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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN APPLIED SCIENCES AND
TECHNOLOGY  POLIMI SPRINGER BRIEFS

Matteo Vincenzo Rocco

Primary Exergy
Cost of Goods and
Services
An Input–Output
Approach

123
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences
and Technology

PoliMI SpringerBriefs

Editorial Board
Barbara Pernici, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Stefano Della Torre, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Bianca M. Colosimo, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Tiziano Faravelli, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Roberto Paolucci, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Silvia Piardi, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11159
http://www.polimi.it
Matteo Vincenzo Rocco

Primary Exergy Cost

of Goods and Services
An Input–Output Approach

123
Matteo Vincenzo Rocco
Department of Energy
Politecnico di Milano
Milan
Italy

ISSN 2191-530X ISSN 2191-5318 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology
ISSN 2282-2577 ISSN 2282-2585 (electronic)
PoliMI SpringerBriefs
ISBN 978-3-319-43655-5 ISBN 978-3-319-43656-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43656-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016947758

© The Author(s) 2016

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of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
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Preface

Among the large multiplicity of natural resources, non-renewable primary fossil

fuels, namely coal, crude oil and natural gas, play a crucial role in sustaining the
human economies and their production activities. Nowadays, scarcity of stocks and
emissions of pollutant and greenhouse gases are the main concerns related to fossil
fuels depletion, and many political and research initiatives are facing these issues by
promoting a rational use of primary energy. This objective could be achieved acting
in two main ways: (1) fostering a transition toward alternative and more efficient
energy conversion systems (e.g., increase efficiency of conventional power systems,
or increase penetration or renewables); (2) reducing the primary energy embodied in
goods and services produced by national economies.
Primary energy embodied in goods and services, also called energy cost, is
defined as the amount of primary fossil fuels directly and indirectly required to
deliver such products. Reduction of the embodied energy of products can be per-
formed by developing innovative production policies or by improving production
processes and supply chains. However, in order to check whether these interven-
tions result in a net reduction of the overall primary energy requirements, an
accurate evaluation of the energy embodied in products is crucial. The domain
of the second activity lies in the field of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), and
encompasses both technological and economic aspects related to supply chains
operation.
This book introduces and formalizes the Exergy-based Input–Output framework
(ExIO), a comprehensive methodology useful to account for the primary fossil fuels
required for the production of goods and services within a given national economy.
The main features of the developed framework are aimed at dealing with the flaws
of current state-of-the-art methodologies: (1) Exergy is here assumed as the unique
metric for fossil fuels characterization and for energy conversion systems analysis;
(2) Input–Output analysis is assumed as the computational structure of ExIO: this
approach relies on standard and freely available data sources, making its application
simpler and faster with respect to other process-based methods; (3) the Hybrid
approach have been developed to increase the accuracy of results and to analyze

v
vi Preface

energy conversion systems, assessing and maximizing their overall thermodynamic

efficiencies based on suited indicators; (4) the Bioeconomic ExIO model has been
finally proposed to internalize the effects of human labour within the primary
embodied energy of products.
The book is the result of 3 years of research carried out at the Department of
Energy, Politecnico di Milano: it ought to be a step forward in the fields of
Thermodynamics methodologies for system analysis and Life Cycle Assessment.
I am grateful to my Ph.D. Supervisors Prof. Emanuela Colombo and Prof. Fabio
Inzoli. I am especially grateful to my wife Chiara, my parents, and all the friends
and colleagues for their support during the development of this book.

Milan, Italy Matteo Vincenzo Rocco

June 2016
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Role of Natural Resources in the economic process . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Primary and secondary factors of production . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Focus on non-renewable Energy-Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Emerging needs in Environmental Impact Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Objectives and structure of the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Review of Resources Accounting Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Life Cycle Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Introduction to resources accounting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Input–Output analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1 Basic Leontief model: single production process . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.2 Basic Leontief model: generic system composed
by n processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.3 Meaning of the Leontief Inverse coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.4 Assumptions of the Leontief Input-Output model . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.5 Classification of Input-Output Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.6 Data Organization and application of Input-Output
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.7 Practical application of Input-Output analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4 Process analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.1 Definition and formalization of Process analysis . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4.2 Practical application of Process analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3 Accounting for Energy-Resources use by Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . 43
3.1 Life Cycle Assessment methods based on Thermodynamics. . . . . . 43
3.1.1 Energy-Based methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.1.2 Entropy-Based methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1.3 Exergy-Based methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

vii
viii Contents

3.2 Thermodynamic characterization of non-renewable

energy-resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2.1 Irreversible depletion process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2.2 Reversible depletion process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.3 The Exergy of common fossil fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2.4 The role of reference environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4 Exergy based Input-Output analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 61
4.1 Evaluating primary exergy embodied in goods and services . . .... 62
4.1.1 Monetary Input-Output tables of national economies . .... 63
4.1.2 Treatment of international trades: Single-Region
models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 69
4.1.3 Treatment of international trades: Multi-regional
models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 71
4.2 Hybrid Input-Output analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 76
4.2.1 General formulation of the Hybrid Input-Output
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 76
4.2.2 Increasing the accuracy of Input-Output analysis . . . . .... 79
4.2.3 Life Cycle Assessment of detailed systems . . . . . . . . . .... 80
4.3 Thermodynamic performance assessment of Energy
Conversion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 82
4.3.1 Relation between Exergy Cost Theory
and Input-Output analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 82
4.3.2 Design Evaluation of Energy Conversion Systems
based on ELCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 85
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 86
5 Internalization of human labour in Input-Output analysis. . . . . .... 91
5.1 Internalization of human labour in LCA: literature review . . . .... 91
5.2 Bioeconomic ExIO analysis: theoretical definition . . . . . . . . . .... 93
5.2.1 Accounting for Products Required for Human
Labour Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 95
5.2.2 Definition of the Bioeconomic ExIO model . . . . . . . . .... 96
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 98
6 Case studies: applications of the Exergy based Input-Output
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 101
6.1 Exergy-based Input-Output analysis of World national
economies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 101
6.1.1 Data sources and assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 101
6.1.2 About the evaluation of the Leontief Inverse
Coefficients matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 107
6.1.3 Primary exergy embodied in national economic
production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 108
6.1.4 Exergy embodied in detailed products of the Italian
economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 113
Contents ix

6.2 Exergy Life Cycle Assessment of a Waste-to-Energy

power plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 118
6.2.1 Waste-to-Energy power plant: layout
and thermodynamic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.2.2 Application of the Exergy Cost Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2.3 Application of the Exergy Life Cycle Assessment . . . . . . . 121
6.2.4 Design evaluation and optimization of the system . . . . . . . 126
6.3 Applications of the Bioeconomic ExIO analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.3.1 Primary exergy embodied in national economic
production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 128
6.3.2 Primary exergy requirements of alternative
dishwashing practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 132
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 135
7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.1 Advantages and drawbacks of the ExIO framework . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.2 Final Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Symbols, Acronyms, and Abbreviations

Note about the Adopted Notations

a; A; a; A Scalars
a; A; a; A Vectors, matrices
i; i ðn
mÞ Vector of 1s, with n rows and m columns
I; In Identity matrix of order n
0 ðn
m Þ n
m empty matrix
diagðaÞb a Diagonal matrix, with elements of the a Vector as diagonal elements
aT ; AT Transposed vector and matrix
A1 Inverse matrix
a;
a Per mass unit, per mole unit
rowi ðAÞ Identify the ith row of matrix A
columni ðAÞ Identify the ith column of matrix A

Symbols
exi , ex Exports (for ith sector and total) (€)
f i, f Final demand of the ith process, final demand vector
gi , G, g, Government purchases (for ith sector and total) (€), gravity
acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
hi , H Household purchases (for ith sector and total) (€)
ii , I Purchases for private investment purposes (for ith sector and total)
(€)
li , L Payments for labor compensation (for ith sector and total) (€)
mi , M Imported products (for ith sector and total) (€)
ni , N Government expenses and other minor voices (for ith sector and
total) (€)
pi , p Price of ith product, price vector
rki , r, R Exogenous transactions of the kth resources to the ith sector,
exogenous transactions vector and matrix

xi
xii Symbols, Acronyms, and Abbreviations

xi , x Total endogenous transactions of ith process, total endogenous

transactions vector
xii , Z Endogenous transactions from ith to jth, endogenous transactions
matrix
CNS ; CSN Upstream cutoff matrix, downstream cutoff matrix
Ei , E Total embodied exogenous transaction coefficient, total embodied
exogenous transaction matrix
_ Q
Q, Heat rate (W), heat (J)
ai ; A Technical coefficient, technical coefficients matrix
bi ; B Intervention coefficient, intervention coefficients matrix
cp , cv Isobaric heat capacity (J/kgK), isochoric heat capacity (J/kgK)
ei , e Specific embodied exogenous transaction coefficient, specific
embodied exogenous transaction matrix
li , L Leontief inverse coefficient, Leontief inverse coefficients matrix
_ n_
m, Mass flow rate (kg/s), molar flow rate (mol/s)
gex Exergy functional efficiency
h, hW Hours (h), working hours requirements vector,
h, H,_ H Specific enthalpy (J/kg), enthalpy rate (W), enthalpy (J)
I Identity matrix
i Summation vector
M2 Monetary circulation (€)
n Number of productive processes (–)
p Pressure (Pa)
R Universal gas constant (8,314 J/kmolK)
t, T Time (s), temperature (K)
V Volume (m3)
v, v Values added (€), value-added vector
w, W, _ W Velocity (m/s), work rates (W), work (J)
X Total outlays of the nation (€)
y Mass fraction (g/g)
z Elevation (m)
HV Heating Value (J/kg)
e, E,_ E Specific energy (J/kg), power (W), energy (J)
_ EE
ee, EE, Specific extended exergy (J/…), extended exergy rate (W), extended
exergy (J)
_ Ex
ex, Ex, Specific exergy (J/kg), exergy rate (W), exergy (J)
_
g, G, G Specific Gibbs function (J/kg), Gibbs function (W), Gibbs function
(J)
_ S
s, S, Specific entropy (J/kgK), entropy rate (W/K), entropy (J/K)
x Mole fraction (mol/mol)
b Szargut factor (–)
kðAÞ Eigenvalues of matrix A
Symbols, Acronyms, and Abbreviations xiii

l Chemical potential (J/kmolK)

m Stoichiometric coefficient (–)
q Spectral radius (–)

Subscripts
0 Environmental state
00 Dead State
B Bioeconomic
C Closed
ch Chemical
D Destruction
D Destruction
D Direct
env Environment
ex Exergy
ext Externalities
f Final Demand
gen Generation
H Hybrid, Households
I Indirect
K Capitals
kn Kinetic
L Labor
L Losses
LC Life Cycle
mix Mixture
N National
O Environmental Remediation
P Products
ph Physical
pt Potential
Q Heat Interaction
R Reactants
rev Reversible
S System
tot Total
W World
Wh Working Hours
Z Intermediate Transactions
Chapter 1
Introduction

Traditionally, the increase of energy efficiency of productive systems was driven by

the search for the attainment of the maximum useful product with the minimum
consumption of resources.
Until recently, the evaluation of the energy-resources consumption of productive
systems encompasses the energy flows that are directly absorbed by the system
under consideration during its operating life. Today, the concept of
energy-resources consumption is undergoing a radical re-evaluation, in response to
the acknowledged interdependency of the productive sectors with both the envi-
ronment and the society. Indeed, modern economies are sustained by flows of fossil
fuels extracted from natural environment: it can be said that all the goods and
services produced within a given economy are characterized by an embodied energy
(also called cumulative energy, primary energy or energy cost), which is defined in
this book as the direct and indirect amount of primary fossil fuels required to
deliver the considered products.
This chapter aims at clarifying the concept of natural resources, highlighting the
relevance that non-renewable energy-resources have in the economic process. The
emerging needs of resource accounting methods are finally identified and the
objectives of the work are defined.

1.1 Role of Natural Resources in the economic process

Natural resources can be defined as all the goods provided by nature that are useful
in order to sustain human economic systems. Economic production consists the
transformation of such natural resources into something of values for humans, that
is, something that creates welfare, quality of life, utility or whatever else provide us
satisfaction. All the productive processes, even the production of immaterial ser-
vices, require natural resources to sustain their production, and inevitably generate
wastes.
© The Author(s) 2016 1
M.V. Rocco, Primary Exergy Cost of Goods and Services,
PoliMI SpringerBriefs, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43656-2_1
2 1 Introduction

In last decades, many scientists argued that the nature of economic and bio-
logical processes are similar: the human economy can be productive and satisfy
human needs only by transforming available raw materials and energy into
unavailable flows of wastes. However, Traditional economic paradigms have not
paid much attention to the physical roots of economic production, according to the
assumption that the biophysical world does not constrain the development of the
economic systems (Daly and Farley 2010).
The issues of natural resources scarcity and the environmental effects due to their
exploitation lead public opinion and policymakers in recognize that the growth of
modern economies is physically constrained (Cleveland and Ruth 1997; Costanza
1992; Costanza and Daly 1987; Mayumi 2009). In last decades, attention has been
devoted to the thermodynamic limits of the human economy, and the entropic nature
of the economy has been recognized, as first emphasized by Nicolas Georgescu-
Roegen is his The Entropy law and the Economic Process (1971) (Bakshi et al. 2011;
Mayumi 2009). Nowadays, efficiency in resources use become one of the main goal
of political initiatives such as the European 2020 strategy (EU 2011).

1.1.1 Primary and secondary factors of production

Since natural resources are directly harvested from the natural environment, liter-
ature usually refer to them as the primary factors of production or natural capital.
The following general classification can be found in literature (Cleveland and Ruth
1997; Daly and Farley 2010):
• Fossil fuels. Raw coal, crude oil, natural gas and nuclear fuels are part of this
category. All of these fuels are classified as non-renewable resources, since the
rate of their extraction by the world economies results faster than the rate at
which they are reproduced by natural processes. Our modern societies are
strongly dependent on this fixed stock of energy, and the quantification of its
total amount is extremely difficult;
• Mineral resources. They are represented by the highly concentrated stocks of
metals and minerals ores in the Earth crust. They are classified as non-renewable
resources, because even if they can be recycled, it has been demonstrated that
their total recycling is theoretically impossible (Ayres 1999);
• Water. In contrast to fossils, minerals and metals stocks, water resources are
renewable as a result of the hydrologic cycle;
• Land. It is defined as the soil that supports physical human infrastructures and
soil that can be used for agriculture;
• Solar energy. This category encompasses solar radiation as well as its deriva-
tives, such as kinetic energy of the wind, potential energy of water and biomass.
Obviously, solar energy is defined as renewable.
1.1 Role of Natural Resources in the economic process 3

Based on their physical and chemical qualities, material resources consumption

can be classified in two sub-categories: resource use or depletion. A resource is said
to be used if it is possible to reuse it again after the consumption process: minerals,
water and land are often part of this category. On the other hand, if the consumption
of a resource imply a radical change of its chemical and physical properties, as for
the combustion process of fossil fuels, resources are said to be depleted (Bakshi
et al. 2011).
Natural resources sustain economic production, allowing to produce energy
carriers, goods, services, monetary capitals and labour (working hours): since
these products are essential for economic production, they can be simultaneously
considered as input and output of the human economy, as depicted in Fig. 1.1. For
such reason, these contributions are here defined as the secondary factors of pro-
duction. The distinction among primary and secondary factors of production is
crucial for the development of primary resource accounting methods and it will be
very useful in further chapters.

1.1.2 Focus on non-renewable Energy-Resources

The crucial role of energy in modern economic activities is undeniable (Giampietro

et al. 2012; Wilting 1996). Already in 1933, Soddy wrote: «If we have available
energy, we may maintain life and produce every material requisite necessary. That
is why the flow of energy should be the primary concern of economics.» (Costanza
1980; Wilting 1996). Based on IEA data, nowadays fossil fuels provide more than
75 % of the total world energy consumption: as stated by Odum, the prosperity and
stability of modern societies are then inextricably linked to the production and
consumption of fossils, namely raw coal, crude oil and natural gas (Hall et al.
2014; Odum 1973).
Production activities and requirements of energy are strictly related, as shown in
Fig. 1.2, where the trends of the World’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Total
Primary Energy Supply (TPES) per capita in the period 1971–2011 are compared.

Human economy
Environment

Primary factors Secondary factors

Fossil fuels Energy carriers

Productive
Mineral resources Goods and services
systems
Water Monetary capitals
Land Working hours
Solar energy

Fig. 1.1 Primary and secondary factors of production

4 1 Introduction

12.000 2.000
GDP per capita [current $]

TPES - Total Primary energy Supply [kgoe]

GDP - Gross Demand Product [current $]

TPES per capita [kgoe] 1.900

10.000
1.800
8.000
1.700

6.000 1.600

1.500
4.000
1.400
2.000
1.300

0 1.200
1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Fig. 1.2 Trend of Gross Domestic Production per capita (GDP) and Total Primary Energy Supply
per capita (TPES) for the World in the period 1971–2011 (IEA data)

Two main issues are connected with depletion of fossil fuels:

• Scarcity of stocks. Since stocks of fossil fuels are finite, the depletion of the
presently known global resources which are economically available will prob-
ably become reality sometime in the current century (Bardi 2011; Costanza
1991; Daly and Farley 2010; Mayumi 2009);
• Pollutants and greenhouse gases emissions. Extraction, refinements and com-
bustion of fossil fuels cause emissions of greenhouse gases (mainly CO2) and
pollutants. Emissions due to hydrocarbons are dangerous for the health of
humans and ecosystems, and they represent a contribution in raising up the
concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (Solomon 2007).
Political initiatives as well as research efforts are thus facing these issues acting
in two main directions: (1) claiming a transition towards alternative power sources
and (2) promoting a rational use of fossil fuels through the so-called energy effi-
ciency practice. This book focuses on the latter objective by considering economic
and human activities from a physical perspective: it aims to provide a compre-
hensive methodology to assess and to reduce the total fossil fuels requirements due
to production of goods and services.
1.2 Emerging needs in Environmental Impact Analysis 5

1.2 Emerging needs in Environmental Impact Analysis

The ultimate purpose of the economy is to satisfy the households’ demand of goods
and services. Modern economies can be represented as intricate networks of pro-
ductive processes connected to each other by flows of material goods, energy and
nonmaterial services. Such networks are connected to the natural environment,
taking natural resources and rejecting wastes. The acknowledged interdependency
of the productive sectors with both the environment and the society at large makes
quantitative evaluation of environmental impact due to goods and services pro-
duction a very challenging task. Indeed, the production of all the goods and ser-
vices are sustained, in a both direct and indirect way, by flows of resources
extracted from natural environment.
Environmentally conscious political and technological decisions require to know
their total effects in terms of primary fossil fuels requirements: literature clearly states
that without a proper evaluation of the overall resource consumption of one specific
productive system, capable to include also the indirect supply chains requirements,
misleading results may be obtained. For this reason, many efforts are focused on the
definition of methods to account for the overall fossil fuels contribution to individual
products (Ayres 2008; Ayres et al. 2007, 2013; Liao et al. 2012; Suh 2009).
From the analyst perspective, the following four gaps emerge from the literature.
1. Identification of a standardized accounting method: consensus about the most
appropriate resources accounting scheme is still nonexistent. Indeed, Life Cycle
based methods are not defined in an unique and unambiguous way, and they rely
on extensive data collection procedures, resulting in large uncertainties in
results;
2. Energy-resources characterization: identification of one comprehensive
thermodynamic-based metric for energy-resources characterization is claimed;
3. Evaluation of efficiency of energy systems in a Life Cycle perspective: perfor-
mances evaluation of energy conversion systems by means of traditional First
and Second Law indicators neglect the indirect effects linked to the consumption
of non-energy related products and externalities. Novel thermodynamic based
indicators are claimed to obtain useful insight for the optimization procedure;
4. Role of externalities: the role that externalities of productive systems (and
human labour among others) have in primary resources consumption needs to be
quantitatively clarified.

1.3 Objectives and structure of the book

The general objective of this book is the development of a resource accounting

method for the evaluation of non-renewable primary energy-resources require-
ments of any product of a given economy. This has been reached through the
6 1 Introduction

definition and the formalization of the Exergy based Input-Output analysis (ExIO),
a comprehensive framework that integrates Input-Output analysis and Exergy
analysis for the thermodynamic performance evaluation and optimization of energy
systems in a Life Cycle perspective.
Specific objectives of the book stem from the emerging issues previously
highlighted:
1. The method is formalized in order to allow reproducible, reliable and accurate
resource accountings in a standard and simple way. In this work, the mathe-
matical formulation of ExIO is based on Input-Output analysis, which allows to
define standardized time and space boundaries for any analyzed system or
product, encompassing its whole Life Cycle. The approach relies on standard
and freely available data sources, avoiding extensive data mining processes and
making the application of the analysis simpler and faster with respect to tradi-
tional process based LCA;
2. In this work, Exergy is assumed by ExIO as the suited thermodynamic-based
metric for fossil fuels characterization and for energy conversion systems
analysis;
3. The ExIO method should be able to analyze energy conversion systems in
detail, proposing a set of indicators useful for optimization purposes. In this
work, accuracy of results can be selectively increased through the Hybrid-ExIO
analysis, which allows to focus on detailed systems operating inside broader
sectors of the economy;
4. The Bioeconomic ExIO model has been proposed to internalize the effects of
human labour consumption within the primary energy-resources accounting of
goods and services;
After the brief overview about the concept of natural resources and their role in
the economic process provided by this chapter, the rest of the book is arranged as
follows.
Chapter 2 presents the state of the art of resources accounting techniques:
mathematical structure of Input–Output analysis (IOA) and Process Analysis
(PA) are formalized for a generic productive system, compared and finally dis-
cussed. What emerges from this chapter is that any resources accounting problem
may be described in a more efficient, simple and standardized way through IOA
rather than using PA.
In Chap. 3, a critical literature review about the Thermodynamic based methods
for system analysis is provided. Energy, Entropy and Exergy based Life Cycle
methods are comparatively analyzed and a taxonomy is proposed. Finally, the use
of such metrics for energy-resources characterization is discussed. What emerges
from this chapter is that exergy is widely considered as the most suited numeraire to
account for energy-resources consumption, but the application of Exergy to Life
Cycle Assessment methods requires further methodological improvements.
Chapter 4 is the core of this book: it merges the resources accounting technique
of IOA with the concept of exergy, formalizing the Exergy based Input Output
1.3 Objectives and structure of the book 7

analysis (ExIO). This method allows to evaluate the primary exergy cost of goods
and services produced by a specific national economy. The method relies on
Monetary Input–Output Tables (MIOTs) of national economies as standardized and
constantly updated data source. The main methodological achievements of this
chapter can be summarized as follows: (1) a complete formalization of ExIO
method is proposed. Specifically, different techniques are proposed to account for
international trades of products; (2) The Hybrid ExIO approach is proposed and
formalized in order to increase the accuracy of results obtained through the use of
standard ExIO analysis and to perform Life Cycle Assessment of detailed products
and systems; (3) The Hybrid ExIO approach is adapted in order to perform
Thermoeconomic analysis and Design Evaluation of energy conversion systems.
In Chap. 5 the role of human labour in primary energy-resources accounting is
investigated, and the Bioeconomic ExIO model is proposed and formalized to
account for the effects that working hours consumption has on primary
energy-resources invoked for the production of goods and services.
Finally, in Chap. 6 the ExIO framework is applied to the following case studies:
(1) evaluation of primary exergy cost of goods and services produced by different
national economies; (2) application of Hybrid ExIO model for Thermoeconomic
analysis and Design Evaluation of an Italian Waste to Energy power plant in a Life
Cycle perspective; (3) application of standard and Bioeconomic ExIO for the
detailed analysis of the Italian economy, and for the comparative analysis of the
primary exergy costs of dishwashing alternatives.
Conclusions of the book remark its main achievements and also gives a per-
spective about the future possible research paths.

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Economics, 29, 473–483.
Ayres, R. U. (2008). Sustainability economics: Where do we stand? Ecological Economics, 67,
281–310.
Ayres, R. U., Turton, H., & Casten, T. (2007). Energy efficiency, sustainability and economic
growth. Energy, 32, 634–648.
Ayres, R. U., van den Bergh, J. C. J. M., Lindenberger, D., & Warr, B. (2013). The underestimated
contribution of energy to economic growth. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 27,
79–88.
Bakshi, B. R., Gutowski, T. G. P., Gutowski, T. G. P., Sekulic, D. P., & Sekulić, D. P. (2011).
Thermodynamics and the destruction of resources.
Bardi, U. (2011). The limits to growth revisited. Springer.
Cleveland, C. J., & Ruth, M. (1997). When, where, and by how much do biophysical limits
constrain the economic process?: A survey of Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen’s contribution to
ecological economics. Ecological Economics, 22, 203–223.
Costanza, R. (1980). Embodied energy and economic valuation. Science, 210, 1219–1224.
Costanza, R. (1991). Ecological economics: A research agenda. Structural Change and Economic
Dynamics, 2, 335–357.
Costanza, R. (1992). Ecological economics: The science and management of sustainability.
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Costanza, R., & Daly, H. E. (1987). Toward an ecological economics. Ecological Modelling, 38,
1–7.
Daly, H. E., Farley, J. (2010). Ecological economics: Principles and applications (2nd ed.).
EU. (2011). A resource-efficient Europe–Flagship initiative under the Europe 2020 Strategy. COM
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Giampietro, M., Martin, J. R., & Ulgiati, S. (2012). Can we break the addiction to fossil energy?
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Hall, C. A. S., Lambert, J. G., & Balogh, S. B. (2014). EROI of different fuels and the implications
for society. Energy policy, 64, 141–152.
Liao, W., Heijungs, R., & Huppes, G. (2012). Thermodynamic analysis of human–environment
systems: A review focused on industrial ecology. Ecological Modelling, 228, 76–88.
Mayumi, K. (2009). Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen: His bioeconomics approach to development and
change. Development and Change, 40, 1235–1254.
Odum, H. T. (1973). Energy, ecology, and economics. Ambio, 220–227.
Solomon, S. (2007). Climate change 2007-the physical science basis: Working group I
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Wilting, H. C., (1996). An energy perspective on economic activities.
Chapter 2
Review of Resources Accounting
Methods

Development of practical approaches for the evaluation of environmental impact

caused by the production of goods and services is one of the most relevant and
debated topic in Industrial Ecology (IE). According to the literature, one of the
main goal of IE resides in the definition of a comprehensive and unified method to
account for resources and wastes embodied in goods and services (Bullard et al.
1978; Hendrickson et al. 1997; Williams 2004). This chapter introduces two
mathematical accounting schemes widely adopted in literature: Input-Output
analysis and Process analysis. In this chapter, the analytical structure of both the
approaches is formalized.

2.1 Life Cycle Assessment

Consumption of natural resources is closely connected with economic and envi-

ronmental burdens by the intricate nets of processes by which the modern economy
transforms, uses and disposes the inputs and outputs of its production. Therefore,
understanding the structure of the economy that governs flows of primary and
secondary factors of production between producing industries and consuming
households is indispensable for solving the problems of both limited resources
availability and emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases (Suh and Kagawa
2005). In last decades, the discipline of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) emerged to
face these issues.
The concept of LCA originated in early 1970s, when the issues related to energy
efficiency and consumption of scarce raw materials became relevant, in order to
provide a unified framework for the evaluation of the total environmental burdens
caused by human activities. In 1990s, the Society of Environmental Toxicology and
Chemistry (SETAC) defined for the first time formal guidelines for environmental
assessment of products. These guidelines were formulated in order to provide a
complete and clear picture about the interaction between the analyzed productive
© The Author(s) 2016 9
M.V. Rocco, Primary Exergy Cost of Goods and Services,
PoliMI SpringerBriefs, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-43656-2_2
10 2 Review of Resources Accounting Methods

system and the natural environment, understanding the overall and interdependent
nature of the environmental consequences of human activities and thus providing
useful information to decision-makers. After SETAC, attempts to define the LCA
framework have been made by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), which started to handle the standardization of the methodology, publishing
the well-known standards in the 14040 series (UNI 2001). These days, software
tools and databases are specifically developed to perform LCA analysis, and the
framework is continuously developing from both theoretical and computational
viewpoint (Heijungs and Suh 2002b; Pennington et al. 2004; Peters 2007; Rebitzer
et al. 2004; Suh et al. 2004).
The aim of LCA is the evaluation of the direct and indirect environmental
burdens connected with the production, use and disposal of a given system (Guinée
2002a; In and Curran 1994; Klöpffer 1997). Environmental burdens associated to a
certain product can be distinguished among loadings and impacts. Loadings are
material and energy flows that cross the boundaries of the considered system that
are quantitatively measureable, whereas impacts concern the consequences of
loadings on environment or human health, and are sometimes considered qualita-
tively (Guinée 2002b). The assessment includes the entire life cycle of the product
or activity, encompassing extraction and processing of raw materials, manufac-
turing, distribution, use, re-use, maintenance, recycling, final disposal and all the
other involved services and treatments. Standard regulation ISO 14040 defines four
steps for the application of LCA (UNI 2001):
1. Goal and Scope definition. In the first step, objective of the analysis, functional
unit, temporal and spatial extension of the system (system boundaries) are
defined. Moreover, assumptions, strategies and procedures for data collection
are established;
2. Inventory analysis. It aims at quantifying inputs and outputs that cross the
previously defined boundaries: energy, raw materials, products, co-products and
wastes that participate to the life cycle of the functional unit are considered and
collected in this phase;
3. Impact assessment. In this phase, results of the inventory analysis are translated
into potential environmental burdens, mainly related to resources use, human
health impacts and ecological impacts;
4. Results interpretation. In this last phase, analysts are called to examine results in
order to identify different options that can be undertaken in order to reduce
environmental burdens. Therefore, this phase could requires to iteratively repeat
one or more previous phases.
Fundamental literature about LCA reveals that all the above listed application steps
require to be further developed and improved: an exhaustive survey about basics,
developments and unsolved problems in LCA can be found in literature (Ekvall and
Finnveden 2001; Pennington et al. 2004; Reap et al. 2008; Rebitzer et al. 2004).
Within the theoretical framework of LCA, the issue of primary resources
accounting started to be addressed from a methodological standpoint in response to
2.1 Life Cycle Assessment 11

the energy price rising, growing awareness of materials scarcity and negative
impact of economic production on the environment (Meadows et al. 1972). The
new awareness of the negative aftermath caused by the intensive use of fossil fuels
moved the focus of the system analysts from the evaluation and reduction of direct
energy requirements to a wider perspective. Several studies about the calculation of
direct and indirect energy requirements of products were implemented during these
years, and different methods were proposed. For instance, Chapman estimated the
primary energy consumption (also named energy cost) of copper, aluminum and
refined oil fuels (Chapman 1974; Chapman et al. 1974; Chapman and Faculty
1975). Over the same period, the first studies about the primary energy require-
ments of national production were introduced by Bullard in (Bullard et al. 1978),
referring to Hereenden and Tanaka studies on the energy cost of households pur-
chases in the U.S. economy (Herendeen and Tanaka 1976). Bullard and Hereenden
quantifying the energy cost of goods and services for energy saving purpose,
identifying products that required higher total energy use and proposing their
substitution (Bullard and Herendeen 1975). Almost simultaneously, Wright esti-
mated the primary energy cost of British national production with a similar
approach (Wright 1975). A few years later, Costanza and Hereenden tried to find
interrelationships between energy cost and economic cost of goods and services
trying to find evidences of the so-called Energy Theory of Value (Costanza 1980,
2004; Pokrovskii, 2011).
In last decades, methods for primary resources cost accounting were subjected to
a refinement by Treloar, Suh, Lenzen, Duchin, Hendrickson, Szargut and other
scientists (Dixit et al. 2010; Duchin 1992, 1998; Duchin et al. 1996; Hendrickson
et al. 2010; Suh 2009; Suh and Huppes 2005; Suh et al. 2004; Suh and Nakamura
2007; Szargut 2005; Szargut et al. 1988, 2002; Treloar 1997, 1998), and such
accounting methods are nowadays applied in various field of economic production:
buildings (Fay et al. 2000; Hammond and Jones 2008; Sartori and Hestnes 2007;
Treloar et al. 2001), industrial products (Lenzen and Dey 2000), energy systems
(Lenzen and Munksgaard 2002), automotive systems (Lave et al. 2000), services
(Spielmann and Scholz 2005), and so on.
The accounting methods described in the following represent a unified and
comprehensive reformulation of the practical approaches for the application of LCA
methodology. Different formalization of the same methods can be found in litera-
ture (Heijungs and Suh 2002b; Hendrickson et al. 2010; Joshi 1999; Nakamura
et al. 2007; Suh and Huppes 2005).

2.2 Introduction to resources accounting

Production of goods and services by economic and human activities is ultimately

sustained by a flow of resources that may be taken from the environment (fossil
fuels, solar radiation, water, soil, etc.) or that are produced by other processes
(semi-finished products, electricity, etc.). As an instance, the electricity production
12 2 Review of Resources Accounting Methods

of a solar photovoltaic system requires solar energy during its operation, but also
requires energy due to the production of the solar cells. Therefore, the evaluation of
resources directly and indirectly required (i.e. embodied) by a certain system
strongly depends on the objectives and the choices of the analyst, which must
clearly and unambiguously define the kind of resources to be accounted for, as well
as the extensions of time and space boundaries of the analyzed system (Suh 2005;
Suh and Huppes 2005). As an instance, one may be interested in quantifying the
amount of primary fossil fuels embodied in the energy produced by a fuel cell along
its whole life cycle, the total electricity embodied in products of a chain of pro-
cesses in one year, the working hours embodied in a defined production process in
one day, and so on.
Theoretical description of embodied resources accounting methods requires the
introduction of some fundamental definitions. Let us consider the simple network of
productive processes of Fig. 2.1, each of which produces and exchanges the pro-
duct x in a reference time window, say one hour.
The definition of the useful products of the network, as well as the required
resources, depends on the choices and needs of the analyst. Resources to be
accounted for could be primary (i.e. directly taken from the natural environment,
such as primary energy-resources, ores, etc.) or secondary (i.e. produced by other
processes, such as electricity, semi-finished materials, labour, etc.). Let us consider
the two following simple cases:
1. Evaluation of the amount of kth products embodied in the ith products in the
given time window. In this case, the analyst defines the system as composed by
the ith and jth processes (shaded area in Fig. 2.2, left side). The ith process
deliver the product fi outside the network, defined as the final demand (also
called target product or functional unit) and considered as the reason why such
network exists. The amount of products exchanged between jth and ith pro-
cesses is defined as the intermediate transaction xij, and each process thus
absorbs a number of (secondary) exogenous resources rk from the kth process
defined outside system boundaries. Therefore, the direct and indirect (i.e. the

Fig. 2.1 Outline of a generic

network of productive Process xki Process
processes k i
xi
xkj xji

Process
j

Environment

xenv,k xenv,j xenv,i

2.2 Introduction to resources accounting 13

System System
boundary boundary

Process rki Process Process xki Process

k i
fi k i
fi
rkj xji xkj xji

Process Process
j j

Environment Environment

xenv,k xenv,j xenv,i renv,k renv,j renv,i

Fig. 2.2 Outline of a generic productive system. The system produces the final demand by
absorbing resources from other processes (left side) or from the environment (right side)

embodied) amount of kth resources required to deliver the unit of final demand
can be calculated through relation (2.1).


ei ¼ rki + rkj f i ð2:1Þ

2. Evaluation of the amount of primary resources embodied in the ith products in

the given time window. In this case, the analyst defines the system as composed
by all the processes that absorb products from the environment (shaded area in
Fig. 2.2, right side). The system produces again the final demand fi by con-
suming a direct and indirect amount of (primary) resources from the environ-
ment, calculated through relation (2.2).


eenv;i ¼ renv;k + renv;j þ renv;i f i ð2:2Þ

It is worth to notice that both the inputs and the outputs of every process have to
be defined as one single kind of product measured with one specific unit, and that
both physical and monetary units can be adopted (kWh, kg, units, € and so on).
Evaluating primary or secondary resources consumed by the simple systems
defined by Fig. 2.2 is straightforward. However, modern economies are actually
complex networks composed by a very large number of productive processes,
connected to each other and with the environment by many different flows of
products. This makes the definition of the system to be analyzed a very complex
and challenging task. In this perspective, unified rules for the definition of system
boundaries and a defined mathematical scheme to account for total resources
consumption are required (Finnveden et al. 2009; Guinee et al. 2010; Liao et al.
2012; Suh 2009). Finally, notice that the total resources embodied in one product
cannot be defined as a property of the defined product, since its value is strictly
dependent by the definition of system boundaries.
14 2 Review of Resources Accounting Methods

As stated in Chap. 1, this book focuses on the development of methods to

account for primary non-renewable energy-resources embodied in goods and ser-
vices. However, the accounting methodologies introduced in following sections
may be adopted in principle for the evaluation of different types of resources or
waste emissions (pollutants, water consumption, soil occupation, material use, etc.).

2.3 Input–Output analysis

Input–Output Analysis (IOA) is the analytical framework originally developed in

late 1930s by Wassily Leontief in order to analyze and to understand the interde-
pendence of industries within a given economy (Dietzenbacher and Lahr 2004;
Leontief 1974). Because of the scientific relevance and the analytical potential of
IOA, Leontief was awarded by the Nobel Prize in economics in 1973. Since
Leontief’s first publications, hundreds of books and articles on input-output anal-
ysis have been published. During last decades, original IOA framework have been
modified and developed in order to extend its evaluation to other fields, such as:
employment and social accounting metrics associated with production activities,
regional and interregional flows of products and services, environmental account-
ings, and so on. Today, IOA is one of the most widely applied methods in both
classical economics and in the field Environmental Impact Analysis (Miller and
Blair 2009; Suh 2009).
Although IOA is typically applied for the analysis of national economies, its
theoretical formulation makes it suitable to describe and to analyze every kind of
productive system. After a brief historical overview, the Input-Output analysis is
described and formalized as a comprehensive method to account for resources use
or waste emissions embodied in products.

2.3.1 Basic Leontief model: single production process

Recalling definitions introduced in paragraph 2.2, Input-Output analysis is here

applied to a simple productive system composed only by the generic ith process,
represented in Fig. 2.3.

Fig. 2.3 Representation of a System

single production process boundary

Process xi fi
ri i

xii
2.3 Input–Output analysis 15

Given a defined time frame, the process produces a net amount of product f i (the
final demand, that is the purpose of system production) consuming a portion of its
own product xii (intermediate transaction), and absorbing a flow of exogenous
resources or releasing a flow of wastes ri (exogenous transactions). The total pro-
duction of ith process equals the sum of its intermediate consumption and its final
demand, as showed by the production balance (2.3). The balance have to be written
in one homogenous metric, say, kg, J, units or monetary value.

xi = xii + f i ð2:3Þ

For the purpose of IOA, the technical coefficient (2.4) is introduced as the ratio
between the input to ith process and its total production: it represents the direct
input requirements to produce one unit of product.
xii
ai ¼ ð2:4Þ
xi

xi ¼ a i xi þ f i ð2:5Þ

By simple algebraic handlings of relation (2.5), total production of ith process

can be expressed as a function of its final demand and its technical coefficient: the
Leontief Production Model (also named Leontief demand driven model) is derived
as in relation (2.6) (Suh 2005). The Leontief inverse coefficient (2.7) (or Leontief
Multiplier) is the core of the Input-Output analysis: it represents the amount of ith
product embodied in the unit of the ith final demand.

xi ¼ ð1  ai Þ1 f i ð2:6Þ

li ¼ ð1  ai Þ1 ð2:7Þ

With reference to Fig. 2.3, total production of the ith process (2.6) causes ex-
ogenous transactions of resources or wastes ri , such as tons of input materials,
Joules of energy, hectares of soil, hours of labour, CO2 emissions, and so on. In this
section, only one single kind exogenous transaction is considered, measured in one
single unit. The amount of the considered exogenous transaction embodied in the
unit of final demand produced by the ith process ei can be evaluated thanks to the
embodied transaction balance (2.8), which expresses the total transaction of
resources or wastes embodied in the whole ith production Ei as the sum of the
embodied energy of intermediate inputs Eii plus the exogenous transaction directly
absorbed or released by the ith process ri .

Ei ¼ Eii þ ri ! ei xi ¼ ei xii þ ri ð2:8Þ

16 2 Review of Resources Accounting Methods

In a similar fashion of technical coefficient (2.4), the intervention coefficient (2.9)

is defined as the amount of exogenous transaction directly required to produce a
unit of product.
ri
bi ¼ ð2:9Þ
xi

Introducing the definition of technical coefficient (2.4) in the embodied transaction

balance (2.8), and dividing both sides by total production xi , relation (2.10) is obtained.

e i ¼ e i ai þ bi ð2:10Þ

The embodied amount of exogenous transaction invoked by the unit of the final
demand is then obtained by relation (2.11) and it is expressed as a function of both
the technical coefficient and the intervention coefficient of the ith process.

ei ¼ bi ð1  ai Þ1 ð2:11Þ

Relation (2.11) is very similar to the Leontief Production Model (2.6): it represents the
amount of exogenous transaction embodied in the unit of the ith final demand. Although
the specific embodied transaction ei is constant for every unit of product (intermediate
production or final demand), it is defined as the amount of exogenous resources
needed to produce a unit of final demand: indeed, recalling definitions of technical
coefficient (2.4) and intervention coefficient (2.9), relation (2.12) is obtained.

ð2:12Þ

In this simple case, the total exogenous transaction embodied in the ith final
demand Ei equals the total amount of exogenous resources consumed by the pro-
cess ri , and it results as the product between the specific embodied resources and the
final demand, as showed by relation (2.13).

Ei ¼ ri ¼ ei f i ! Ei ¼ ri ¼ bi ð1  ai Þ1 f i ð2:13Þ

2.3.2 Basic Leontief model: generic system composed by n

processes

Let us consider the generic productive system in Fig. 2.4, composed by n produc-
tive processes connected to each other by endogenous transactions of goods and
services xij and exogenous transactions of multiple types of resources and wastes
rki . Each process is designed to deliver a certain amount of its product outside
system boundary as the final demand f i . Because of the presence of endogenous
interrelations among processes, total production xi and embodied resources/wastes
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the same custom as the Dayaks of taking the name of their first-
born, as Pa Sipi, the father of Sipi.
According to the Orang Kaya’s agreement, a party started off at
daylight to search for my missing followers; and I went out and sat
upon the stump of a gigantic tree, to view the surrounding country, a
little anxious about my men. The recent history of the Adang people
is a good illustration of the injury done by the Kayans to the
surrounding tribes. They formerly lived near the Adang river, but
extended their farms to the entrance of the Madalam; but they have
been gradually driven back, until they have abandoned the Limbang
waters, and now drink those of the interior of the Trusan, the whole
country from the Madalam being now jungle. I do not imagine they
are nearly so numerous as they were, as in the last great Kayan
foray they suffered awfully. They were, I believe, all collected in their
villages at some great feast, when the Kayans, about 3,000 strong,
set upon them; the first village was surprised, the fighting-men slain,
the rest taken captive; the few fugitives were followed up so fast as
almost to enter together the second village with their pursuers,
where the same scene again took place. The burning of these
villages, and the beating of gongs and talawaks gave notice to the
rest, and all who could fled precipitately over the Adang range,
followed by their relentless foes, who killed and captured a very
great number.
The view from the clearings at the back of the houses is
extensive. To the east three lines of hills, backed in the distance by a
long range of mountains, where the salt springs are found; to the
north there is a fine valley, descending on either side in easy slopes
to the banks of the Trusan, and as a background there is a fine
range of mountains. They say the highest is Brayong, which rises
opposite Labuan, and is one of the loftiest peaks visible from that
island—direction east of south; so that if these people be not
mistaken, I know my position tolerably well; in fact, this morning,
before I heard the name, these heights reminded me of the Lawas
mountains; but they appear so close, that all my bearings and map
must be utterly wrong if the Muruts have not made a very great
mistake; it is only one of the guides that calls it Brayong. The distant
eastern range is said to shed its waters to the opposite coast.
The village at which we are staying is but a very ordinary
specimen of a Dayak location. The houses are poor, though
effectually closed in, to avoid, they say, the poisoned arrows of their
enemies, who are continually haunting this neighbourhood, a very
great exaggeration evidently. From the clearings that are seen on
every side, there must be a very fair population assembled around
these hills; but their continual petty quarrels have no doubt a bad
effect on their prosperity and their power to resist their great enemy.
There are about fifty families in this community, and like many of the
other inland Dayak tribes, each family occupies but a small space;
the front verandah, closed in like a long room, is filled with fireplaces,
showing that the Muruts of the plain find an elevation of 3,500 feet
very cold. I had no blanket last night, and had to get up about three,
and have the fire replenished, for I felt too cold to sleep; they use
very large logs as the chief stay, and with a little care they remain in
all night.
I notice here many beads and akiks (agate beads), but little brass
wire. About twelve to-day nine of my followers made their
appearance, five Muruts bearing their burdens for them; they said
that the two lads of the party were quite exhausted, and many of
them, from eating the cabbage of the rattan, had been vomiting.
They only managed to reach the river in which I bathed, and were
found there by the party of Muruts I had sent out; five Muruts
continued the search for old Japer and the original missing four. I am
afraid I shall not see anything of them before to-morrow, as old
Japer’s legs are very much swollen. I had scarcely written the words,
when the report of two muskets told me that they were not far off,
and all are now here but Japer, who is slowly coming on behind. At
sunset he arrived, utterly exhausted.
So suspicious had my men become from hearing the Muruts
describe the treachery of the head-hunters, that when the relieving
party approached them, they warned them off, threatening them with
their guns; the Muruts fortunately shouted out Orang Kaya Upit’s
name and then they were trusted. While sitting round the fires this
evening, I noticed a sound like Brooke, and listening more attentively
I heard “Tuan Brooke! Tuan Brooke!” continually repeated. I asked
what it was they were referring to. One of the interpreters explained
how delighted they were to see the adopted son (for so I found I had
been introduced) of the great Mr. Brooke, the friend of the
aborigines, the fame of whose good deeds had reached even this
very secluded people; and their only surprise was that he who had
given peace and happiness to the “Southern Dayaks” should neglect
to extend his benefits to the Northern. They thought that a word from
him would stop all the invasions of the Kayans, and enable them to
return to their own regretted country.
I was very anxious to trace the means by which intelligence was
conveyed to these Muruts of the peace and plenty that now reigned
among the Dayaks of Sarawak, and the way in which it reached this
tribe was very simple. When their communities broke up on the
Upper Limbang, some fled to the interior, while others made their
way down the river to the country at present inhabited nearer the
sea. At rare intervals, a party would start to visit their relations, and
though, as I have shown, they occasionally suffered heavy losses as
at the Naga Surei rapid, yet the practice was kept up. Sir James
Brooke’s name is of course very familiar wherever the Malays
extend, and, although many would try to prejudice the minds of the
aborigines against him and every other Englishman, yet the effect
would not be permanent, as they all remember and ponder on that
great event, the capture of Brunei by Sir Thomas Cochrane’s
squadron.
To those unaccustomed to these oppressed aborigines, it would
appear incredible—the awe and fear inspired by the Sultan and his
nobles in former times; and the idea was universal that the Bornean
government was the greatest and most powerful in the world; but our
navy gave a rude shock to that belief, and the joy among the
aborigines on hearing that the court was obliged to hide itself in the
jungle, and afterwards humbly apologize for its conduct, spread far
and near. They now began to give more credence to the stories
which had been spread by men like Japer of the power of the
English, and of the justice with which our countrymen ruled men.
Adang visitors carried back to the far interior imperfect versions of
these affairs, but what dwelt in their minds was, that there were
some of their countrymen who were happy under the rule of Tuan
Brooke.
Though they knew something of him in this way, similar stories
reached them from other sources; slowly the news spread through
the villages bordering on the Trusan, and were carried up against the
stream to meet the same tales brought over by the Kayan envoys,
who declared that Tuan Brooke was their great ally, and therefore
the Adangs were anxious to secure his influence to put down the
Kayan forays.
The highest peak beyond the houses above 5,500 feet is called
Lobang Rimau, “The Tigers’ Cave,” about which they tell this story:
that formerly a tiger killed a woman; the people turned out, and gave
chase; the tigers, eight in number, took refuge in a cave near the
peak; the hunters lit a great fire at the entrance, and smoked them to
death. Since then there have been no tigers, but the place has been
called “Tigers’ Cave” to this day; and it is worth noticing that the
Muruts of Padas have a great dread of ascending to the summit of
some of their highest mountains, on account of the tigers which still,
they say, lurk in the deepest recesses of the forest.
 CHAPTER V.
MY LIMBANG JOURNAL—continued.

Women’s Ornaments—Adorning in Public—Confidence shown by a

young Girl—Geography—Leech Bites—Tapioca—The Manipa
Stream—The False and True Brayong—Nothing but Rice to be
purchased—Wild Raspberries—Good Shots—The Rifle Carbine
—Death of a Kite—Picking a Cocoa-nut—Curious Statement—A
Village of Runaways—Proposed Slave Hunt—Disappointment—
Appearance of the Women—Old Look of the Children—Devoid of
Drapery—Preparing the Plantations—No Goods for Sale—Edible
Bird’s-nest Cave—Difficulties in penetrating farther—Determine to
return—Climate—New Route—Custom in Drinking similar to the
Chinese—Anecdote of Irish Labourers—Change of Plans—
Fashion of wearing Brass Wire—Start on a Tour among the
Villages—The Burning Path—Village of Purté—Refreshing Drink
—The Upper Trusan—Distant Ranges—Inviting and receiving
Invitations—Fatal Midnight Revel—Tabari’s Village—Alarm of
Orang Kaya Upit—Suspension Bridge—Inhabitants—Scheme of
the Adangs to return to their old Districts—Deers’ Horns—
Mourning—Difficult Walking—The Tiger’s Leap—Meet Si Puntara
—No Real Enemies—Murud—The Gura Peak—The Main Muruts
—Salt as well as Slave Dealers—Bearskin Jacket—White Marble
—Uncertainty whence procured—Leaden Earrings—
Unbecoming Custom—Lofty Mountains—Lawi Cloud-hidden—
Muruts busy Farming—Two Harvests a Year—Agricultural
Produce plentiful—Obtain a Goat—Dress of the Men—Bead
Petticoats—Custom of burying on the Tops of the Lofty Hills—
Desecration of Graves—Jars—Discovery of one in Brunei—
Similar Millanau Customs.
September 19th.—Many of the women in this village wear fillets of
beads round their heads to keep back the hair; it looks well at a
distance, but when near, most of them are so dirty that nothing could
look well upon them. Here is a girl going out to the fields to work, and
she is putting on her ornaments; first, the bands round the head;
then a necklace of beads of twenty strings; then a chain made of
brass wire, each link four or five inches long, but most of them wear
the last ornament round the waist. Perhaps she is in a hurry. One
might suppose that these adornments are worn in honour of our visit,
as they must be inconvenient to a woman at work.
Yesterday morning, while out walking, a young girl brought me
some sticks of sugar-cane; her companions remaining a hundred
yards off; for this, in the afternoon, she was duly rewarded with a
looking-glass. I like this confidence, and detest the system they have
in some tribes of running away shrieking—all false modesty, as they
are seldom really afraid. The trade in beads for rice appears brisk,
and so we need have no fear about provisions.
I have been trying to understand the geography of this part of
Borneo, but I am exceedingly puzzled by the position of Brayong; it
bears N. E. by N. The valley leading up to these mountains is very
picturesque and park-like, with its extensive clearings and clumps of
trees scattered about. To the north the hills slope gently to the rivers,
and appear to afford splendid spots for cultivation; from this view,
even Brayong appears approachable by a very easy ascent.
I am trying to make arrangements for a six days’ trip in the jungle,
in search of new flowers, and also for a reported edible bird’s-nest
cave, the latter, most probably, a myth. I am rather troubled by my
feet. I have seventy-three wounds on one leg, and seventy-two on
the other, all from leech bites, and some of them are festering; but a
few days’ rest will probably restore them to a proper walking
condition. I dislike living in these little close houses, they are very
dirty, and there is little new to observe or to interest. I prefer the
freedom of the woods and the freshness of the tents.
20th.—The women are hard at work preparing the tapioca for
food; they cut it into slices, then dry it, and afterwards pound it to a
flour. Took a walk, notwithstanding my tender feet, as I dislike
remaining quiet a whole day. We went down to the stream which
runs to the eastward of the village, the Manipa (its bed 2,957 feet);
observed only sandstone intermixed with quartz; from thence we
ascended to a village on top of the opposite hill (height 4,403 feet),
Purté being the name of the rivulet that flows near it.
I might well say yesterday I was puzzled by the position of
Brayong, as it turns out not to be Brayong at all. It is not thirty miles
off, and the veritable Lawas range, bearing N. 10° W., about thirty
miles beyond it. There is also a high mountain, part of the false
Brayong, bearing N. Now I am no longer puzzled: the Orang Kaya
Upit gave it that name from the marked resemblance of the two
ranges. There is a curiously shaped mountain, whose eastern end is
very recognizable. I must sketch it in the geographical journal, as I
can easily recall it, if ever I ascend the Trusan.
We found the village nearly empty, all the people being away at
their farms. We could only purchase a fowl; there were two goats,
but the owner was absent. The story of the innumerable goats has
indeed faded away; we were equally unsuccessful in our search for
fruit, vegetables, or sugar-cane. On our return we picked a great
many wild raspberries, which have not very much flavour, but they
were refreshing, and in many places the shrubs grew so very thickly
as to prevent any other vegetation springing up, and looked like a
deserted garden. The plants have a very similar appearance to those
grown in England, and are pleasant to look at as reminding one of
home. The boys of the village for a few beads collected them by the
peck, till we were completely surfeited by them.
I am not a good shot with the rifle, but in my life I have three times
startled the natives, and this I did to-day. There were a great many
men present, chiefs of the neighbouring villages, and Orang Kaya
Upit told me that they had heard of the wonders of the rifle-carbine,
that could be fired five times without loading, and they were all
anxious that I should discharge it before them; so I looked about for
a mark, that if I missed would not be looked upon as a great want of
skill.
I observed a large kite perched on a branch of a tree about a
hundred and twenty yards off, so I told them I would have a shot at
the bird. I remembered that I had once before put a bullet from the
same carbine through a hawk, so I had some confidence in the
instrument. I fired, and the bird came down without the flutter of a
wing, pitching headlong into the jungle below. This intensely excited
their admiration. There is no doubt that skill in arms has a great
effect upon wild tribes, so I shall never again attempt a difficult shot
before them, for fear I should weaken the effect of this one. The
carbine was an excellent one, manufactured by Wilkinson of Pall
Mall, after Adams’ patent.
Many years ago I landed at Cagayan Sulu, with a large party to
buy cattle. A few of the people were most insolent in their manner,
and they were all fully armed; after strolling about a little in the
blazing sun, we felt very thirsty, and asked the owner of the house
near which we were bartering, to let us have a cocoa-nut. He pointed
to them, and with an insolent laugh said, “You may have one if you
can get it.” I did not wait for a second permission, but without a
moment’s thought let fly at the stalk and brought a nut down. I never
saw astonishment so visible on men’s countenances; we had no
more insolence after that. It was a shot that one might attempt a
hundred times without succeeding.
I mention this circumstance as it produced a proposal that gave
me some information of which I might otherwise not have heard. I
noticed in the evening that the chiefs were more quiet than usual,
and that they were talking together in whispers and constantly
looking my way. One of them brought me a basin of their native
spirit, which is not strong, so I drank it off. Then Orang Kaya Upit
unfolded their scheme: he said that formerly all their tribes were very
rich in slaves, captives made in their different expeditions, before the
time they were so broken up; suddenly, for some reason they did not
understand, all the slaves from the neighbouring villages fled in a
body and built a strong house a few miles away, from whence they
constantly harassed their neighbours, their former masters. They
were a bad people, thieves, and murderers, the only disturbers of
their peace: it was they who came at night and shot poisoned arrows
at the women and children, killing many.
After minutely recounting the evil deeds of this people, he said
that the assembled chiefs had often attacked the robbers’ village, but
had never succeeded in taking it. They had seen to-day the
wonderful effect of fire-arms, and they were quite convinced that if I
would join them with my seventeen Malays armed with muskets, we
could easily capture the place; that there were not less than sixty
families, so that there would be at least a couple of hundred slaves
to divide, and that they were willing I should take as many as I liked
for myself and men.
My followers looked very eagerly at me, ready at my desire to
enter on this slave hunt. I quietly declined joining in the attack, as we
had never been injured by their enemies. To this they replied that I
should certainly be attacked on my journey home, as these people
would have heard of my arrival, and would lie in ambush. I told the
Orang Kaya that I would prefer waiting till that event took place; if it
did I would turn back, and join them in driving their enemies out of
the country. They were disappointed at my determination, and
perhaps my men had indulged themselves with the idea of getting a
slave apiece. If true, this story of the village of escaped captives is
very curious; but it may have been invented to induce me to join in
an attack on a tribe of their enemies.
21st.—Many of the inhabitants of the neighbouring villages are
coming in to see the stranger. The women are remarkably ill
favoured—broad flat faces and extremely dirty, but with many head
ornaments, and some of them are tattooed about the arms and legs.
Many of the men and women wear round flat pieces of metal or of
wood in the holes of their ears instead of earrings, while others have
heavy pieces of lead, dragging the ear down to the shoulder, like the
Kanowit tribe, I suppose to enlarge the holes to the proper
proportions.
It is curious to notice the very old look that many of the boys and
girls have, especially the latter: it requires a glance at the bosom to
discover whether they are young or not. Their petticoats are of the
shortest, sometimes not eight inches broad, and are scarcely decent.
The Bengal civilian’s exclamation on seeing the Sarawak Dayaks, “It
strikes me that these people are rather devoid of drapery,” would
apply better to the Adang ladies.
We have purchased rice for twenty days at extremely moderate
rates, bartering with beads. Our guide continues absent on a visit to
his relations, which is the cause of our remaining so quiet. The
atmosphere around us is filled with smoke from the burning
plantations, rendering it quite unpleasant for mouth, nose and eyes:
the clearings are very extensive in many places, and as yet not half
burnt. Their cultivation is very slovenly—the regular Dayak custom of
felling a large extent of jungle, then, when dry, burning all that can be
easily burnt, thus leaving the trunks and large branches, and planting
rice between them.
I have observed but few tobacco-plants; they smoke what
appeared to me a kind of moss, but in reality tobacco badly cured.
They are all anxious for goods, but they have nothing to sell; neither
goats nor honey, and but few fowls or vegetables, nor do they
appear to have wax, camphor or birds’-nests; rice is their only
commodity, and that they have in abundance.
4 p.m.—One of the great curiosities of these countries is certainly
the edible bird’s-nest caves, and we were promised the sight of an
immense one. Luñgenong told us that once, when out hunting, he
had followed a pig into a large crevice in the rock, which, however,
opened out to an immense size in the interior; and that the sides
were covered with a mass of the white nest; of course the old ones
would have been of no value, but had they been destroyed, in a few
months new ones would have been built, and have been worth a
great deal to them. Luñgenong has just returned from a visit to his
relations, but though he still persists in his story of the caves, he has
changed a three days’ walk into a month’s journey in the forest: we
must, he says, carry provisions for the whole distance. This is
evidently an invention; perhaps he does not want us to visit his
caves, so I have told him I won’t go. I should like to reach the
mountain of Lawi, but I have only seven men who can walk.
22nd.—I have almost made up my mind not to try to penetrate
farther into the country during this expedition. I think it would be
much better to attempt reaching the great mountain of Lawi by
ascending the Trusan river from its mouth. The whole country
appears inhabited, so that my men would not suffer as they have
done during our present expedition up the Limbang: they would have
no unusual fatigues, nor any privations to undergo, and our chance
would be greater.
 It is very improbable indeed that at this season I can get much
assistance from these villagers; it is their planting time, and they
have a little of that feeling, which we found so prevalent during our
Kina Balu trip, of not wishing to help us to go beyond their own
village—a sort of jealousy that we may distribute our goods
elsewhere. Were my men well I should laugh at such difficulties, and
go without a guide; but four of my followers are really ill, eight more
have very sore feet, so that in reality I have but five efficient men,
which is too few to wander with unless joined to the people of the
country. I have succeeded in all the objects with which I started
except reaching Lawi, and I have gained such knowledge and
experience how to organize the next expedition, that I feel tolerably
assured of penetrating during the next excursion very much farther
into the country.
The climate among these hills must be very healthy, the air is
fresh and cool; even in the middle of the day it is not oppressive,
except in certain places. A few days’ farther advance would give us a
very superior climate. I regret that I have not sufficient instruments
with me to carry out all my views: but even with the imperfect means
I possess, I have added considerably to my knowledge of this portion
of the interior.
We are making many inquiries respecting the country below us,
and the result is that we think that by starting from Brunei with light
boats and lighter baggage, we should probably reach these houses
in good condition under twelve days; which would enable us to
extend our travels immensely during two months. I am longing to
push on to the range of mountains we see to the eastward, but after
five days’ rest few of the men have recovered from their walk from
the Madihit.
The men are drinking arrack around me, and it is interesting to
observe the custom of refusing the proffered glass and pressing it on
others, the contest continuing even to the danger of spilling the
liquor. It is so practised among the Chinese at Sarawak that a cup of
tea is often offered and refused by every one in company before the
holder will drink it. I must have disconcerted many a thirsty man by
accepting the cup before I knew the custom. This puts me in mind of
an incident that took place in a rapid run I made between the Cove
and Cork. At the door of a public-house were a dozen idle labourers:
we stopped there for a glass of ale, and in the exuberance of our
spirits ordered four quarts for the idlers: just as we were starting, one
of them stepped up to me and said,—“Sir, we never drink but out of
our own pints.”
5 p.m.—“Unstable as water,” &c., I might almost say of myself, as
my determination of not extending our journey has been upset by the
Orang Kaya Upit, who assures me that the people of the interior are
expecting me, and Si Nuri has just joined us with a message from Si
Puntará, the old hunter we met in the woods, hoping we will come
and visit him and his people. So if nothing occur, we shall start to-
morrow with such men as can walk, leaving the others to recover
strength at this village. I much prefer this plan, as it will enable me to
form a better estimate of the facilities of reaching the centre of the
island by this route, and I may yet get a look at Lawi. I have
constantly borne in mind the whisper I overheard, that only certain
privileged individuals are allowed to get a sight of this famous hill.
I have seen many fashions of wearing brass wire, but the most
inelegant is that of some of the girls of the neighbouring villages,
who twist about a couple of fathoms in circles round their neck, rising
from the shoulders to the chin, forming what appears a stiff collar
with a very broad base; it is, however, no doubt more pliant than it
appears.
23rd.—Commenced our tour among the villages by walking over
to the Purté houses: it took us two hours in the broiling sun, although
in a direct line not above two miles, and by path not three, but we
had to descend about fifteen hundred feet and climb that again; the
slopes of the hills very steep: besides we were in no hurry, not
intending to pass this village. The leech bites prevent my wearing
shoes, and the way being completely open, with no shade whatever,
the trunks of trees laid along to form a path were very hot, making
the soles of my feet painfully sore; my followers, lazy after a five
days’ rest, lagged even in this short walk, but as soon as we reached
the houses, a beautiful breeze refreshed us: but even a long bath
would not cool my burning feet.
 The village of Purté, or Sakalobang, one the name of the rivulet,
the other of the buttress, is on a northern spur of the Adang range,
which here bends considerably to the eastward. It consists of about
forty-five families, and the houses are slightly larger than the last
ones, and less confined: this village acknowledges Balang Palo as
its head man, as Si Lopong was of the last, and they know the
different villages by the names of the chief men, rather than by rivers
or hills. After our bathe the villagers refreshed us with a sweet drink,
unfermented, made from the roots of the tapioca. I notice here that
deer’s horns are much used as pegs on which to hang their swords
and fighting jackets. Most of the people are away planting rice, while
the neighbouring villagers are burning the felled trees, and filling the
air with their smoke. As we advance we obtain better views of the
interior, and here the Trusan, under the name of Kalalan, is rather
broad, and might perhaps float a canoe.
I shall not make much remark about the country, as I have taken
the necessary bearings, and shall see it all so much better from the
upper villages. The lofty eastern range is gradually appearing as two,
with in one place high white cliffs near the summit; it is too smoky for
very good bearings. Noticed a little boy wearing brass wire round the
arm from the wrist to the elbow, after the fashion of Sarawak Dayak
girls, and many of the absurd brass-wire collars even on young
children.
Every principal man seems to consider it necessary to give Orang
Kaya Upit, and the other illustrious visitors, a meal or a feast, and it
is amusing to watch how the invitation is given and received. The
host draws near the crowd, and says,—“Come,” the visitors pretend
not to hear: he again repeats, “Come,” more impatiently. They look at
anything rather than the speaker, and continue their conversation
with more earnestness than ever; after innumerable “Comes,” they at
last get up and proceed in solemn procession to the host’s room;
and this is carried on throughout the day, the visitors becoming
redder and redder in the face as evening approaches, the repeated
draughts of arrack having their effect. They gave me a little honey; it
does not look inviting, but it tastes tolerably well.
 8 p.m.—The whole house is in uproar, from the news arriving of a
man having been killed last night during a drunken bout in a
neighbouring village: nobody knows who did it, so each of the men
took an oath it was not he: they hang up a string of tiger-cat’s teeth,
and the men pass under, denying the action; a man refusing to
undergo this ordeal is considered guilty. The discussion among the
assembled chiefs is very energetic, as each man is trying to suggest
how the accident could have occurred; it being their custom when
intending to spend the night drinking, to lodge all their arms with the
women. The most sensible conjecture was that the spear shaken
from its place by the boisterous movements of the drinkers, fell
without being touched, and striking the man inside the thigh, cut the
femoral artery: they could not stop the bleeding, and the man died
almost immediately. At first suspicion fell upon the owner of the
spear, but he evidently had not thrown it, yet they felt inclined to fine
the man for having possessed so unlucky a weapon. The news of
the accident threw a slight damp on the party, and though they kept it
up till one, much to my discomfort, yet none of the carousers got
intoxicated.
24th.—We advanced to-day four hours in a south-east by east
direction to the village of Tabari. I thought yesterday I should get a
clearer view at early dawn, but a dense fog hid everything from us; it
did not lift till nine, and then only partially, but it showed that what
appeared as the southern end of the long range is a separate
mountain, but as we shall in all likelihood advance two or three days
farther, it is useless to speculate on the probable course of the river.
Our path to-day reminded me of the Sarawak Dayak ones, being
principally composed of trunks of trees generally notched,
disagreeable in descending.
As the morning was cool, our party kept well together, except the
Orang Kaya Upit and his relations, who would have bad birds. They
are evidently in alarm; what about is rather puzzling, as we are only
going to the houses of our last night’s visitors, but they apprehend
treachery, and are giving broad hints about returning; to this I will not
listen, as they will state no reason for their fears. Tabari’s village,
unlike the rest, is on the main river, which thus affords us pleasant
baths; it contains twenty-three families. Opposite the houses is one
of those bamboo and wooden suspension-bridges, thrown from one
tree to another, common in many rivers, and very useful, though they
are sometimes very rotten, and will only bear one at a time. (Houses
3,127 feet.) Although we stopped at Tabari’s house, the Orang Kaya
Upit would not, but went on to the next village.

T. Picken, lith. Published by Smith, Elder &

Day & Son, Lithrs. to the Queen.
Co. 65, Cornhill, London.
MURUT BRIDGE—TABARIS VILLAGE.
These people say that they are not Adangs, but the original
inhabitants of the country, intermarried, however, with the fugitive
tribe, and speaking the same language. They may be people of the
lower Trusan, but I doubt if they have long been settled here: there
are no fruit-trees nor ancient clearings around them, no sign, in fact,
but of a rather recent settlement.
I am promised a sight of the great mountain of Lawi to-morrow.
There is some talk of our returning a new way; I shall not object if I
can get my baggage brought on, as I like to pass over fresh ground,
and I may be able to get some bearing of Molu, which I have not
done since I left the Limbang.
I forget whether I have mentioned it before, but there is a scheme
on foot of which the Orang Kaya Upit is the originator, and he quotes
me as his great authority. It is this: that the Sultan should allow a fort
to be established at the entrance of the Madalam, to be held by the
Orang Kaya, to stop the expeditions of the Kayans; then that the
whole of the inhabitants of the interior of the Trusan should move
over and farm between the Madalam and Madihit. There can be no
doubt that it would be a good thing both for Brunei and the Muruts,
as the Borneans would get rice cheap, and the Adangs be able to
supply themselves with goods; few wear anything but bark now, and
as on the Limbang there are both wax and camphor, and
innumerable rattans, they would have no difficulty in purchasing
cloths, which they already prize. The Muruts would be too far off to
be oppressed, but near enough to trade. The Shabandar, however,
dreads anything like combination among the Muruts, and would
particularly object to their getting beyond his reach.
Deers’ horns are plentiful in this house. Ahtan has just counted
forty-three used as pegs; the skins of bears, as well as those of the
rimau dahan are also numerous, nearly every man having a jacket of
them. The men evidently hunt a great deal; their dogs are all sleek
and well fed, and I intend buying a couple to take down the river with
us.
There is apparently always something new to notice in these
tribes. I never before saw the following ceremony: twenty-four girls
and boys, with a few grown women, are walking up and down the
verandah, chanting, “Woh, weh, woh, Isana,” mourning for the son of
the chief, who has just been wounded up country. They march in
Indian file, their arms resting on the shoulders of the person in front;
it appears to be a mere ceremony, there being very little grief in the
tone. At first I thought it might be connected with the heavy rain and
crashing thunderstorm that is now raging outside, preventing any
attempt at conversation. This promises us a rapid if safe return, as
we have had rain at night for the last few days.
 These people wear many rings of lead up the rim of the ear, as I
noticed among the wax gatherers.
I have just heard that it was a relation of the Orang Kaya Upit who
wounded the chief’s son, which explains the bad omens and the
fears. Absurd fellow not to have explained the reason, because we
could then have all gone on together!
25th.—We advanced about four miles in a S.E. by S. direction to
the houses of Si Nina, where we breakfasted. The track was
generally along the banks of the river and very bad walking indeed;
constant landslips having destroyed the path, we had to crawl along
over the loose earth, sometimes finding it impassable; we were then
obliged to descend to the foaming stream below, hard and
dangerous work after last night’s rain. Among the valleys small
plains, slightly undulating, are to be met with; otherwise the
character of the country is a general succession of steep hills. At one
place two rocks were pointed out to me in the stream about thirty
feet apart, called the Tigers’ Leap. I made many inquiries about
these animals; they insist that eight came to their country; that they
were not tiger-cats as I suggested: if such animals were ever here
they might have escaped from cages in the capital: it was a common
custom among the far eastern princes to keep these ferocious
creatures, but I never heard of Bornean princes doing so. I have
read somewhere that formerly there were a few tigers on the north-
east coast, probably let loose by strangers as the ancestors of the
elephants were.
Si Nina’s village contains about forty families, if we follow the
numbers of doors, though he himself says fifty, and their lazy habits
may induce two families to live in a space not fit even for one. Here
we met Si Puntará, whom we accompanied two miles in a south-
west direction to his village on the slope of a hill; it consists of two
houses and perhaps forty families. Tapioca is extensively grown
round this village, and the clearings are immense. What proves to
me that the stories of constant harassing enemies are
exaggerations, is that all these villages keep their rice granaries at
some distance from the houses, where they might be destroyed
without any danger or difficulty; to this the Muruts would answer that
their enemies seek heads, not rice.
The mountain at the southern end of the first eastern range, called
by the natives Murud, or “the mountain,” bears south-east by south,
and in a straight line is perhaps not more than three miles off.
(Houses 3,679 feet). Orang Murut simply means a mountain man, or
a mountaineer, but is now used for a particular class of aborigines.
Standing near the rice granaries of Si Puntará’s village we had a fine
view of the ranges that ran from north to south, whose lengthened
summits showed occasionally white cliffs, but there was a peak not
many miles from us, a little to the eastward of south, called Gura,
and from its summit they said on a fine day the eastern coast was
visible, with the broad sea beyond, and at its base and beyond it live
the Main Muruts, who are the great suppliers of salt.
There are some of the Main Muruts here. I have asked for a guide
to their houses; I am promised one if I will remain another week, but
as that excursion itself would take us eight days, I must not think of
attempting it, as even now I shall not be back to Brunei within the
time I promised. The Main Muruts are not only salt but slave dealers.
I have noticed but one of them, and he in his pride has beaten out a
brass gong into a broad belt a foot across. He is a forbidding-looking
fellow, with a hair lip. They say the salt water issues from a spring,
and is collected in small ponds, and then boiled for the salt; it looks
dirty, and has a peculiar flavour, as if it had much soda in it. The
Orang Kaya Upit, with a bad omen, has again deserted us, so that
we are without a proper interpreter.
26th.—In looking at a bearskin jacket, of which there are a great
many to be seen about, I for the first time saw a specimen of the
Batu Gading, “ivory stone,” in fact, white marble. They say the
Muruts of Limbang sell it. I should like to know from whence they get
it; those I have asked say from Baram. I remember passing a
mountain or hill in that river that they called Batu Gading. Sent a
party to find if the Orang Kaya Upit had been able to purchase a
deer or a goat for us. Many of the women, as I have before noticed
in the men, wear leaden rings along the edge of the ear; the lobe
being brought down to the shoulder by half-a-dozen heavy ones.
 About 11 a.m. started in a south-west direction for about a mile
and a half, to the top of a hill, from whence there is usually a view of
Lawi in a south-west direction; all the mountains, however, are
hidden in clouds, but it must be a high one if remarkable among its
towering neighbours. The whole appearance of the country is
mountainous, each range becoming more lofty as we approach the
hidden interior. From an elevation of about 4,348 feet, the two
mountains next us looked very high, perhaps between 7,000 and
8,000 feet; they say these are the children, Lawi the father.
Were the people not so busy with their farms, and I so pressed for
time, I would try and reach Lawi, as there are people residing at its
foot; but I must put it off till next expedition, when I hope to pass the
mountain.
These people are very well off, on account of planting rice twice a
year, one kind called Asas being ready in three months, the other in
five months. They have plenty of the great essential rice, and trust to
hunting for most of their flesh; they, however, keep pigs and a few
fowls. Tapioca is a mere weed; dressed as a potato it is excessively
indigestible; I have observed some sweet potatoes, and also some
yams and Indian corn. They have no fruit-trees, contenting
themselves with a few bananas.
Orang Kaya Upit has so far got over his fears, that he has made
his appearance, following in the train of a goat, which has been the
loadstone to draw him here. I think our farthest resting-place has
been reached, as I talk of returning to-morrow, and calculate that
should no unforeseen event take place, we may reach Brunei by the
11th October. The plan of returning by an entirely new road has been
given up, as it would require our remaining here till all the rice is
planted.
I have seen quite as much of the country as I expected,
penetrating as far, though not quite in the direction I had calculated. I
thought we should have made a general S.E. by S. direction from the
Madalam, but I think we must have advanced S.E. by E. instead.
Many of the men have broad belts of bark, which are worn partly
over the chawat, something after the fashion of the Belcher’s Sagais