ISSN 0001-4338, Izvestiya, Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics, 2023, Vol. 59, Suppl. 2, pp. S128–S140.

© Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2023.

Russian Text © The Author(s), 2022, published in Fundamental’naya i Prikladnaya Klimatologiya, 2022, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 297–322.

Cold Waves in European Russia: Structure, Circulation Conditions,

and Changes in Seasonal Statistics
M. Yu. Bardina, b, c, * and T. V. Platovaa
a Izrael
Institute of Global Climate and Ecology, Moscow, 107258 Russia
b Institute
of Geography, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119017 Russia
c
Obukhov Institute of Atmospheric Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119017 Russia
*e-mail: mick-bardin@yandex.ru
Received September 2, 2022; revised September 13, 2022; accepted September 16, 2022

Abstract—The statistics, structure, and variability of large-scale cold waves in various latitudinal zones of
European Russia (ER) in the winter and summer seasons are considered. The largest number of waves is
observed in winter in the south of ER and in summer in the north. The contribution to the total seasonal dura-
tion of the longest waves (more than 12 days) is observed in winter in the north (>40%); in summer, waves of
such duration are not observed in the center and south of ER. Winter cold waves in all zones are characterized
by areas of negative temperature anomaly, covering almost the entire territory of Russia, with centers in the
corresponding zone of the ER and extending eastward up to 140° E. Summer waves have a three-field struc-
ture with centers of cold over ER and the west of Western Siberia and over Yakutia, and a positive anomaly in
the eastern part of Western Siberia and western Central Siberia. Circulation structures in the troposphere
accompanying the cold waves and their role in the formation of temperature anomalies are discussed. In win-
ter, the H500 geopotential fields during waves in the center and south of ER are characterized by a powerful
ridge over the north of ER and the Scandinavian Peninsula (which corresponds to the Scandinavian atmo-
spheric circulation mode) and a trough in the south of ER and Western Siberia. Cold waves in the northern
zone occur with a crest in the Atlantic north and a trough in the south (the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO)
negative phase) and a trough in the north of ER. Summer cold waves in all zones are accompanied by a cutoff
cyclone centered in the corresponding zone (slightly to the north for waves in ER south); a negative geopo-
tential anomaly over ER corresponds to the negative phase of East Atlantic–West Russia (EAWR) mode. The
seasonal wave duration series during the 20th to the first two decades of the 21st centuries exhibits pro-
nounced long-term variability with time scales of about a decade and several decades. In summer, there has
been a downward trend in the seasonal duration of cold waves in all ER zones since the mid-1970s, especially
significant (in terms of contribution to overall variability) in the south. In winter, a downward (insignificant)
trend is observed only for waves in the north. In the south and especially in the center, the total duration of
cold waves increases from the 1990s to the end of 2000s. The connection between this behavior of the total
duration of winter waves and changes in the Atlantic–European sector leading circulation modes is discussed.

Keywords: cold waves, structure, temperature anomaly, atmospheric circulation, variability

DOI: 10.1134/S0001433823140050

INTRODUCTION the Second Assessment Report of Roshydromet on

Changes in statistics of extreme regimes are a key
problem in modern studies of climate variability.
However, while many studies have been devoted to
studying changes in the regime of extremely high tem-
peratures (diurnal extremes, “heat waves”) (see, for
example, the bibliography in the Sixth Assessment
Report of the United Nations Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change: IPCC, 2021), changes at
the opposite end of the temperature distribution are
studied much less intensively. In Russia, in the last
decade, a number of works have been carried out that
examine changes in statistics of extremely low tem-
peratures. An overview of work up to 2014 is given in
climate change and its consequences on the territory
of the Russian Federation (OD, 2014).
The article (Vinogradova, 2018) provides an assess-
ment of changes in the number, intensity and duration
of cold waves in Russia in winter (December–Febru-
ary) for various periods from 1961 to 2010. Khleb-
nikova and Sall (2018) analyze the features of changes
and variability of seasonal extremes (with quantile
thresholds of rare frequency and the use of a general-
ized distribution of extreme values of air temperature
during the year' cold period according to observational
data on the territory of Russia, starting from the mid-
20th century; the importance of estimating trends in
extremeness indicators for climate service objectives is

S128
 COLD WAVES IN EUROPEAN RUSSIA
discussed. (Mirvis et al., 2022) provide a brief analysis
of the results of studies of negative air temperature
anomalies in winter in the Northern Hemisphere; the
reasons for their formation and a possible connection
with increased climate warming in the Arctic in recent
decades are discussed. There are also a number of
regional studies of various aspects associated with cold
waves: (Grigorieva, 2019; Kozlova and Kharlamova,
2012; Efimova et al., 2020).
It is clear that cold extremes with fixed thresholds
should become less frequent in the process of global
warming and, in a certain future, disappear com-
pletely. However, the relationship between the statis-
tics of extreme regimes and changes in average sea-
sonal temperatures may be nonmonotonic due to natu-
ral fluctuations in the circulation conditions of their
formation. Thus, (Bardin and Platova, 2019) shows the
significant influence of some atmospheric circulation
modes on the frequency of extremely low daily tem-
peratures in the Russian Federation. Therefore, to
explain the observed changes and adequately predict
changes in the future, knowledge of these circulation
conditions accompanying cold waves is very important.
Typically, extremes are analyzed at points (at mete-
orological stations, if observational data are used, or at
grid points, if reanalysis data are used). This work
takes a slightly different approach: we consider large-
scale cold waves observed in the average daily tem-
perature of an entire region, i.e., covering the entire
region. Regions chosen for analysis are the latitudinal
zones of European Russia (ER) (conventionally
north, center, and south). For such waves, their statis-
tics are analyzed as a whole for the period since the
beginning of the 20th century, including seasonal
(winter and summer) number and total duration;
changes in these statistics for the entire period under
review and separately during the period of modern
global warming; structure of temperature anomalies
during cold waves; associated conditions of atmo-
spheric circulation: large-scale climate modes, and
anticyclonic circulation, including atmospheric block-
ing, as well as cyclonic activity.
DATA AND METHODS
Large-scale cold waves occurring over an entire
region are considered. They are defined as continuous
episodes lasting at least 5 days during which the aver-
age daily air temperature, averaged over a selected
region, was below the 10th percentile (P10d ). Cold waves
of the winter and summer seasons are analyzed for
three latitudinal zones of ER: north of 60° N.
(“north”), between 50° and 60° N (“center”), and
south of 50° (“south”).
The algorithm for estimating quantiles of daily
temperature (Bardin and Platova, 2019) provides for
the preliminary exclusion of the annual variation from
the temperature for each day (T'(d) = T(d) – eT(d)),
IZVESTIYA, ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC PHYSICS
S129
obtaining a percentile estimate for the anomaly
РαT '(d) according to a fivefold sample (due to the
inclusion of the two previous and two subsequent
days) and transition to the percentile of the tempera-
ture itself: РαT(d) = РαT '(d) + eT(d). The annual vari-
ation of temperature and then the annual variation of
the obtained percentile estimate is smoothed out,
since they contain significant selective artifacts—
interday jagged edges. A low-pass symmetrical digital
filter with a cutoff point of 90 days was used.
Data for analysis were selected from the array of
daily station temperatures and precipitation amounts
maintained at All-Russia Research Institute of Hydro-
meteorological Information, World Data Centre
(Razuvaev et al., 1993; Bulygina et al., 2014): from 518
stations in the array, the longest row stations (33 in the
north, 59 in the center, and 27 in the south) were
selected to calculate the index of seasonal duration of
cold waves (NDСW), making it possible to calculate
the index since 1901; 367 stations with the smallest
number of omissions were selected to analyze the geo-
graphical distribution of anomalies over the entire ter-
ritory of the Russian Federation. Some of the omis-
sions after 2011 were filled in using urgent SYNOP
data from the MACT database of the Russian Hydro-
meteorological Center.
To determine circulation mechanisms and air tem-
perature anomalies accompanying cold waves in ER, a
compositional method was used. Geopotential field
data H1000 and H500 were obtained from the
NCEP/NCAR reanalysis array (Kalnay et al., 1996)
for four periods (00, 06, 12, and 18 UTC) since 1951;
grid 2.5° × 2.5°. Composites were obtained both for
the geopotential itself and for its deviations from the
average for 1961–1990.
In this work, we used widely distributed atmospheric
circulation indices, the data of which are easily accessi-
ble and constantly updated (source: https://www.cpc.
ncep.noaa.gov/data/teledoc/telecontents.shtml) (Barn-
ston and Livezey, 1987).
Blockings (quasi-stationary anticyclonic circula-
tions) were defined according to (Bardin, 2007) as
anticyclonic (H* > 0) areas with closed isolines in the
eddy component field H500: H*(f, l, t) = H(f, l, t) –
EL(f)H(f, t), where f, l, and t are latitude, longitude, and
time; EL(f)H is average geopotential value at latitude f,
existing and slightly shifting for at least 5 days. The lat-
ter means that (a) the distance between centers at suc-
cessive times t1 and t2 does not exceed (r1 + r2)/2, r =
(s/π)1/2 (s is the area inside the external bounding iso-
line); (b) over the entire period of its existence, the
center does not move away by more than the average
value of the radius ETr from the center average position
ET(fc, lc) (ET is the average over the lifetime).
Vol. 59 Suppl. 2 2023
S130 BARDIN, PLATOVA

Table 1. Statistics of cold waves of various durations for 1951–2020. NCW is number of waves; NDCW is total duration
(days)
North Center South

Duration winter summer winter summer winter summer

NCW NDCW NCW NDCW NCW NDCW NCW NDCW NCW NDCW NCW NDCW

5–6 days 13 73 21 114 13 67 17 91 23 126 11 59

7–9 13 101 10 77 8 64 10 75 10 77 7 53
10–12 3 31 2 21 5 56 2 20 6 64 3 30
>12 6 151 2 27 5 70 0 0 5 105 0 0
Total 34 356 34 286 33 257 29 186 44 372 21 142
Average wave duration 10.5 8.4 7.8 6.4 8.4 6.8

RESULTS in this value. However, in the winter season, a signifi-

The general characteristics of cold waves in the
northern (from 60° N), central (50°–60° N), and south-
ern (south of 50°) zones of ER are given in Table 1,
which presents statistics of the number and seasonal
duration of cold waves over a 70-year period since
1951, for which the temperature and atmospheric cir-
culation anomaly structures will be further obtained.
For each latitude zone, the total duration of waves, as
well as the average duration of one wave, is longer in
winter. The longest waves on average are observed in
the north; the average duration of even summer waves
here is longer than winter waves in the center (and
equal to the duration of winter waves in the south).
Most waves are observed in the south in winter (the
total duration of all waves is also the longest here), and
in summer there were the fewest cold waves.
In winter in the north, the longest (>12 days) waves
make the maximum contribution to the total duration
of cold waves; in the center there is approximately
equal contribution from short (5–6 days) and long
waves, and in the south the contribution of short waves
is noticeably greater. In winter, ultralong waves
(3 weeks or more) are observed in the north and south.
In the north there were four of these after 1951: in
December 1955 (23 days), January–February 1969 (29),
January–February 1985 (30), and February 1998 (21).
In the south there are two: in January–February 1954
(33 days) and January 1972 (22). It is interesting that
such long waves were not observed in the center (the
longest was 18 days in January 1972, simultaneously
with the southern one).
In summer, the contribution of short waves is max-
imum everywhere, and in the center and south there
are no waves longer than 12 days at all.
Figure 1 shows changes in the seasonal total dura-
tion of cold waves since the beginning of the 20th cen-
tury. During the period of modern global warming
(the beginning of which we attribute to the mid-1970s
(Bardin et al, 2020)) it is natural to expect a decrease
cant (at the level of 5%) decrease is observed only for
the northern parts of ER—very fast (with an average
speed of about 1.7 days per decade). In the southern
part of ER, the decrease in the NDCW value for the
period since 1976 is very small and insignificant, and in
the period from 2003 to 2012 there are several years
with high index values, which on the 13-year
smoothed curve appears as a certain increase. The
NDCW index behaves in a similar way for the central
part of ER, but the increase in the specified period is
even more pronounced, so that the trend for the
period since 1976 turns out to be positive (albeit very
small and insignificant).
Summer (negative) trends are significant: for the
southern zone at the 1% level and, in the northern and
central zones, at the 5% level. In the south, the sum-
mer duration of cold waves has been decreasing almost
monotonically since 1976, and after 2000 the only
short cold wave was observed in 2009. In the northern
and central zones, five and six cold waves were
observed, respectively, over these 20 years, three of
which occurred from 2005 to 2010; cold waves were
also observed after 2010: in the north in 2019 and in
the center in 2018 and 2019.
The warming of the first half of the 20th century
(Gruza and Ran’kova, 2012; OD, 2014; Bokuchava
and Semenov, 2018) in winter is manifested in reduced
NDCW values in the 1930s to 1950s only in the north,
while the central and southern parts of ER, on the
contrary, experience the longest seasonal durations of
cold waves (“extreme,” according to this winter indi-
cator). In summer, the effects of this warming in the
1940s are observed only in the south; in the north and
center, lower NDCW values are observed in the 1950s.
In the north and central part, fluctuations are pro-
nounced on a scale of 1–2 decades (clearly visible on
the 5-year moving average). In winter in the north, they
are almost regular, with a periodicity of about 10 years;
in the central part, until 1970, all the maxima observed

IZVESTIYA, ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC PHYSICS Vol. 59 Suppl. 2 2023

 COLD WAVES IN EUROPEAN RUSSIA S131

Days
(a) 25 (d)
Days
40 North ER (summer)
North ER 20 NDCW: 5 year moving average
NDCW: 5 year moving average 13 year moving average
30 13 year moving average trend 1976—2020: –1.1 days/10 years
trend 1976—2020: –1.7 days/10 years 15
20 10
10 5

0 0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Days
Days (b) 20 (e)
South ER (summer)
30 NDCW: 5 year moving average
ER Center 16
NDCW: 5 year moving average 13 year moving average
13 year moving average trend 1976—2020: –1.0 days/10 years
20 trend 1976—2020: –0.3 days/10 years 12

8
10
4

0 0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Days (f)
12
Days (c) South ER (summer)
NDCW: 5 year moving average
50
South ER 13 year moving average
trend 1976—2020: –1.2 days/10 years
40 NDCW: 5 year moving average
13 year moving average
8
trend 1976—2020: –0.2 days/10 years
30
20 4
10
0 0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Fig. 1. Changes in the total duration of winter (a, b, c) and summer (d, e, f) cold waves in different latitudinal zones of ER: north-
ern, 60°–70° N (a, d); central, 50°–60° N (b, e); and southern, 42°–50° N (c, f).

in the north are repeated, except for one: in the second
half of the 1910s. Then, from 1970 to the mid-1990s, a
period with a very low index level is observed; it differs
from 0 only for 5 out of 24 years. From the mid-1990s
to the mid-2000s, the extremity index fluctuations in
the north and central part of ER are antiphase; how-
ever, increased index values in the early 2010s are
observed in both zones. Changes in the index of
extreme winters in the south of ER basically repeat the
changes in the center, but the two powerful maxima
observed in the center around 1940 and in the early
1950s in the south are combined into a common period
of high extreme values in the 1940s–1950s. Note that,
in some years of this period, no cold waves were
observed; in general, continuous periods with cold
waves did not exceed 5 years, and there were few periods
of such duration: no more than two in each zone (the
last one was noted in the center from 2010 to 2014).
In the summer season, pronounced fluctuations of
a similar scale were also observed, but with a slightly
longer period: on average of about 15 years. These
fluctuations, just like in winter, are most pronounced
in the northern and central zones. The most extreme
(with high NDCW) summer seasons were observed
from the second half of the 1960s to the second half of
the 1980s, in the center and south of ER in the 1910s,
and in the south also in the 1920s. In contrast to win-
ter, the only long (more than 5 years) continuous
period with cold waves in summer was observed in the
center of ER from 1975 to 1980. On the contrary, there
have been long periods without summer cold waves:
for example, in the first half of the 1950s in the north
and center and after 2010 in all zones.
A more detailed description of changes in the sec-
ond half of the 20th century, including separate
changes for waves of different durations, is presented
in Table 2. In general, the total duration of waves and

IZVESTIYA, ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC PHYSICS Vol. 59 Suppl. 2 2023

S132 BARDIN, PLATOVA

Table 2. Statistics of cold waves of various durations for two periods: 1951–1985 and 1986–2020. NCW is number of waves;
NDCW is total duration (days). Cells where the decrease in NDCW in the last period exceeded 30% are highlighted in light
blue (additionally, bold italics indicate where the decrease is more than twofold); yellow indicates a simultaneous increase
in the number and total duration of waves
North Center South

Duration 1951–1985 1986–2020 1951–1985 1986–2020 1951–1985 1986–2020

NCW NDCW NCW NDCW NCW NDCW NCW NDCW NCW NDCW NCW NDCW

Winter

5–6 days 6 33 7 40 6 31 7 36 11 64 12 62

7–9 9 69 4 32 5 39 3 25 6 48 4 29
10–12 1 10 2 21 2 23 3 33 5 54 1 10
>12 5 114 2 37 4 57 1 13 2 55 3 50
Total 21 226 15 130 17 150 14 107 24 221 20 151
Average
wave 10.8 8.7 8.8 7.6 9.2 7.5
duration
Summer
5–6 days 15 80 6 34 9 46 8 45 8 43 3 16
7–9 6 47 4 30 8 60 2 15 5 37 2 16
10–12 1 11 1 10 8 10 1 10 3 30 0 0
>12 1 13 1 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 23 151 12 88 18 116 11 70 16 110 5 32

Average
wave 6.6 7.3 6.4 6.4 6.9 6.4
duration

their number decreases in all zones both in winter and
summer from the first to the second half of the period
1951–2020. However, in winter in the northern and
central zones, the main contribution to this decrease is
made by the longest waves (>12 days). In the north,
the entire decrease in NDCW occurs due to waves of
7–9 days (37 days) and >12 days: 77 days, i.e., twice as
much. However, the number of waves in the gradation
of 7–9 days decreases by 5 days and, in long waves, by
only 3 days. In gradations of short (5–6 days) and
medium–long (10–12 days) waves, on the contrary,
there is an increase in the total duration. In the south,
a decrease was noted in all gradations, but the main
contribution was in the gradation of 10–12 days (half
of the total decrease) and, in the gradation of long
waves, only 7%. Average wave durations also decrease
in all zones: by 20% in the north, 14% in the center,
and 18% in the south.
In summer, a significant decrease in both the num-
ber of waves and the total duration was also observed in
all zones. However, since there were very few long cold
waves (from 10 days) in summer, this decrease was
mainly due to short and medium waves (except in the
south). In the north, due to 5–6 day waves, the decrease
was 73% of the total and, in the center, due to 7–9 day
waves, it was almost entire. In the south, three 10-day
waves were observed in 1951–85, and there were no
longer long waves after 1985: this made the largest con-
tribution to the overall decrease: 38%; the contribution
of short (5–6 days) waves is 35% and medium (7–
9 days) is 27%, so the decrease was approximately uni-
form in gradation (excluding waves longer than 12 days,
which simply did not occur in any of the periods). At
the same time, the average duration of one wave did
not change in the center; it decreased slightly in the
south (7%) and increased in the north (by 10%).

IZVESTIYA, ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC PHYSICS Vol. 59 Suppl. 2 2023

 COLD WAVES IN EUROPEAN RUSSIA S133

(a)

70
–10

0
0
50

VT of cold waves: northern ER winter

30
0 60 120 180
(b)

70
–10

0
50

VT of cold waves: ER center winter

30
0 60 120 180
(c)

70

–8
50

VT of cold waves: south ER winter

30
0 60 120 180

–18 –16 –15 –14 –12 –10 –8 –5 –4 –2 0 2 4 5 8 10 qC

Fig. 2. Winter composites of surface air temperature: averages for dates of cold waves in winter lasting from 7 days from 1951 to
2020 (°С; isoline step 2°). North (a), central (b), and south (c) ER.

Geographical Patterns of Temperature Anomalies
and Circulation Conditions Accompanying Cold Waves
Winter
The anomaly fields of surface air temperature
(SAT) during long-term (from 7 days) cold waves in
different latitudinal zones are geometrically very simi-
lar to each other: the pronounced center is about 45–
50° E. Negative isoanomalies are stretched along the
latitude circles and are significantly (approximately
two times) stronger to the east: here they reach 140° E
(for waves in the south of ER, 180°) and cover almost
the entire territory of the country. The main differ-
ence, naturally, is the maximum absolute value negative
anomaly latitude: it is located in the middle of the
selected latitudinal zone. There is a significant differ-
ence in the maximum magnitude: –16.8°C for northern
waves, –14.2°C for waves in the center, and –12.5°C for
waves in the south. However, the anomaly region,
strongly compressed along the meridian during waves
in the north, covers with large negative values a signifi-
cantly smaller part of ER than the weaker cold region
in the center during waves in the center: the –10°C
iso-anomaly with waves in the center covers almost
the entire ER from 45° to 65° N and, with waves in the
north, only from 60° to 70° N; in longitude in both
cases it extends from 27° to 65° E, i.e., throughout the
entire ER. The anomaly area <–10°C during southern
waves covers the same 10° in latitude as during north-
ern waves (44°–54° N), but a much smaller sector in
longitude: 35°–52° E. During waves in the south and
center of ER, positive anomalies of up to +6°C are
observed on the Arctic islands.
Cold waves in the central and southern parts of ER
develop mainly against the background of increased

IZVESTIYA, ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC PHYSICS Vol. 59 Suppl. 2 2023

S134 BARDIN, PLATOVA

Table 3. Statistics of the values of the Scandinavian mode index ISCAND in the months of cold waves in winter in the central
and southern zones of ER and the NAO index INAO in the months of cold waves in winter in the northern zone; EI is the
average index value for all months with waves
%ISCAND > 0 %ISCAND > 1 %ISCAND > 2 EISCAND
Central zone 75 50 20 0.95
Southern zone 81 57 22 1.33
%INAO < 0 %INAO < –1 %INAO < –2 EINAO
Northern zone 73 46 23 –0.86

pressure over Scandinavia, the north of ER, and the
Barents and Norwegian seas with low pressure in the
south, and, in the case of the center of ER, also over
the Mediterranean Sea and the southeastern part of
the North Atlantic. This situation corresponds to the
positive phase of the Scandinavian mode (SCAND)
and (especially for the center of ER) to the North
Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) negative phase (Barnston
and Livezey, 1987). Previously, the authors showed
that, in the NAO negative phase, the frequency of cold
extremes increases significantly in the north and,
especially, in the south of ER in winter and, in the pos-
itive phase of SCAND, in the south and east of ER
(Bardin and Platova, 2019). In (Bardin et al., 2019) it
is shown that, with a positive phase of the SCAND
mode in the center of ER, anticyclonic activity in gen-
eral and (for February) the frequency of blocking anti-
cyclonic circulations increases; the latter, as follows
from the frequency composite of blocking with a pos-
itive SCAND phase for all winter months with a nega-
tive SCAND index (Fig. 5), is also true for winter as a
whole: the area of high blocking activity observed at
large negative SCAND in the region of the Siberian
anticyclone completely disappears and almost the
same intensity area with the center in the east of ER
and the west of Western Siberia is formed. Thus,
anomalous cold temperatures over the center of ER
during the negative SCAND phase are directly related
to the long-lived anticyclonic circulation in the region.
In general, the configurations of H500 geopotential
fields and anomalies in the case of winter cold waves in
the south and center of ER are very similar to each
other; one of the differences (the propagation of geo-
potential anomalies into the eastern North Atlantic
with cold waves in the center) has already been men-
tioned. The second is the areas of positive and negative
H500 anomalies shifted south by 5°–7° during cold
waves in the south of ER. Accordingly, the trough
penetrates further south in this case, which contributes
to the influx of cold air into more southern regions.
Note that, during cold waves in the south, the blocking
frequency area is shifted to the west of the Scandina-
vian Peninsula (Fig. 5c); the corresponding position of
the blocking ridge axis ensures the influx of cold air
from the Norwegian Sea to the south of ER (at the
same time, the blocking activity area in the region of
the Siberian anticyclone does not completely disap-
pear, but is greatly weakened compared to months
with a high negative SCAND). In the case of cold
waves in the south, therefore, the main role is played
not by blocking directly in the area of wave formation,
but by blocks remote from it.
During cold waves in the north of ER, a completely
different picture of tropospheric circulation is observed.
In this case, there is a trough in the north of ER, where
an area of low pressure is formed, covering the Scan-
dinavian Peninsula in the west and spreading far to the
east. In this trough, the Arctic cold air penetrates into
the north of ER. A powerful ridge is forming in the
Atlantic east and north, blocking the westerly trans-
port in the Atlantic sector and, together with a trough
in the western North Atlantic, extending far to the
south and forming an area of low pressure there: this
structure determines the negative phase of the NAO.
Thus, in the central and southern zones of ER, one
can expect a significant SCAND mode contribution
to the development of cold waves in the winter season.
Table 3 shows the statistics of the correspondence
between the months with the occurrence of cold waves
in this zone and the SCAND phase. Obviously, a sig-
nificant index shift towards positive values is some-
what stronger during waves in the south, which would
be expected based on the shape of the geopotential
anomaly average fields. Of course, it cannot be said
that cold waves necessarily occur against the back-
ground of a positive SCAND (although in the case of
the central zone, it is more than 7 out of 10 and, in the
south, 8 out of 10). However, it is necessary to keep in
mind that here we are talking about monthly index
values, while the main share of waves does not exceed
10 days, so the circulation structure actually observed
during the wave period is “smeared” over the entire
month; to obtain more accurate statistics, one would
have to work with daily indexes, which are not avail-
able. They could be obtained using daily average geo-
potential fields, but this would be a different set of
indices; in principle, it is possible to obtain daily indi-
ces using the Barnston–Livezey mode standards as
base coordinates, but it should be borne in mind that
the covariance structure of monthly and daily fields is
significantly different, and orthogonality cannot be
expected. However, it was already lost when moving

IZVESTIYA, ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC PHYSICS Vol. 59 Suppl. 2 2023

 COLD WAVES IN EUROPEAN RUSSIA S135

(a) H500
70

52
5200

00
0 5200 52
540 00
50 0 5400 5200
540
0 5400
5400
CW winter north 5600 5600
30
–60 0 60 120 180
(b) H500
70 5200 5200
5200

54
0

00
50 5400 520
0 5400
540
0 5400
CW winter center 5600 5600
30
–60 0 60 120 180
(c) H500
52
70 00
0
5400
0 52 520
00
50 5400 540 5200
0 5400
5400
CW winter south 5600 560 0
30
–60 0 60 120 180
–150–100–50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Fig. 3. Winter composites of the H500 geopotential field (isolines) and VH500 anomalies (color fill): averages for dates of cold
waves in winter lasting from 7 days from 1951 to 2020 (gpm). North (a), central (b), and south (c) ER.

away from the 1950–2000 sample used in NOAA to
identify modes. Here we will do neither one nor the
other, leaving monthly indices and limiting ourselves
to analysis at a qualitative level: this analysis, however,
confidently indicates the presence of atmospheric cir-
culation modes that are preferable for the implemen-
tation of cold waves.
For waves in the northern zone, the NAO negative
phase contribution prevails (73% of all cases). In half
of the remaining cases, a negative SCAND phase is
observed so that, together, the negative phases of these
two modes explain 86% of all cold waves in the north
of ER in winter. A noticeable contribution of negative
SCAND, together with Fig. 3, shows that the waves in
the north are not associated with a long-lived anticy-
clonic circulation in the region. The NAO negative
phase blocks the western transport and the usual
movement of Atlantic cyclones (Bardin et al., 2015),
and the trough in the north of ER provides an influx of
cold air from the Arctic.
The above-described circulation structures associ-
ated with cold waves make it possible to qualitatively
explain the features of long-term changes in the statis-
tics of these waves. A number of works (Popova, 2018;
Bardin and Platova, 2019; Bardin et al., 2015) show
that changes in winter temperature on a decadal scale
in Northern Eurasia are closely related to changes in
two modes: NAO and SCAND. The latter have been
changing since the mid-20th century in “antiphase”:
until the 1990s, there was an increase in the NAO
index and a decrease in SCAND, which, along with
the contribution of global warming (associated,
according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), primarily with the anthropogenic
increase in concentration greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere (IPCC, 2021)), led to an accelerated
increase in temperature in Northern Eurasia. Then the
NAO and SCAND indices changed the sign of the
trend, and, in the period until 2010, cooling was
observed in almost the entire territory of Russia except
the far north (Bardin et al., 2015). The corresponding
changes in the frequency of cold waves can be seen in
Fig. 1: they are most pronounced in the central regions
and, to a lesser extent, in the north, although negative
NAO values in the late 1990s–early 2000s were
reflected in growth of cold waves during this period,
and the rapid NAO growth after 2010 led to their com-
plete disappearance in this zone. Nevertheless, a
rather weak decrease in the duration of cold waves in
the north against the backdrop of exceptionally rapid
warming in the Arctic from the mid-1990s (Doklad,
2022) indicates a significant contribution from circu-
lation changes.
Summer
Figure 6 shows the structure of the anomaly fields
during waves lasting from 7 days. It is fundamentally
different from the structure of anomalies during winter
waves: here a “wave” structure is observed—a tripole
with cold centers in ER and Eastern Siberia and a
warm center in Western Siberia, most pronounced

IZVESTIYA, ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC PHYSICS Vol. 59 Suppl. 2 2023

S136 BARDIN, PLATOVA

(a)
1.5
NAO, winter
1.0
0.5
0
–0.5
–1.0
–1.5
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
(b)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
–0.5
–1.0
SCAND
–1.5
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
1.5 (c)
1.0
0.5
0
–0.5
–1.0
EAWR
–1.5
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Fig. 4. Changes in the circulation indices NAO (a) and SCAND (b) in winter; EAWR (c) in summer.

during waves in the south of ER. The centers of the
negative anomaly areas in ER are located between
40°–50° E in the corresponding latitudinal zones, and
these regions themselves cover the entire ER and part
of Western Siberia. For waves in the north, the anom-
aly reaches –7.3°С (Arkhangelsk); for waves in the
central zone it reaches –6.5°С (Middle Volga); and, in
the south, it reaches –5.5°С (Kalmykia). During
waves in the south of ER, the negative anomalies in
the east (in Yakutia) reach –3.8°C, and positive
anomalies in Western Siberia +3.5°C (Yamalo-Nenets
Autonomous Okrug).
The tropospheric circulation (Fig. 7) is character-
ized primarily by a deep trough over ER, and even on
the average map closed isohypses are observed (espe-
cially pronounced for northern waves and waves in the
center), i.e., cold waves of the summer season are
mainly associated with a slow-moving cutoff cyclone
over ER—an isolated cold air mass that penetrated
from the polar to more southern latitudes (see the arti-
cles “Cutoff” and “Cutoff Cyclone” in the meteoro-
logical dictionary of S.P. Khromov (Khromov and
Mamontova, 1974). An individual analysis of the
development of cold waves, which is planned in the
next part of the work, is necessary to determine
whether these cyclones are central cyclones, i.e.,
formed at the confluence of a series of cyclones (see the
article Central Cyclone in the same place). The ridge in
the west is especially strong, with waves in the north and
in the center: it covers Scandinavia and the northern
Atlantic, with waves in the south in Scandinavia and the
northwest of ER. The ridge in Western and Central
Siberia and the trough in Yakutia explain the noted
wavelike structure of temperature anomalies.
In summer, first and foremost, we expect for all
zones the positive phase contribution of the Eastern
Atlantic–Western Russia (EAWR+) mode, which is
characterized by a negative pressure anomaly in ER (at
the same time, there is reduced anticyclonic activity in
the north and increased cyclonic activity throughout
ER (Cherenkova et al., 2020), as well as, in the north
and center, positive SCAND+ (positive anomaly over
Scandinavia) and negative NAO–, and, in the south,
SCAND+ and NAO+. For the northern zone, EAWR+
is observed for 75% of cold waves and the combination
(EAWR–, SCAND–, NAO+) only for 5% of waves.
In the central zone, the contribution of EAWR+ is
73%; the combination (EAWR–, SCAND–, NAO+)
occurs only once: this is 3% of all cases.

IZVESTIYA, ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC PHYSICS Vol. 59 Suppl. 2 2023

 COLD WAVES IN EUROPEAN RUSSIA S137

(a) (a)
70
5 70 0

0
5

–5
50

0
50
SCAND + winter
30 VT of cold waves: northern ER summer
30
0 60 120 0 60 120 180
(b)
(b)
70 70

0
5 –5
0

0
50 50
5

SCAND – VT of cold waves: ER center summer

30 30
0 60 120 0 60 120 180
(c)
(c)
70

0
0
70 5

0
50
5

50 VT of cold waves: south ER summer

30
CW south winter 0 60 120 180
30
0 60 120 –10–9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 qC

Fig. 5. Frequency (days/month) of blocking episodes:
(a, b) in winter in opposite phases of SCAND (10% of
months with the largest positive and negative index values);
(c) for dates of cold waves in winter lasting from 7 days in the
south.
In the south, EAWR+ is observed in 69% of cases.
An additional contribution of the other two modes is
small: with EAWR–, SCAND– and NAO– are observed
simultaneously in 20% of cases, so that in total
SCAND+ and NAO+ provide an additional only 10%.
Shown in Fig. 4c, the course of changes in the sum-
mer EAWR index indicates that the rapid decrease in
the seasonal duration of cold waves in different latitu-
dinal zones of ER is caused not only by an increase in
average temperature, but also by changes in circulation
conditions: a negative EAWR index trend is associated,
as follows from the above data in Fig. 1 and Table 2,
with a decrease in the number and duration of cold
waves. This is due to the fact that with positive EAWR,
cyclonic activity on the territory of ER increases, and
with negative ones it decreases (Fig. 8) and anticy-
clonic activity increases (Cherenkova et al., 2020).
The continuation of this EAWR trend may lead to the
complete disappearance of cold waves, as is currently
observed in the south of ER.
It is of interest to compare circulation conditions in
the case of short and longer waves. Fig. 8 shows H1000
composites for cold waves in the central latitudinal
Fig. 6. Same as Fig. 2, for the summer.
zone of ER for waves lasting 5–6 days (top) and from
7 days (bottom). In the case of long waves, a powerful
area of high pressure formed over Scandinavia and the
north Atlantic completely blocks the usual movement
of cyclones over the Atlantic and cyclogenesis in the
Newfoundland area and, in the case of short waves,
the pressure in this area is not as high, and the usual
Newfoundland cyclogenesis and storm track over the
Atlantic is partially preserved. The blocking pair of a
ridge in the eastern Atlantic and a cut-off cyclone over
ER exclude the transport of cyclones over Siberia in
the case of long waves and, in the case of short waves
in the north, mobile cyclones remain, apparently aris-
ing in Western Siberia on the cutoff cyclone periphery.
In the EAWR positive phase, cyclonic activity in sum-
mer intensifies throughout ER, with a highlighted area
of a particularly strong increase in the north of West-
ern Siberia (Fig. 9), where maximum cyclogenesis is
observed in this region (Gorbatenko et al., 2020).
CONCLUSIONS
The decrease in the seasonal duration of cold
waves, which is expected with global warming, is
observed in ER mainly in summer (in all latitudinal
zones). In winter, a more or less monototonic decrease
occurs only in the northern zone of ER, and up to the

IZVESTIYA, ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC PHYSICS Vol. 59 Suppl. 2 2023

S138 BARDIN, PLATOVA

(a) H500
70 5600

56
00
5600
56000 5600 5600
0
50
5800 5800 5800 5800
CW summer north 5800
30
–60 0 60 120 180
(b) H500
70 5600

560
5600

0
5600 0
50 5600 5600
5800 5800
CW summer center 5800 5800 5800
30
–60 0 60 120 180
(c) H500
5520 5520
70 5520

0 56 0
50 80 5680 5680
5680
CW summer south
30
–60 0 60 120 180
–150–100–50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Fig. 7. Same as Fig. 3, for the summer.

(a)
70 40
–5

–15
–50 –15
20 –5
50 –1
5 15
–5
15
–5

CW 5–6 days center

30
–60 0 60 120 180 240
(b) VH1000
70
0
–2

60
–55 –20
20

0
–5 –2
50
–5
–5 15 20
CW ≥ 7 days– center
30
–60 0 60 120 180 240
–57 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50

Fig. 8. Summer composites of the geopotential anomaly field VH1000 (color gradient) in the central zone of ER: averages for dates
of cold waves lasting from 5–6 days (a) and from 7 days (b) from 1951 to 2020 (gpm).

beginning of the 2010s it appears to be quite weak
against the backdrop of an exceptionally rapid increase
in winter temperatures in the Arctic zone since the
beginning of the 1990s. In the central and southern
zones of ER, there is essentially no decrease: more-
over, from the mid-1990s, growth is obvious, continu-
ing until the beginning of the 2010s. This circumstance
is associated with long-term changes in the leading
modes of atmospheric circulation, against the back-
ground of which cold waves are formed in each zone:
for the northern zone this is mainly the NAO and, for
the central and southern zones, the SCAND. The
behavior of these circulation modes also mainly
explains long-term fluctuations in winter tempera-
tures in Northern Eurasia (Popova, 2018; Bardin et al.,
2015); however, as was shown in (Bardin, et al., 2019),
during the cooling of the 1990s–2000s, the contribu-
tion to the average seasonal temperatures of cold
anomalies formed during the quasi-stationary (block-
ing) anticyclonic circulation in ER, associated mainly
with the positive phase of SCAND, is important.
In summer, in all zones, the decrease in the dura-
tion of cold waves is statistically significant and is
especially pronounced and almost monotonous in the

IZVESTIYA, ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC PHYSICS Vol. 59 Suppl. 2 2023

 COLD WAVES IN EUROPEAN RUSSIA
70 70
50 50
30 30
10 10
0 60 120
70 70
50 50
30 30
10 10
0 60 120
1 2 3 %
Fig. 9. Frequency of cyclones (proportion of time with the
cyclone center above a 5° × 5° grid cell, %) in summer in
the positive and negative phases of the EAWR (averages for
15% of summer months with the largest positive values and
15% of months with negative index values for the period
1951–2020), color gradient. Squares show cells where the
difference in repeatability between phases is significant at
the 1% level: orange squares indicate that repeatability is
higher in the positive phase; green squares indicate that it
is in the negative phase.
southern zone; here, after 2010, no cold waves were
observed at all. Along with the increase in average
temperatures in the process of global warming, an
important role in reducing the seasonal duration of
cold waves is played by the observed decrease in the
EAWR index, in the positive phase of which an area of
low pressure is observed over ER and long-lived cutoff
cyclones are formed, against the background of which
cold waves are formed. The origin of the burst in cold
waves in the 2000s in the center and, especially, in the
north of ER is unclear.
Thus, changes in the statistics of the leading atmo-
spheric circulation modes play a role in the observed
changes in the duration of cold waves. For the winter
period, their influences are obvious, while in the sum-
mer they potentially increase the impact of global
warming, so that it is difficult to detect the influence
of circulation visually. These influences should be
taken into account in climatological practice for the
purposes of climate services, but, unfortunately, the
results of climate modeling using modern Atmo-
sphere–Ocean General Circulation Models are use-
less for predicting natural climate variations on
decadal scales; there is not even agreement on the
IZVESTIYA, ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC PHYSICS
S139
presence of global warming–related trends in the sta-
tistics of the main circulation modes. Therefore, to
quantify the relative contribution of warming and cir-
culation, a statistical model is needed, similar to that
used in (Bardin et al., 2019), to assess the trend of win-
ter temperature against the background of natural
fluctuations of the NAO and SCAND and to assess
changes in the circulation modes themselves on scales
of 1–3 decades—autoregressive (dynamic–stochastic)
models (Bardin, 2011). We anticipate the development
of this topic in the continuation of this work.
FUNDING
This work was supported by Roshydromet, topic 3.2
“Monitoring the Global Climate and the Climate of the Rus-
sian Federation and Its Regions, Including the Arctic. Devel-
opment and Modernization of Monitoring Technologies.”
This work was supported by the Russian Science Foun-
dation, project no. 19-17-00242-P “Dangerous Weather
and Climate Phenomena in Russia in the Context of Global
Climate Change.”
This work was supported by the State Task of the Insti-
tute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences
“Climate Changes and Their Consequences for the Envi-
ronment and the Life of the Population in Russia,”
AAAA-A19-119022190173-2 (FMGE-2019-0009).
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors of this work declare that they have no con-
flicts of interest.
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE
Informed consent was obtained from all individual par-
ticipants included in the study.
REFERENCES
Bardin, M.Yu., Anticyclonic quasi-stationary circulation
and its effect on air temperature anomalies and ex-
tremes over western Russia, Russ. Meteorol. Hydrol.,
2007, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 75–84.
Bardin, M.Yu., Scenary forecasts of air temperature varia-
tions for the regions of the Russian Federation up to
2030 using the empirical stochastic climate models,
Russ. Meteorol. Hydrol., 2011, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 217–
228.
Bardin, M.Yu. and Platova, T.V., Long-term variations in
the indicators of extremeness of the temperature regime
in Russia and their relationship with changes in large-
scale atmospheric circulation and global warming,
Russ. Meteorol. Hydrol., 2019, vol. 44, no. 12, pp. 791–
801.
Bardin, M.Yu., Platova, T.V., and Samokhina, O.F., Fea-
tures of the variability of cyclonic activity in midlati-
tudes of the Northern Hemisphere associated with
leading modes of atmospheric circulation in the Atlan-
Vol. 59 Suppl. 2 2023
S140 BARDIN, PLATOVA
tic–European sector, Fundam. Prikl. Klimatol., 2015,
no. 2, pp. 14–40.
Bardin, M.Yu., Platova, T.V., and Samokhina, O.F., Vari-
ability of anticyclonic activity in mid-latitudes of the
Northern Hemisphere, Fundam. Prikl. Klimatol., 2019,
no. 3, pp. 32–58.
Bardin, M.Yu., Ran’kova, E.Ya., Platova, T.V., Samokhi-
na, O.F., and Korneva, I.A., Modern surface climate
change as inferred from routine climate monitoring da-
ta, Russ. Meteorol. Hydrol., 2020, vol. 45, no. 5,
pp. 317–329.
Barnston, A.G. and Livezey, R.E., Classification, seasonal-
ity and persistence of low - frequency atmospheric cir-
culation patterns, Mon. Weather Rev., 1987, vol. 115,
pp. 1083–1126.
Bokuchava, D.D. and Semenov, V.A., Analysis of surface air
temperature anomalies in the Northern Hemisphere
during the 20th century from observational and reanaly-
sis data, Fundam. Prikl. Klimatol., 2018, no. 1, pp. 28–51.
Bulygina, O.N., Razuvaev, V.N., and Aleksandrova, T.M., Cer-
tificate of State Registration of Database no. 2014620942,
2014. http://meteo.ru/data/162-temperature-precipita-
tion#%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B
0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5-%D0%BC%D0%B0%
D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D0%
B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85.
Cherenkova, E.A., Bardin, M.Yu., Platova, T.V., and Se-
menov, V.A., Influence of North Atlantic SST variabil-
ity and changes in atmospheric circulation on the fre-
quency of summer droughts in the East European
Plain, Russ. Meteorol. Hydrol., 2020, vol. 45, no. 12,
pp. 819–829.
Doklad ob osobennostyakh klimata na territorii Rossiiskoi
Federatsii za 2021 god (Report on Climate Features in
the Territory of the Russian Federation for 2021), Mos-
cow: Rosgidromet, 2022.
Efimova, Yu.V., Babich, Ya.B., Neelova, L.O., Eremina, N.S.,
Mkhanna, A.I.N., and Lavrova, I.V., Features of
changes in synoptic processes generating cold waves in
St. Petersburg in winter, Navig. Gidrogr., 2020, no. 60,
pp. 80–88.
Gorbatenko, V.P., Tunaev, E.L., Pustovalov, K.N., Volko-
va, M.A., and Nechepurenko, O.E., Change of cyclo-
genesis over West Siberia in 1976–2017, Fundam. Prikl.
Klimatol., 2020, no. 2, pp. 35–57.
Grigor’eva, E.A., Cold waves: Approaches to definition and
examples for Khabarovsk, Reg. Probl., 2019, vol. 22,
no. 3, pp. 24–37.
Gruza, G.V. and Ran’kova, E.Ya., Nablyudaemye i ozhidae-
mye izmeneniya klimata Rossii (Observed and Expected
Climate Changes in Russia), VNIIGMI-MTsD, 2012.
IPCC. The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working
Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovern-
IZVESTIYA, ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC PHYSICS
mental Panel on Climate Change, Masson-Delmotte, V.,
Zhai, P., Pirani, A., et al., Eds., Cambridge: Cambridge
Univ. Press, 2021.
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896.
Kalnay, E., Kanamitsu, M., Kistler, R., Collins, W., Deav-
en, D., Gandin, L., Iredell, M., Saha, S., White, G.,
Woollen, J., Zhu, Y., Leetmaa, A., Reynolds, R.,
Chelliah, M., Ebisuzaki, et al., The NCEP/NCAR 40-
year reanalysis project, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 1996,
vol. 77, pp. 437–470.
Khlebnikova, E.I. and Sal’, I.A., Cold temperature ex-
tremes in Russia and risks of critical temperature im-
pacts on infrastructure facilities, Russ. Meteorol. Hy-
drol., 2018, no. 6, pp. 372–378.
Khromov, S.P. and Mamontova, L.I., Meteorologicheskii
slovar' (Meteorological Dictionary), Leningrad: Gidro-
meteoizdat, 1974.
Kozlova, D.S. and Kharlamova, N.F., Dynamics of cold
and heat for 1959–2005 in Barnaul, Geogr. Prirodopol’z.
Sib., 2012, no. 14, pp. 65–70.
Mirvis, V.M., Meleshko, V.P., Govorkova, V.A., and
Baidin, A.V., Anomalous winter and summer weather
patterns over Russia in the 21st century as simulated by
CMIP6 models, Russ. Meteorol. Hydrol., 2022, vol. 47,
no. 5, pp. 334–342.
OD: Vtoroi otsenochnyi doklad Rosgidrometa ob izmeneniyakh
klimata i ikh posledstviyakh na territorii Rossiiskoi Feder-
atsii (The Second Assessment Report of Roshydromet
on Climate Change and Its Consequences on the Terri-
tory of the Russian Federation), Kattsov, V.M. and Se-
menov, S.M., Eds., Moscow: Rosgidromet, 2014.
Popova, V.V., Modern climate changes in northern Eurasia
as a manifestation of variations in the large-scale atmo-
spheric circulation), Fundam. Prikl. Klimatol., 2018,
no. 1, pp. 84–111.
Ran’kova, E.Ya., Alekseeva, G.V., Aleshina, M.A., et al.,
Statistical Climatology: Advances and New Ideas (Sci-
entific Readings in Memory of Georgii Vadimovich
Gruza), Fundam. Prikl. Klimatol., 2022, vol. 8, no. 1,
pp. 5–50.
Razuvaev, V.N., Apasova, E.G. and Martuganov, R.A.,
Daily Temperature and Precipitation Data for 223 USSR
Stations, Oak Ridge, Tenn.: Carbon Dioxide Informa-
tion Data Center, Oak Ridge National Lab., 1993,
ORNL/CDIAC-56, NDP-040, ESD Publ. No. 4194.
Translated by V. Selikhanovich
Publisher’s Note. Pleiades Publishing remains
neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.
Vol. 59 Suppl. 2 2023