a communication programme or activity.

The main disadvantage of informal research is

that it may not be a systematic effort across stakeholder groups and is likely to be
unrepresentative. Any information therefore may be subject to biases, in terms of who
was asked (and who was not), which may seriously undermine the ability to draw strong
conclusions from the information gathered. Formal research methods involve more
systematic data-gathering methods that are set up for the purpose at hand (e.g. finding
out about a problem or an issue) and are sensitive to issues of representativeness in
sampling stakeholders. These methods include, for example, focus groups, surveys and
content analyses. A focus group is a semi-structured group discussion facilitated by a
researcher whereby the researcher tries to dig deep into the underlying motivations
around an issue or a problem. Focus group sessions are taped or recorded, and the
recorded data (i.e. verbal transcripts or audio-visual recordings) are analysed using
qualitative methods; this basically means that researchers interpret responses instead
of trying to count them. Surveys are structured questionnaires which are sent to a
representatively sampled part of a population, such as customers or employees. Survey
methods are quantitative in nature; the attempt is made to record in numbers the level
of awareness, attitudes or behaviours of the population in relation to certain issues or
circumstances. Such methods may also be analytical in nature when there is an attempt
to explain why certain circumstances, attitudes and behaviours exist amongst members
of a specific population. Advanced forms of statistical analyses (e.g. statistical
regressions) are then used to test hypotheses concerning relationships amongst a
group of variables under study. In many cases, surveys serve both descriptive and
analytical purposes, for example to profile and describe the characteristics of customers
(descriptive) and to explain their consumption behaviour (analytical). Content analysis,
as another formal research method, is a scientific method used for describing
communication content in a quantitative, or numerical, form. Many practitioners use
content analysis to monitor and track media coverage of issues and of organizations.
Such analyses are often carried out with the use of statistical software packages for the
coding and tabulation of news coverage in terms of frequency of coverage and the
overall tone or sentiment (favourable versus unfavourable) of the reporting.
As already mentioned, a key suggestion is that research and evaluation should be an
integral part of the planning process for communication programmes or campaigns. The
entire sequence, with research and evaluation at the heart of it, is broken down into five
stages. Figure 7.1 displays the planning cycle.
The stages of the cycle are as follows:
Audit: this stage consists of taking stock of and analysing existing data, with research
being used to identify issues as well as to create benchmarks. This stage is often also
called formative research, which is the data on which practitioners will build their
communication programme or campaign.
Objectives: this stage involves setting objectives that follow from the audit, and in line
with the organization's general business objectives. Objectives are broken down by
stakeholder audience and timescale, and are specified in measurable terms. Objectives
are often specified in terms of any changes in awareness, attitude and behaviour of
stakeholders that an organization aims for.