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 Self-Organized
Lightwave Networks
Self-Aligned Coupling
Optical Waveguides
 Self-Organized
Lightwave Networks
Self-Aligned Coupling
Optical Waveguides

Tetsuzo Yoshimura
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-7979-1 (Hardback)

978-1-138-74688-6 (Paperback)

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To the memory of my wife, Yoriko
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Author..................................................................................................................... xiii

Chapter 1 Introduction...........................................................................................1

Chapter 2 Related Technologies.............................................................................5

2.1 Self-Focusing of Lightwaves in Nonlinear Optical Media.........5
2.2 Self-Written Waveguides (SWWs)..............................................6
References............................................................................................. 6

Chapter 3 Concepts and Features of Self-Organized Lightwave Networks

(SOLNETs)............................................................................................9
3.1 Types of SOLNETs..................................................................... 9
3.2 PRI Materials............................................................................ 14
3.3 One-Photon and Two-Photon SOLNETs.................................. 16
3.4 Fabrication Processes of Targets and Phosphor-Doped
Regions..................................................................................... 18
References...........................................................................................20

Chapter 4 Performance of SOLNETs Predicted by Computer Simulations........ 23

4.1 SOLNETs between Microscale Waveguides............................ 23
4.1.1 TB-SOLNET/P-SOLNET...........................................24
4.1.1.1 Couplings between Waveguides with
Same Core Size............................................24
4.1.1.2 Couplings between Waveguides with
Different Core Sizes.................................... 30
4.1.2 R-SOLNET.................................................................. 31
4.2 SOLNETs between Nanoscale Waveguides............................. 35
4.2.1 Simulation Models and Procedures............................. 36
4.2.2 Butt Joint.....................................................................40
4.2.3 TB-SOLNET/P-SOLNET........................................... 41
4.2.4 R-SOLNET.................................................................. 48
4.2.5 LA-SOLNET............................................................... 49
4.2.6 Performance of Couplings........................................... 51
4.3 SOLNETs between Microscale and Nanoscale Waveguides..... 54
4.3.1 Simulation Models and Procedures............................. 54
4.3.2 Butt Joint..................................................................... 56
4.3.3 TB-SOLNET/P-SOLNET........................................... 57

vii
viii Contents

4.3.4 R-SOLNET..................................................................60
4.3.5 LA-SOLNET............................................................... 61
4.3.6 Performance of Couplings...........................................64
4.4 Influence of Write-Beam Wavelengths on SOLNET
Formation................................................................................. 67
4.5 Influence of Write-Beam Intensity and Gap Distances on
SOLNET Formation................................................................. 70
4.5.1 Write-Beam Intensity.................................................. 71
4.5.2 Gap Distances.............................................................. 72
4.6 Vertical SOLNETs................................................................... 77
4.6.1 L-Shaped SWW.......................................................... 77
4.6.2 R-SOLNET with Wavelength Filters.......................... 78
4.6.3 Vertical R-SOLNET.................................................... 81
4.7 Parallel SOLNETs.................................................................... 88
4.7.1 Comparison of Parallel R-SOLNETs and SWWs....... 89
4.7.2 Misalignment Tolerance in Parallel R-SOLNETs....... 91
4.8 Y-Branching SOLNETs............................................................99
4.8.1 Y-Branching TB-SOLNET.........................................99
4.8.2 Y-Branching R-SOLNET.......................................... 105
References......................................................................................... 106

Chapter 5 Preferable Waveguide Growth Condition for SOLNET Formation.....109

5.1 Straight Waveguide Growth................................................... 109
5.2 Vertical Waveguide Growth................................................... 111
5.3 Influence of Write-Beam Absorption and Intensity on
Waveguide Growth................................................................. 112
5.3.1 Write-Beam Absorption............................................ 113
5.3.2 Write-Beam Intensity................................................ 115
References......................................................................................... 119

Chapter 6 Experimental Demonstrations of SOLNETs..................................... 121

6.1 TB-SOLNETs......................................................................... 121
6.2 R-SOLNETs............................................................................ 124
6.2.1 R-SOLNET Formed by a Free-Space Write Beam..... 124
6.2.2 R-SOLNET with Micromirrors................................. 126
6.2.3 R-SOLNET with Reflective Objects......................... 129
6.2.4 R-SOLNET with Luminescent Targets..................... 131
6.2.4.1 Coumarin-481 Luminescent Targets......... 131
6.2.4.2 Alq3 Luminescent Targets......................... 137
6.3 Y-Branching SOLNETs.......................................................... 139
6.4 Two-Photon SOLNETs........................................................... 142
6.4.1 Two-Photon TB-SOLNET........................................ 142
6.4.2 Two-Photon R-SOLNET........................................... 144
References......................................................................................... 149
Contents ix

Chapter 7 Applications of SOLNETs................................................................. 151

7.1 Integrated Optical Interconnects and Switching Systems...... 151
7.1.1 Scalable Film Optical Link Module (S-FOLM)....... 152
7.1.2 3D OE Platform Built by Self-Organized Optical
Wiring....................................................................... 154
7.1.3 Self-Organized 3D-Integrated Optical
Interconnects............................................................. 155
7.1.4 Self-Organized 3D-MOSS........................................ 158
7.1.5 Effect of SOLNET on Insertion Loss in
3D-MOSS............................................................... 159
7.2 Integrated Solar Energy Conversion Systems........................ 166
7.2.1 Waveguide-Type Thin-Film Sensitized Solar Cell......166
7.2.2 Waveguide-Type Thin-Film Artificial
Photosynthesis Cell................................................... 169
7.2.3 Self-Organized Integrated Solar Energy
Conversion System.................................................... 171
7.3 Photo-Assisted Cancer Therapy............................................. 172
7.3.1 SOLNET-Assisted Laser Surgery............................. 172
7.3.2 SOLNET-Assisted Photodynamic Therapy.............. 177
7.3.3 Indicator for Reflective or Luminescent
Materials Using R-SOLNET..................................... 178
References......................................................................................... 179

Chapter 8 Future Challenges.............................................................................. 183

8.1 Unmonitored SOLNET Formation......................................... 183
8.2 Control of Gamma Characteristics of PRI Materials............. 184
8.3 Dynamic SOLNETs............................................................... 185
8.4 Others..................................................................................... 186

Appendix I: Methods of Computer Simulations for SOLNETs....................... 187

Appendix II: Molecular Layer Deposition (MLD)............................................ 195
Epilogue................................................................................................................. 201
Index....................................................................................................................... 203
Preface
If there was a method to construct lightwave paths in free spaces as desired, by
overcoming the “Go Straight” problem, optics/photonics scientists and engineers
could treat the lightwaves more easily. This book gives a solution for this, proposing
the concept of the “Self-Organized Lightwave Network (SOLNET),” which enables
us to form self-aligned coupling optical waveguides automatically.
SOLNETs are fabricated by the self-focusing of lightwaves in photosensitive
media, in which the refractive index increases upon light beam exposure, to realize
the following functions.

1. Optical solder: Self-aligned optical couplings between misaligned devices

with different core sizes
2. Three-dimensional optical wiring
3. Targeting lightwaves onto specific objects

SOLNETs are expected to reduce the efforts to implement lightwaves into electronic
systems, reducing the cost and energy dissipation of advanced optoelectronic (OE)
systems such as optical interconnects within computers and optical switching
systems. SOLNETs might allow us to create new OE architectures, improving the
system performance. SOLNETs are also expected to be applied to a wide range of
fields where lightwaves are utilized, for example, in solar energy conversion systems
and cancer therapy.
In this book, first, concepts and features of SOLNETs are described. Next,
results of computer simulations and experimental demonstrations for SOLNETs
are presented to predict the performance and provide the proof of concepts. Then,
expected applications are proposed. Finally, because SOLNET is a technology in
progress, future challenges are discussed.
This book is intended to be read by scientists, engineers, and graduate students
who study advanced OE systems, and who are going to produce new ideas or
strategies on subjects related to lightwaves. The readers will learn SOLNETs, their
applications, and future challenges systematically. Readers with interests in optical
interconnects and optical networking systems may acquire ideas to reduce the system
cost and improve the system performance by creating new OE architectures. Readers
with interests in solar energy conversion systems, biomedical technologies, especially
photo-assisted cancer therapy, and other lightwave-related fields might obtain hints
to expand their ideas.
The author would like to thank Professors Yoshio Nakai and Riso Kato of
Kyoto University for giving the author the fundamentals of the research on solid
state physics and spectroscopy. The author would like to thank Professor Kunihiko
Asama of Tokyo University of Technology, and General Managers Kohei Kiyota,
Masao Tanaka, Akira Ihaya, Hideo Takahashi, Masaaki Kobayashi, Hirofumi
Okuyama, Osamu Takahashi, and Isao Fudemoto of Fujitsu Laboratories, Ltd. for
their instruction and encouragement during the research stage. The author would

xi
xii Preface

also like to thank Drs. Hideyuki Nawata, Tetsuo Sato, and Juro Oshima of Nissan
Chemical Industries, Ltd. for supporting the SOLNET research for a long time, and
colleagues of Fujitsu Computer Packaging Technologies, Inc., San Jose, California,
Fujitsu Laboratories, Ltd., and students of the Yoshimura Laboratory at Tokyo
University of Technology for their collaboration in research work. Finally, the author
would like to thank Ms. Ashley Gasque for giving me a great opportunity to write this
book; Mr. Marc Gutierrez, editor; and Mr. Mario A. D’Agostino, editorial engineer of
CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, and Mr. Paul Beaney, book manager of Nova Techset
Private Limited for their instruction, support, editing, and typesetting in completing
this book.
Author
Tetsuzo Yoshimura was born in Tokyo, Japan, in
1951, and graduated from Tokyo Metropolitan
Aoyama High School in 1970. He received a BSc
degree in Physics from Tohoku University in 1974,
and MSc and PhD degrees in Physics from Kyoto
University in 1976 and 1985, respectively.
In 1976, he joined Fujitsu Laboratories Ltd., where
he was engaged in research on dye-sensitization,
electrochromic thin films, amorphous super lattices,
organic nonlinear optical materials, and polymer
optical circuits. He invented the molecular layer
deposition (MLD) and the self-organized lightwave
network (SOLNET).
From 1997 to 2000, he worked at Fujitsu Computer Packaging Technologies, Inc.
(FCPT), San Jose, California, where he planned the strategy on integrated optical
interconnects within computers.
From 2001 to 2017, he was a professor at Tokyo University of Technology, where
he extended the research on SOLNET-based optoelectronics and MLD-based
nanotechnologies for optical interconnects, solar energy conversion systems, and
cancer therapy.
He is currently a professor emeritus of Tokyo University of Technology, a scientific
writer, and a musician in a rock group, The TYNC (Kekyo & Yoritan Records).

xiii
 1 Introduction

Optics and photonics have expanded their application fields during the last few decades,
as found in optical communication and switching systems, optical interconnects, and
nano-bio-medical technologies.
Despite the utility of lightwaves, the inherent lightwave nature of “Go Straight”
sometimes causes difficulties. Namely, to bring a lightwave from point A to B,
strict positional and angular control is necessary. When there is a lateral or angular
misalignment between the two points as schematically depicted in Figure 1.1a, the
lightwave cannot reach point B. If there is a method to make the lightwave propagate
automatically from point A to B as depicted in Figure 1.1b, the strict alignment
control will become unnecessary.
This book proposes the concept of the “Self-Organized Lightwave Network”
(SOLNET) to form lightwave paths in free spaces automatically as desired, realizing
the situation depicted in Figure 1.1b. The SOLNET has the following three capabilities,
which are schematically shown in Figure 1.2.

1. Fabricating the optical solder, which enables self-aligned optical couplings

between misaligned optical devices with different core sizes (Figure 1.2a).
2. Fabricating three-dimensional (3D) optical wiring in free spaces
(Figure 1.2b).
3. Targeting lightwaves onto specific objects (Figure 1.2c,d).

The principal application of SOLNETs is the optical solder for the self-aligned
optical couplings in advanced optoelectronic (OE) systems such as optical interconnects
within computers and optical switching systems. The optical interconnects have
already been implemented into data centers and super computers as inter-server
connections. They are also going to be implemented within boxes of the servers.
Recent development of nanophotonics has drastically improved the light
modulation/switching functions, opening the way to realize optical interconnects
within computers (within boxes of servers) and optical switching systems. Meanwhile,
in these advanced OE systems involving nanoscale optical devices, optical couplings
between the devices become a serious issue because of the following reasons.

• Nanoscale optical devices should be aligned with submicron accuracy.

• Core-size mismatching between microscale and nanoscale optical devices
causes a large coupling loss.
• The number of optical coupling points between devices involved in the
systems is extremely large.

The optical solder of the SOLNET is expected to provide a solution for the above-
mentioned optical coupling issue. It will reduce the efforts to implement lightwaves

1
2 Self-Organized Lightwave Networks

(a)
B

A B

Conventional lightwave propagation

(b)
B

A B

Lightwave propagation realized by SOLNETs

FIGURE 1.1 Lightwave propagation.

into the advanced OE systems, contributing to reductions of the system cost and
energy dissipation.
In addition, SOLNETs will provide novel wiring processes by utilizing the
capabilities to fabricate 3D optical wiring in free spaces and to target lightwaves
onto specific objects, giving us a chance to create new OE architectures.
SOLNETs are expected to be applied not only to the advanced OE systems but also
to any fields where lightwaves are utilized, such as solar energy conversion systems,
cancer therapy, and so on.
Introduction 3

(a) (b)

Optical device
Optical device

Optical solder 3D optical

wiring

Optical solder: Self-aligned optical coupling 3D optical wiring in free space

(c) (d)
Object Object
Optical device Optical device

Targeted lightwave path Targeted lightwave path

Targeting lightwaves onto specific object Targeting lightwaves onto a plurality of

specific objects

FIGURE 1.2 Capabilities of the SOLNET.

In this book, overviews of technologies related to the SOLNET, self-focusing

of lightwaves in nonlinear optical media and self-written waveguides (SWWs),
are given in Chapter 2. In Chapter 3, concepts and features are described for
various types of SOLNETs. The performance of the SOLNETs is predicted by
computer simulations based on the beam propagation method (BPM) and the finite-
difference time-domain (FDTD) method in Chapter 4. After preferable waveguide
growth condition for SOLNET formation is clarified in Chapter 5, experimental
demonstrations are presented for various types of SOLNETs to show the proof
of concepts in Chapter 6. In Chapter 7, expected applications of SOLNETs are
proposed, including 3D integrated optical interconnects within computers, 3D
micro optical switching systems, integrated solar energy conversion systems, and
photo-assisted cancer therapy. Finally, future challenges are briefly discussed in
Chapter 8.
 2 Related Technologies

Prior to the main subjects of SOLNETs reported in Chapters 3–8, in this chapter
overviews of related technologies, namely, self-focusing of lightwaves in nonlinear
optical media and self-written waveguides (SWWs), are given.

2.1 SELF-FOCUSING OF LIGHTWAVES
IN NONLINEAR OPTICAL MEDIA
Direct observation of the self-focusing of laser beams was reported by Garmire,
Chiao, and Townes in 1966 [1]. When a Q-switched ruby laser beam of several tens
of kW in power was introduced into a third-order nonlinear optical medium CS2
through a 500-µm-diameter pinhole, the beam diameter decreased to 50 µm with the
beam propagation, reaching a steady-state condition that generates a bright filament
as schematically illustrated in Figure 2.1.
This result implies that the ruby laser beam is trapped in an optical waveguide
formed by the beam itself. When the ruby laser beam intensity is I, due to the
optical Kerr effect, the refractive index of the third-order nonlinear optical medium
changes as

n = n0 + n2I.

Here, n0 and n2 are respectively the linear refractive index and the optical Kerr
constant. Because the intensity is high near the axis of the laser beam propagation as
shown in Figure 2.1, the refractive index of the medium becomes high near the laser
beam center compared to the surrounding region. This refractive index distribution
confines the laser beam to be concentrated along the propagation axis, inducing
self-focusing.
Similar self-focusing effects were observed in solids including crystals, glass, and
optical fibers [2,3].

Incident laser beam Focused laser beam

intensity intensity

Filament
Laser beam

Nonlinear optical medium

FIGURE 2.1 Schematic illustration of self-focusing.

5
6 Self-Organized Lightwave Networks

(a)
Optical fiber Photosensitive material SWW

Write beam

Core
Up-tapered SWW

SWW
(b)

Write beam

Line-shaped SWW

FIGURE 2.2 Schematic illustrations of SWWs.

2.2 SELF-WRITTEN WAVEGUIDES (SWWs)

The SWW was first reported by Frisken in 1993 [4]. A permanent optical waveguide
was formed in a photosensitive material of a ultra-violet (UV)-cured epoxy by emitting
a cw 532-nm laser beam from a core of a single mode optical fiber. Because the
refractive index of the UV-cured epoxy increases by the laser beam exposure, the self-
focusing effect similar to that in the third-order nonlinear optical media described in
Section 2.1 was induced to produce a high-quality and low-loss up-tapered waveguide
of SWW as schematically illustrated in Figure 2.2a. The optical waveguide stretching
from the fiber core can be used as a low-cost beam expander which converts the spot
size from ∼10 to ∼50 µm in diameter with a distance of a few millimeters. SWWs
with straight-line shapes schematically shown in Figure 2.2b have been fabricated
utilizing the self-focusing effect. They can be produced in photopolymers [5–9] and
photosensitive glass [10].
Fazio et al. succeeded in SWW formation in photorefractive crystals to realize
3D optical interconnections in bulk ion-doped lithium niobate crystals by forming
soliton waveguides [11–13]. The soliton waveguides construct light-induced integrated
structures, which are permanently fixed, as well as digital and analog switching gates,
opening a new approach toward novel integrated photonic circuits.

REFERENCES
1. E. Garmire, R. Y. Chiao, and C. H. Townes, “Dynamics and Characteristics of the Self-
Trapping of Intense Light Beams,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 16, 347–349, 1966.
2. R. R. Alfano and S. L. Shapiro, “Observation of Self-Phase Modulation and Small-Scale
Filaments in Crystals and Glasses,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 24, 592–594, 1970.
3. P. L. Baldeck, F. Raccah, and R. R. Alfano, “Observation of Self-Focusing in Optical
Fibers with Picosecond Pulses,” Opt. Lett. 12, 588–589, 1987.
Related Technologies 7

4. S. J. Frisken, “Light-Induced Optical Waveguide Uptapers,” Opt. Lett. 18, 1035–1037,

1993.
5. A. S. Kewitsch and A. Yariv, “Self-Focusing and Self-Trapping of Optical Beams upon
Photopolymerization,” Opt. Lett. 21, 24–26, 1996.
6. M. Kagami, T. Yamashita, and H. Ito, “Light-Induced Self-Written Three-Dimensional
Optical Waveguide,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 79, 1079–1081, 2001.
7. K. Dorkenoo, O. Crégut, L. Mager, and F. Gillot, “Quasi-Solitonic Behavior of Self-
Written Waveguides Created by Photopolymerization,” Opt. Lett. 27, 1782–1784, 2002.
8. N. Hirose and O. Ibaragi, “Optical Component Coupling Using Self-Written
Waveguides,” Proc. SPIE 5355, 206–214, 2004.
9. S. Jradi, O. Soppera, and D. J. Lougnot, “Fabrication of Polymer Waveguides between
Two Optical Fibers Using Spatially Controlled Light-Induced Polymerization,” Appl.
Opt. 47, 3987–3993, 2008.
10. T. M. Monro, C. M. de Sterke, and L. Poladian, “Investigation of Waveguide Growth in
Photosensitive Germanosilicate Glass,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 13, 2824–2832, 1996.
11. E. Fazio, M. Alonzo, F. Devaux, A. Toncelli, N. Argiolas, M. Bazzan, C. Sada, and
M. Chauvet, “Luminescence-Induced Photorefractive Spatial Solitons,” Appl. Phys.
Lett. 96, 091107, 2010.
12. E. Fazio, A. Zaltron, A. Belardini, N. Argiolas, and C. Sada, “Influence of Iron Doping
on Spatial Soliton Formation and Fixing in Lithium Niobate Crystals,” Opt. Mater. 37,
175–180, 2014.
13. E. Fazio, A. Belardini, L. Bastiani, M. Alonzo, M. Chauvet, N. I. Zheludev, and C. Soci,
“Novel paradigm for integrated photonics circuits: transient interconnection network,”
Proc. SPIE 10130, 1013006, 2017.
 3 Concepts and Features of
Self-Organized Lightwave
Networks (SOLNETs)
The fundamental of the SOLNET is the interaction between write beams. This
generates the capability to fabricate self-aligned coupling waveguides automatically
[1–8]. To date, four types of SOLNETs have been developed: two-beam-writing
SOLNET (TB-SOLNET), reflective SOLNET (R-SOLNET), luminescence-assisted
SOLNET (LA-SOLNET), and phosphor SOLNET (P-SOLNET). Usually, SOLNETs
mean permanent SOLNETs, which are fixed to remain for a long time once they are
formed. By forming SOLNETs in rewritable materials, dynamic SOLNETs, which
can be reorganized time by time, are obtained. SOLNETs are also categorized by
the photochemical processes involved in SOLNET formation. One-photon SOLNETs
are formed by the one-photon photochemistry and two-photon SOLNETs by the
two-photon photochemistry. In this chapter, concepts and features of SOLNETs are
explained along with materials and processes for SOLNET formation.

3.1 TYPES OF SOLNETs

Four types of SOLNETs are summarized in Figure 3.1. Optical devices such as optical
waveguides, light modulators, optical switches, wavelength filters, laser diodes (LDs),
and photodetectors (PDs) are placed in counter-direction arrangements with a photo-
induced refractive-index increase (PRI) material filling in between. The PRI material,
in which the refractive index increases by write-beam exposure, can be photopolymers,
photo-definable materials, photosensitive glass, photosensitive organic/inorganic hybrid
materials, photorefractive materials, and third-order nonlinear optical materials.
In the TB-SOLNET [1–4,8], a first write beam of given wavelength λ1 is introduced
into a PRI material from an optical device, while a second write beam of given
wavelength λ2 is introduced from another optical device. The refractive index in the
region, where the two write beams overlap, increases rapidly compared to that in
the surrounding region. Then, because the two write beams tend to be confined in the
higher-refractive-index region (see Appendix I), they merge through self-focusing to
form a self-aligned coupling waveguide of TB-SOLNET automatically between the
optical devices, even if misalignments and core size mismatching exist between them.
In the R-SOLNET [1,4–8], a luminescent target is placed on a frontcore edge of one
of the optical devices. When a write beam of λ1 is introduced from the other optical
device into a PRI material, the target absorbs the write beam and emits luminescence
of λ2, which acts as the second write beam, to form a self-aligned coupling waveguide
of R-SOLNET. It should be noted that the same situation is available without the

9
10 Self-Organized Lightwave Networks

(a)
Optical PRI material Self-focusing TB-SOLNET
device
λ2
λ1

Write beam 1 Write beam 2

(b) Luminescent target

(Reflective target) R-SOLNET

λ2
λ1

Write Beam Luminescence

(Reflected write beam)

(c)
Luminescent target
LA-SOLNET
Excitation light

λ2
λ1

Luminescence 1 Luminescence 2

(d)
Phosphor-doped region
P-SOLNET
Excitation light
λ2
λ1

Luminescence 1 Luminescence 2

FIGURE 3.1 Types of SOLNETs. (a) Two-beam-writing SOLNET (TB-SOLNET),

(b) Reflective SOLNET (R-SOLNET), (c) Luminescence-Assisted SOLNET (LA-SOLNET),
and (d) Phosphor SOLNET (P-SOLNET).

luminescent target in the case that the waveguide core has emissive characteristics
intrinsically. The R-SOLNET is effective when the write beam cannot pass through
one of the optical devices.
The luminescent target in R-SOLNETs can be replaced with a reflective target
such as a wavelength filter and a mirror to form R-SOLNETs by a write beam and a
reflected write beam from the reflective target. In this case, λ1 equals λ2.
During the R-SOLNET formation, the luminescence from the luminescent target
(or the reflected write beam from the reflective target) acts just like a trigger to let
the incident write beam flow toward the emitting point (or the reflecting point). The
luminescence (or the reflected write beam) paves a way to the target location to
construct a self-organized waveguide toward the target. We call this phenomenon
the “pulling water” effect.
Concepts and Features of Self-Organized Lightwave Networks (SOLNETs) 11

In the LA-SOLNET [8], luminescent targets are placed on the frontcore edges of
both optical devices. By introducing excitation lights from outside, say, from above,
the targets respectively emit luminescence 1 of λ1 and luminescence 2 of λ2 to form
a self-aligned coupling waveguide of LA-SOLNET. The sensitivity spectrum of the
PRI material should be adjusted so that it exhibits low sensitivity to the excitation
light and high sensitivity to the luminescence. The LA-SOLNET is effective when
the write beams cannot pass through the optical devices.
In the P-SOLNET [1–4,8], phosphor-doped regions are formed in some parts of
optical device cores to generate luminescence within the cores by excitation lights
from outside. Luminescence 1 of λ1 and luminescence 2 of λ2 respectively correspond
to the first write beam and the second write beam in the TB-SOLNET. They form
a self-aligned coupling waveguide of P-SOLNET. The same situation is available
without the phosphor-doped regions in the case that the waveguide cores have
emissive characteristics intrinsically. In this case, the luminescence is generated just
by exposing the waveguide cores to the excitation lights.
The four types of SOLNETs can be combined. When a P-SOLNET is combined
with an R-SOLNET, namely, a luminescent target or reflective target is placed on the
front core edge of one of the optical devices, a P/R-SOLNET is formed by luminescence
generated in the other optical device. A P/TB-SOLNET is formed by a write beam
from one of the optical devices and luminescence generated in the other optical device.
As schematically illustrated in Figure 3.2, in the R-SOLNET with luminescent
targets, the luminescence from the luminescent target is radial while in the R-SOLNET
with wavelength filters, the reflected write beam propagates to a direction deviating from
the incident write beam. Consequently, the write-beam-overlapping effect is enhanced
more remarkably in the R-SOLNET with luminescent targets than in the R-SOLNET
with wavelength filters. In addition, as schematically illustrated in Figure 3.3, in the
R-SOLNET with luminescent targets, by adjusting the sensitivity spectra of the PRI
material, the reactivity of the PRI material at the wavelengths of the write beam and
luminescence can be controlled. The adjustment of the sensitivity balance is equivalent
to that of the intensity balance of the write beam and luminescence. An increase in
the sensitivity at the wavelength of the luminescence corresponds to an increase in the
intensity of the luminescence. Therefore, formation of the R-SOLNET with luminescent
targets can be optimized by controlling the sensitivity spectra of the PRI material.
In TB-SOLNETs and R-SOLNETs, as illustrated in Figure 3.4a, the write beams
should be introduced into the optical devices from outside using, for example, optical

(a) Luminescent target (b) Wavelength filter

λ2 λ1

λ1 λ1

Write beam Luminescence Write beam Reflected write beam

FIGURE 3.2 Beam overlapping in (a) R-SOLNET with luminescent targets and
(b) R-SOLNET with wavelength filters.
12 Self-Organized Lightwave Networks

Sensitivity of PRI material Write beam Luminescence

Write beam
Luminescence

Wavelength Wavelength

FIGURE 3.3 Adjustment of the sensitivity spectra of PRI materials in R-SOLNET with
luminescent targets.

fibers with positional adjustments, which raise alignment costs, especially when the
core size of the optical devices is nanoscale. In P-SOLNETs and LA-SOLNETs, on the
other hand, the write beams are generated within optical devices by excitation lights
from outside as schematically illustrated in Figure 3.4b. In this case, strict positional
adjustments are not required, contributing to cost reductions for the SOLNET formation.
SOLNETs can provide branching structures. Figure 3.5a shows an example of
Y-branching R-SOLNET formation. Luminescent targets are placed on the front
edges of two optical devices. When a write beam from the opposing optical device
enters the free space filled with a PRI material, the luminescent targets generate

(a)
Write beam SOLNET

Optical fiber Optical device

Write beam SOLNET

(b)
Excitation light

Optical device
with
luminescent targets,
phosphor-doped regions, or
intrinsically emissive core

FIGURE 3.4 SOLNET formation apparatuses. (a) Write beams introduced from outside.
(b) Write beams generated within optical device.
Concepts and Features of Self-Organized Lightwave Networks (SOLNETs) 13

(a)
Optical Luminescent target Write beam Luminescence
R-SOLNET
device (Wavelength filter) (Reflected write beam)

PRI
material

(b)
R-SOLNET
Luminescent target
(Reflective target)

Optical device
PRI
material

FIGURE 3.5 Examples of branching R-SOLNETs. (a) Y-branching R-SOLNET. (b) Multi-
branching R-SOLNET.

luminescence to increase the refractive index in regions near them, guiding the
incident write beam toward the target locations through the “pulling water” effect.
Finally, by self-focusing, two self-aligned coupling waveguides connecting the left-
hand-side optical device to the two right-hand-side optical devices are formed with
a Y-branching structure. By using a write beam with a wide spread angle, a multi-
branching R-SOLNET might be formed as shown in Figure 3.5b.
SOLNETs are expected to be formed by free-space write beams as schematically
illustrated in Figure 3.6. In the example shown in Figure 3.6a, a free-space write beam

(a) Luminescent target Free-space write beam

(Wavelength filter)

PRI material R-SOLNET

Arrayed R-SOLNETs

(b) Excitation light

LA-SOLNET

Luminescent
target

PRI material

Network of LA-SOLNETs

FIGURE 3.6 Examples of (a) tapered R-SOLNET array formed by a free-space write beam
and (b) LA-SOLNET network formed by an excitation light.
14 Self-Organized Lightwave Networks

is introduced into a PRI material, in which arrayed luminescent targets (or wavelength
filters) are placed. The write beam is concentrated toward the arrayed targets to form
arrayed R-SOLNETs having tapered structures. In the example shown in Figure 3.6b,
by introducing excitation lights into a PRI material, in which a plurality of luminescent
targets are placed, an LA-SOLNET network is constructed.

3.2 PRI MATERIALS

The requirement for PRI materials is that the refractive index increases upon write
beam exposure. There are many kinds of PRI materials for SOLNET formation
such as photopolymers [9–14], photodefinable materials, photosensitive glass [15],
photosensitive organic/inorganic hybrid materials [16,17], photorefractive materials
[18,19], and third-order nonlinear optical materials [20].
Figure 3.7a shows a typical mechanism of the refractive index increase in a
photopolymer. High-refractive-index photoreactive molecules (high-n molecules)
and low-refractive-index photoreactive molecules (low-n molecules) are mixed.
The high-n molecules have higher photoreactivity to the write beam than the
low-n molecules. When the photopolymer is exposed to the write beam, the high-n
molecules are combined to make dimers, oligomers or polymers by photochemical
reactions. Then, the high-n molecules diffuse into the exposed region from
the surrounding region to compensate for the reduction of the high-n molecule
concentration in the exposed region, and are combined to make dimers, oligomers,
or polymers. This repeated process increases the refractive index of the exposed
region to produce inhomogeneous refractive index distributions that are induced
according to the pattern of the write-beam exposure. Curing by blanket light
exposure or heating fixes the refractive index distributions to provide permanent
SOLNETs.
The spectral response of the PRI materials can be adjusted by sensitizers. For the
sensitizers, molecules with one-photon absorption characteristics or molecules with
two-photon absorption characteristics can be used.
The gamma characteristics, that is, the relationship between the refractive index
change and the write-beam exposure, can be controlled by adjusting the refractive
index, photoreactivity, and concentration of molecules. Precise control of the gamma
characteristics might be possible by mixing two, three, or more kinds of molecules
with different refractive indices and photoreactivity as described in Chapter 8.
Figure 3.7b shows a refractive index increase mechanism in a photorefractive
material such as lithium niobate (LN) crystals and photorefractive polymers, which
exhibit the electro-optic (EO) effects. When the photorefractive material is exposed to
a write beam, excited electrons are captured in electron traps, inducing local electric
fields around the electrons. This gives rise to refractive index changes to produce
inhomogeneous refractive index distributions that are induced according to the
pattern of the write-beam exposure. Blanket exposure of erasing beams releases the
trapped electrons to clear the refractive index distributions. This makes the material
ready for rewriting, enabling dynamic SOLNETs.
Figure 3.7c shows a case in which a third-order nonlinear optical material such as
polydiacetylene and compound semiconductors are used for the PRI material. When
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