jo
niin kauan edeltä päin varustautunut sitä uutta huvia kokemaan ja
näkemään.

Illallisen jälkeen rovasti vielä hetkisen puheli perheen uuden

jäsenen kanssa. Liina sill'aikaa pujahti opettajattaren kammariin,
jossa Kaisa jo oli tilan valmiiksi antanut, käänsi suurella vaivalla
peitteen päällimmäisine lakanoineen sievästi kaksin kerroin jaloksiin
päin, veti alalakanan kaksin kerroin ylös tyynylle asti ja, oiaistuaan
jälleen peitteen, sovitti alalakanan reunan peittoon reunan päälle.
Tosin ei tila enää näyttänyt niin sievätekoiselta kuin Kaisan jäljellä,
mutta "kukapa sitä niin tarkkaan tutkii", lohdutteli Liina mieltänsä…
Palattuaan työstänsä kävi hän sanomassa isälleen hyvää yötä ja
saattoi uutta tätiä kammarinsa ovelle saakka, vaan ei uskaltanut
mennä sisälle, kun jo siinäkin täytyi väkisin purskahtaa nauramaan
ajatellessa, mihin pulaan täti oli joutuva. Sen tähden hän karkasi
tiehensä, ehtimättä kunnolla edes toivottaa hyvää yötäkään.

Opettajatar tosin vähän kummasteli Liinan naurun puuskaa, vaan

tietysti ei voinut arvata asiaa silloin eikä vielä sittemminkään, vaikka
joutuikin pieneen pulaan maata pannessaan, kun jalat eivät
päässeetkään alemmaksi kuin lakanan pohjukkaan puolisänkyyn
asti; sillä hän näet luuli tuon vain vahingossa tapahtuneen tilaa
tehdessä eikä voinut edes aavistaakaan Liinan kykenevän sellaista
vehkeilemään.

Seuraavana aamuna Liina ei malttanut olla ilvehtivän näköisenä

kysymättä tädiltä, miten hän oli maannut ja oliko tila hyvä.

Silloin opettajatar heti arvasi asian, mutta, huolimatta pahastua

leikistä ja tahtomatta torumisella heti ikävystyttää oppilastansa, sanoi
hän vain hyvin ystävällisesti ja ikään kuin ihmetellen: "vai olet sinä jo
niin sukkela!"

Liina sen käsitti muka suureksikin kiitoslauseeksi ja alkoi siis sitä

uutterammin ajatella uutta koetuskeinoa. Ja kekseliäs hän oli
panemaan toimeen kaikki, mitä oli kirjoista itse lukenut tai Kallelta
kuulemalla oppinut.

Milloin opettajattaren pöydän laatikossa kömpi ja rapisi paperissa

eräitä kovakuoriaisia, milloin oli hänen tilalleen kylvetty lyhyiksi
leikeltyjä jouhia, jotka pistelivät ja polttivat pahemmin kuin mitkään
itikat ja ytykät, ja milloin oli oven kääkä noettuna, ja opettajatar siitä
tuhrautuneella kädellään nokesi silmänsä.

Näiden ja lukemattomain muiden kujeiden antoi opettajatar

tapahtua muka ihan hänen huomaamattansa, että Liina ei saisi
nauraa, kuten niillä tarkoitti, ja sen tähden viimein itsestänsä
kyllästyisi ja lakkaisi niistä. Se keino auttoikin pian; ikäväksihän se
käy yksipuolinen ilo.
 Vaikeampi oli ohjata Liinaa lukemisessa. Uusi täti pian huomasi,
että Liinalla oli oma päänsä oppimisessa kuten kaikessa muussakin.
Hän sitä koetti hellävaraan taivutella, mutta turhaan; eikä hän
kovuutta ollenkaan ryhtynyt käyttämään, kun näet huomasi, että se
olisi vastoin rovastin mieltä, ja sitä paitsi pelkäsi, että kuritta niinkin
isoksi kasvanut tyttö nyt kurista ehkä vain paatuisi ja pahenisi. Niinpä
Liina luki mitä luki oman mielensä ja halunsa mukaan.

Sai opettajatar hänelle sentään selittelemällä kootuksi muistiin

minkä mitäkin tietoja, kunnes muutamien vuosien kuluttua kyllästyi
tuohon mielestänsä varsin hedelmättömään työhön ja ilmoitti
rovastille huomanneensa Liinalle olevan parasta päästä johonkin
varsinaiseen kouluun ja sen tähden nyt itse päättäneensä lähteä
pois.

Vaikea oli rovastin luopua tyttärestänsä, mutta täytyipä sentään

järjen voittaa tunteet.

Vastenmielinen oli Liinasta itsestäänkin tuo kotoa pois lähdön

ajatus. Siitä ikävissään hän Kaisan varustellessa hänen
matkatarpeitaan ryhtyi taas pahaan aikaan lukemaan.
Ensimmäisessä kirjassa, jonka hän sattui saamaan käteensä,
puhuttiin vain nuoresta lapsentytöstä, joka väsyksissä nukahti;
sill'aikaa lapsi putosi kätkyestä ja tyttö sen tähden ajettiin pois
palveluksesta. "Se oli parahiksi hänelle!" ajatteli Liina; "miksipä hän
nukkui!" Samassa hänelle johtui mieleen, että olihan hänkin kerran
pienempänä pudonnut sängystään, ja Kaisaa oli siitä kovasti toruttu.
Sitä muistellessaan hänen aivan täytyi koettaa otsaansa, vieläkö
siinä oli kuhmu jäljellä. Jo se toki oli ammoin pois painunut, mutta
"eiköhän pitäisi sittekin lähettää Kaisa etsimään paikkaa muualta?"
päätti hän mietelmänsä, muistamatta, että hän itse kaikkein
vähimmin olisi tähän asti tullut ja vastakaan tulisi toimeen Kaisatta.

Toisesta kirjasta hän oppi, että sopii muka vastustaa

vanhempienkin tahtoa ja halveksia heidän käyttämäänsä kuritusta,
vieläpä pilkatakin vanhempiansa. Sitä kaikkea tosin oli kirjassa
esitetty tyhmän pojan tehneen tyhmille vanhemmilleen; mutta se
molemminpuolinen tyhmyys oli niin heikosti kuvattu, että Liinasta
poika näytti aika sankarilta ja kaikki hänen tekonsa oikeilta, ja hän
sen johdosta ajatteli, että jospa vain isä yrittäisi antamaan hänelle
vitsaa, niin hän juoksisikin karkuun; eikö hän jo ollut suuri tyttö!

Vaan kolmas kirja se vasta sattui oikein Liinan mieleinen. Siinä

hän mielikuvituksessaan seurasi pari vuotta kahta "isoa" lasta, jotka
mielellään "leikkivät" yhdessä, vaan joita vanhempansa sitte
koettivat erottaa toisistaan. Mutta hepä tuttavuuden ja muka
viattoman leikin innossaan eivät huolineetkaan kuulla vanhempiensa
kieltoja eikä syitä, vaan jatkoivat leikkiänsä salaa, kunnes salaa
myöskin menivät vihille, jonka Liina käsitti merkitsevän vain, että
heitä, kuten itse sanoivat, "nyt ei mikään enää voinut erottaa"
leikistä, lisäsi Liina ajatuksissaan. Tämä oli Liinan mielestä juuri
hänelle sopiva esimerkki; hän kymmen- tai yksitoista-vuotisessa
viisaudessaan päätti, että hänenkin olisi pitänyt mennä Kallen
kanssa vihille; sittehän isän olisi täytynyt kutsua Kalle takaisin
leikkimään. Vaan nyt se jo oli liian myöhäistä, Kalle oli poissa, missä
lienee ollutkaan. Ja Liina oli pahoillaan oikein sydämmestänsä, ett'ei
ollut ennemmin tiennyt tuota keinoa; käsi ihan puristui nyrkiksi.

Tästä ja muista esimerkeistä kasvoi Liinan mieleen melkoisesti

kiukkua isää kohtaan eikä hän enää ollut niin perin vastahakoinen
lähtemään pois kotoa. Viimein alkoi uteliaisuuskin vähin autella, niin
että hän melkein iloiten nousi kärreihin, kun oli lähdettävä ajamaan
koulukaupunkiin. Renki-Heikin hän tosin olisi mieluisemmin suonut
tulevan matkakumppaniksi, "vaan yhtä ajamistahan se on isänkin
kanssa", ajatteli hän, taipuen siihen, jota ei mitenkään käynyt
muuttaa.

Näin joutui Liina uusiin oloihin ja toimiin. Koulukuriin hän oli vallan
tottumaton ja samoin myöskin oleskelemaan niin suuressa
tyttöjoukossa. Oltuaan muutamia päiviä hämillään, tahtoi hän jatkaa
kotitapojaan, komentaa kaikkia muita, ja kun muut eivät ruvenneet
tottelemaan, joutui hän riitaan kaikkien kanssa. Opettajat olivat
hänestä pääsemättömässä pulassa. He tosin huomasivat tytön
entisen kasvatuksen olleen liian löyhän, mutta eivät siltä uskaltaneet
paaduttamisen pelosta olla varsin ankarat hänelle. Monesti he
mielellään olisivat lähettäneet koko tytön takaisin kotiinsa, vaan kun
hän aina hyvästi osasi läksynsä, toivoivat he hänen aikaa myöten
tasautuvan ja viisastuvan kurituksettakin.

Viimein tuo tasautuminen tapahtuikin, vaikka ei suinkaan

viisastumisesta, kuten opettajat luulivat. Liina koetti jatkaa
vallattomuutta ja iloista leikkiä koulukumppanien kesken, mutta
kummastuksekseen huomasi heidän tekevän pilkkaa, että niin suuri
tyttö oli niin lapsellinen, kuin Liina tosiaankin oli. Se pila tuntui perin
kiusalliselta, varsinkin kuin he niin salaperäisesti juttelivat omia
salaisuuksiansa, milloin Liina yritti vallattomasti kertomaan jotakin
lukemaansa rakkausseikkailua niin kuin se olisi ollut vain tavallista
hauskaa lasten leikkiä. Ollen arka itsestään muuttui hän siitä
kerrassaan tasaiseksi ja hiljaiseksi ja sulkeutui itsekseen kuin
raakkueläin kuoreensa, jota on häiritty päivää paistattamasta. Hän
muuttui umpimieliseksi ja uneksivan näköiseksi. Täytyihän hänen
saada leikkiä, ja kun toiset tytöt olivat liian kehittyneet leikkimään
hänen kanssansa, leikki hän mielikuvituksissaan.

Nyt hän tosin jo alkoi aavistaa, että jotakin eroa ehkä lienee
"pienten" ja "suurten" lasten leikin välillä, vaan ei hän sitä vielä niin
äkisti kyennyt käsittämään. Sen tähden hän ryhtyi yhä
innokkaammin lukemaan kaikenlaisia kirjoja, joita sai rajattomasti
ottaa isänsä tiliin kaupungin kirjakaupasta. Läksyjen lukuun häneltä
ei kulunutkaan aikaa ollenkaan; osaksi hän ei viitsinyt vaivata
itseään sellaisilla joutavilla, ja osaksi hän ne osasi lukemattakin, kun
koulussa kaikki luettavat edeltä päin valmistettiin hyvästi ja hän ne jo
siitä oppi mielestänsä kylliksi. Siispä romaanien lukeminen pysyi
hänellä yksinomaisena työnä ja huvina.

Minkäänlaista tosi elämää ei ollut ohjaamassa Liinan

mielikuvituksia siitä asti, kuin hän kokonaan vetäytyi pois
kumppanien seurasta. Eipä siis kumma, että hänen kuvitelmansa ja
sovituksensa omaan elämään sattuivat muodostumaan hiukan
nurinpuolisiksi tai ainakin yksipuolisiksi.

Näin hän muun muassa oppi, että ihmisen muka pitää olla
suurellinen puolestaan ja loukkautua pienimmistäkin aiheista, eikä
suinkaan sovi antaa anteeksi mitään sellaista loukkausta, vaan
täytyy oman kunnian tähden vaatia siitä hyvitystä.

Liina alkoi heti käyttää tätä uutta ohjetta koulussa. Jos

vieruskumppani vahingossa nykäsi kirjoitustunnilla Liinan vihkoa,
nosti hän siitä välihetkellä aika metelin. Toinen koetti puolustautua
vahingollaan, mutta Liina oli muutamista kirjoista ja omista
kumppanuuden kokemuksistaan oppinut luulemaan pahaa kaikista ja
kääntämään kaikki pahaksi, ja sen tähden hän kiven kovaan väitti
toisen sysänneen tahallaan, että hänen kirjoitusvihkonsa tuhrautuisi.
Kumppanit kyllä koettivat välittää, mutta turhaan, ja silloin he
taitamattomuudessaan neuvon sijasta rupesivat Liinaa moittimaan ja
sanomaan häijyksi. Siitä Liina suuttui ja uhkasi vaatia hyvitystä koko
joukolta. Tytöt alkoivat pilkata, ja Liina muuttui yhä
umpinaisemmaksi. Mitään erittäin sopimatonta Liina ei koskaan
tehnyt, siihen hän oli yhä vielä liian lapsellinen. Kumppanit tottuivat
myöskin kärsimään hänen oikkujansa ja koettivat kaikin tavoin
karttaa hänen pahastuttamistansa. Siten hän selvisi ilman pahoja
vastuksia koulun läpi, joutumatta edes rakkaushaaveiluihinkaan,
jotka muuten koulutytöillä ovat tavalliset. Olihan hänellä siinä kylliksi,
että sai ajatuksissaan seurustella kaikenmoisten romaanisankarien
kanssa ja nauttia heidän ilojansa ja surujansa.

Kuitenkin alkoi vähitellen tuntua mielessä omituista tyhjyyttä, jota

eivät mitkään kirjat saaneet haihtumaan; päin vastoin se tuntui sitä
kolkommalta, mitä enemmän hän lueskeli. Hänelle näet kävi aivan
samoin kuin huviksensa matkustelijoille, joilla ei ole mitään muuta
pyrintöä matkustuksensa tarkoituksena: mitä enemmän he näkevät,
sitä tyhjemmältä tuntuu heistä maailma.

Ihan itsestään viimein selvisi Liinalle, että tuo sydämmen tyhjyys

kaiketi oli vain rakkauden kaipausta, ja kohta tuli aivan varmaksi
vakuutukseksi, että hänen piti löytää joku vähän todellisempi olento
kuin nuo romaanisankarit, sellainen, jota voisi ruumiillisillakin silmillä
katsella. Mutta silloin loppuikin Liinan koulunkäynti, hän sai
päästötodistuksen käteensä.

III.

Kahdeksantoista ikäisenä palasi Liina koulusta kotiin ainiaaksi, kuten

isä ilotteli, mutta ainoastaan "kunnes…", kuten Liina itse arveli.
 Kotiin lähtiessään valitsi hän, kuten ennenkin joka kesäksi, aika
röykkiön kirjoja eväiksi; mitäpä hänellä muutakaan olisi ollut maalla
tekemistä.

Kesä kului jotenkin hauskasti, aamut makaellen lähelle puolta

päivää, keskipäivät lueskellen ja illat kävellen tai kammarin ikkunasta
haaveksivasti katsellen kohti avaruutta.

Välistä hän käveli puutarhassakin marjoja suuhunsa

poimiskelemassa, ne kun maistuivat makeammilta tuoreeltansa kuin
toisten kerääminä ja astiassa istuneina.

Vähitellen alkoi Liinasta kuitenkin olo tuntua ikävältä. Hänellä näet

ei ollut vähintäkään halua minkään työn tekoon, ei edes senkään
vertaa, että olisi itse ommellut leningistänsä irti karisseen napin
jälleen kiinni. Sehän muka oli Kaisan asia. Mistäpä Liina olisikaan
saanut työn halua, kun ei kukaan ollut häntä lapsempana koskaan
siihen opastanut eikä totuttanut.

Ikävä kasvoi, mikäli kirjakasa hupeni, ja ihmeen pian se loppuikin.

Liinalla näet olikin omituinen lukemistapa, varsinkin viime aikoina.
Hän tutki vain alun kustakin rakkausromaanista — muista kirjoista
hän ei huolinutkaan —, katseli sitte sieltä täältä kertomuksen juonta
ja lopusta viimein, tulivatko "he" onnellisiksi vaiko onnettomiksi. Muut
kertomuksen henkilöt eivät muka ansainneet tarkempaa tutkimista,
paitsi ehkä välistä joku kovasydämminen likeinen sukulainen tai muu
holhoja, joka koetti nuorten aikeita häiritä ja estellä.

Salin kaapin Liina tiesi jo ammoin moneen kertaan katselleensa.

Nyt kun eväskirjat loppuivat, kävi hän selaamassa pitäjän
lainakirjaston, löysi sieltä muutamia vanhoja repaleita ja lukea hotasi
kaikki yhtenä päivänä.
 Nyt vasta aika oikein pitkäksi muuttui. Rinnassa ammotti tukala
tyhjyys, joka aina tulee tyhjäntoimittajan osaksi ja kasvaa sitä
suuremmaksi, mitä enemmän sitä koetetaan haihduttaa yksinomaan
huvituksella, millaisella hyvänsä. Rikoshan aina maallisenkin lain
rikos kasvattaa rikkojan mieleen tyytymättömyyttä, joka ei haihdu
paatuneimmastakaan mielestä kokonaan ennen, kuin rikos on
jollakin tavalla sovitettu. Vielä suurempaa tyytymättömyyttä ja
levottomuutta tietysti kasvaa korkeimman lain rikkomisesta, kun sitä
rikosta näet ei itse kyetäkään sovittamaan ja monen, ehkäpä
jokaisenkin "vanhan ihmisen" mielestä armoon ja anteeksi
anomiseen turvautuminen tuntuu häpeälliseltä ja omaa ihmisarvoa
alentavalta. Ihmekö siis että Liinan mieli oli levoton ja tyhjän tukala,
sillä hänhän oli rikkonut molemmat osat tästä lyhyestä lainpykälästä:
"Rukoile ja tee työtä!"

Hän oli lukenut eräästä sellaisestakin onnettomasta, joka

tyhjäntoimituksestaan ja huvittelustaan oli viimein tullut hulluksi, ja
häntä alkoi pelottaa. Siinä kirjassa ei ollut sanallakaan viitattu
hulluksi tulemisen syvintä syytä eikä siis myöskään osoitettu oikeata,
eipä millaistakaan varokeinoa sitä vastaan. Kertomuksen kirjoittaja
oli kaiketi arvellut itsekunkin lukijan itsensä tekevän tapauksesta
omat johtopäätöksensä, millaiset kullekin soveltuivat. Liina oli yhtenä
esimerkkinä niistä lukemattomista, jotka eivät itse kykene tekemään
oikeita johdelmia. Ei, häntä vain pahasti pelotti, ja ihmeellisempi kuin
hänen kykenemättömyytensä arvaamaan kirjan tekijän syvällisempiä
ajatuksia, jos niitä hänellä muuten oli ollutkaan, ihmeellisempi
tosiaankin oli Liinan kestävyys, että hän ei tullut hulluksi sinä pitkänä
vuotena, joka kului koulunkäynnin päätyttyä tuon ikävän ja pelon
vaiheella.
 Kouluaikana oli edes koulussa istuminen ollut jonkinlaisena
pakkotyönä, johon kului aikaa; mutta nyt oli sekin lopussa. Kotona ei
ollut pakkoa tehdä ei niin mitään eikä Liina olisi viitsinyt mihinkään
ryhtyä käsiksi, vaikka olisi käskettykin. Hän vain hautoi ikäväänsä ja
samalla mietiskeli, että tuohon mielen kamalaan tyhjyyteen sopisi
niin hyvin täytteeksi rakkauden liekki. Mutta eipä lähitienoilla ollut
ketään sen sytyttäjää. Isä vielä itse hoiti apulaisetta papilliset
tehtävänsä ja niissä muutamissa herrastaloissa, joissa rovasti silloin
tällöin kävi, oli ainoastaan vanhahkoja tyttäriä, joiden seura Liinaa ei
ollenkaan huvittanut, he kun eivät kuuluneet osaavan muusta puhua
kuin töistään. Siispä ei muuta kuin ikävää ja pelkääviä aavistuksia ja
yhä uudestaan samaa koko pitkä vuosi.

Eräänä sateisena syyspäivänä Liina istui kammarissaan

kiikkutuolissa, johon kapineesen hän oli erittäin mieltynyt. Siitä hän
katseli pilvien rakoja, kunnes ajatukset alkoivat lennellä
romaanisankarien keralla muilla mailla.

Suruinen oli hänen mielensä ja yhä kovemmin alkoi kalvaa tuo

alinomainen haikea kaipaus. Viimein sen seasta selvisi esiin
lapsuuden muisto, Notkolan Kallen kuva. Mutta hänhän oli poissa,
kaukana, ja oli jo ollut kauan, aina siitä asti, kuin Liina lapsellisessa
viattomuudessaan yritti häntä suutelemaan. Ei Liina enää oikein
muistanut hänen näköänsäkään.

Kaiho kasvoi kasvamistaan ja Liinalle alkoi herua kyyneleitä

silmiin.

Tultiin kutsumaan päivälliselle.

Liina, säpsähtäen ajatuksistaan, läksi.

 Rovastin ruokaillessa tyttärineen tuotiin postilaukku. Vanhus heti
jätti lusikkansa, avasi laukun, työnsi sanomalehdet syrjemmäksi
pöydälle ja luki ainoan tulleen kirjeen.

Hänen otsansa vähän rypistyi, mutta sanomatta muuta kuin paljon

merkitsevän "hm!" pisti hän paperin sanomalehtikasan päälle ja
ryhtyi jatkamaan syöntiänsä.

Tuo "hm!" ei jäänyt Liinalta huomaamatta. Pöydästä noustessa

hän kysyi, mistä kirje oli ja mitä uutta se tiesi.

"Olen jo vanha", selitti rovasti, "enkä viitsisi enää itse pitää huolta
maatöistä. Kirjoitin Kurkijoelle ja pyysin sieltä luotettavaa pehtoria, ja
nyt esittävät Notkolan Kallea ja sanovat häntä taitavimmaksi
kaikista."

Liina punastui, vaan virkkoi teeskennellen:

"Mikäs sitte estää Kallea ottamasta. Tottapahan siellä paraiten

tietävät hänen taitonsa."

"Olisi tuo saattanut olla vähän etempää. Kuka tietää, eikö hän
tässä rupea enemmän hoitamaan omaa kotoansa kuin pappilaa."

Rovastilta oli jo ehtinyt kokonaan unhottua Liinan lapsuuden

aikaiset suuteluvehkeet. Jos hän ne olisi muistanut, niin tuskinpa hän
olisi pehtorikseen kutsunut Kallea, kuten nyt teki, ell'ei ehkä olisi
uskonut tytärtänsä nyt jo viisaammaksi kuin silloin lapsena.

Liina, saatuaan kuulin isänsä päätöksen, alkoi ikään kuin vähän

elpyä. Saivathan hänen halveksimisensa nyt jotakin lujaa pohjaa.
Hän kuvaili ajatuksissaan Kallea aika herraksi ja ehti sinä
kuukautena, joka vielä kului hänen tuloonsa asti, jo edeltä päin