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Textbook Snares Methods and Protocols Rutilio Fratti Ebook All Chapter PDF
Rutilio Fratti
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Methods in
Molecular Biology 1860
SNAREs
Methods and Protocols
METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Series Editor
John M. Walker
School of Life and Medical Sciences,
University of Hertfordshire,
Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL10 9AB, UK
Edited by
Rutilio Fratti
Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
Editor
Rutilio Fratti
Department of Biochemistry
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
Urbana, IL, USA
This Humana Press imprint is published by the registered company Springer Science+Business Media, LLC part of
Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, U.S.A.
Preface
v
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
PART II BIOCHEMISTRY
vii
viii Contents
PART IV MICROSCOPY
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Contributors
xi
xii Contributors
HAIJIA YU Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, College of Life
Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China; Department of Molecular,
Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
YONGLI ZHANG Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New
Haven, CT, USA
Part I
Abstract
Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations enable in silico investigations of the dynamic behavior of proteins
and protein complexes. Here, we describe MD simulations of the SNARE complex and its interactions with
the neuronal protein complexin. Complexin is an effector of neuronal secretion that inhibits spontaneous
fusion and is thought to clamp the fusion process via the interactions with the SNARE complex. We
describe MD simulations of the SNARE complex alone and bound to complexin. The MD simulations
under external forces imitating the repulsion between lipid bilayers enabled us to investigate unraveling and
assembly of the SNARE complex.
Key words Synaptic transmission, Exocytosis, Synaptobrevin, Syntaxin, SNAP25, Forces, Assembly
1 Introduction
Rutilio Fratti (ed.), SNAREs: Methods and Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology, vol. 1860,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-8760-3_1, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019
3
4 Maria Bykhovskaia
2 Materials
3 Methods
3.1 System Setup Use the high-resolution (1.4A) X-ray structure 1N7S for the initial
topology of the SNARE complex [18]. Optimize the structure
3.1.1 SNARE-Cpx
employing the Monte-Carlo Minimization (MCM) method [19]
Complex
with ZMM software package.
Construct the initial topology of the SNARE-Cpx complex out
of two X-ray structures: 1N7S, the high-resolution structure of the
SNARE complex, and 1KIL [20], the structure of the SNARE-Cpx
complex obtained by a combination of crystallography and NMR
approaches with 2.3 A resolution. Construct the SNARE-Cpx
model using the ZMM/MVM package in the following way:
1. The SNARE bundle structure (from 1N7S) is kept rigid, and
Cpx (from 1KIL) is docked to the bundle by imposing har-
monic distance constraints obtained from 1KIL SNARE-Cpx
structure. The constraints are imposed on all the atoms of the
SNARE bundle and Cpx that are within van der Waals (VdW)
distances.
2. Optimize the resulting structure employing the MCM algo-
rithm with ZMM/MVM package and imposing constraints on
all the C-alpha atoms, which are rigidly pinned.
3. Remove all the constraints and optimize the structure of the
SNARE-Cpx complex employing MCM with no constraints.
3.1.2 Homology Perform sequence alignments between the Drosophila and mamma-
Modeling of the Drosophila lian protein fragments using the BLAST algorithm in NCBI
Complex (National Center for Biotechnology Information) database. Derive
the 3D model of the Drosophila SNARE-Cpx complex from the
model of the mammalian complex (described in the previous sec-
tion) employing ZMM package. Perform the residue substitutions
on one helix at a time (overall five rounds for five helixes comprising
the complex), and optimize the structure after each round with
MCM employing ZMM package. Manually perform the substitu-
tions within the *.pep file generated by ZI module of ZMM pack-
ager (see Note 1). After each round of substitutions, optimize the
structure with Cɑ atoms being rigidly pinned, and then optimize
again with no constraints. The resulting 3D structure of the Dro-
sophila complex was similar to the mammalian complex (Fig. 1).
3.1.3 Molecular Perform operations using VMD software. Build the molecular
Topology, Single-Point topology file *.psf employing the Automatic Psf Generator (see
Mutations, Water Box, Note 2). Introduce single-point mutations in Syx, Syb, and Cpx
and Ionization employing VMD Mutator. Add the water box using Add Solvation
Box function. The size of the box is 150 70 70 Å (Fig. 2). Add
ions employing the Add Ions function. Add K+ and Cl+ ions to
neutralize the negative charge of the protein complex and to yield
150 mM concentration of KCl (see Note 3).
6 Maria Bykhovskaia
Fig. 2 The periodic cell containing water molecules, potassium ions (blue
spheres), and chlorine ions (green spheres). SNARE-Cpx complex is shown in
the cartoon representation (blue)
3.2.1 Energy Perform the energy minimization for 100 iterations (see Note 6),
Minimization and Heating followed by the heating phase. At the heating phase, set the time
Phase step to 1 fs. Set the initial temperature to 200 K and adjust every
500 steps in increments of 50 K by velocity rescaling (see Note 7).
Set the Berendsen barostat parameters to:
useGroupPressure Yes
BerendsenPressureTarget 1.01325
BerendsenPressureCompressibility 4.57E-5
BerendsenPressureRelaxationTime 40
BerendsenPressureFreq 2
Set the heating phase to last 10 ps (see Note 8). Use a scaling of
2 for electrostatic interactions: fullElectFrequency ¼ 2.
3.2.2 MD Perform production runs with a step of 2 fs. Use a scaling of 2 and
Production Runs 4 for non-bonded and electrostatic interactions, respectively:
timestep 2.0
nonbondedFreq 2
fullElectFrequency 4
BerendsenPressureRelaxationTime 160
BerendsenPressureFreq 8
3.2.3 SNARE Separation Apply external forces to the Cɑ atom of the C-terminal residue
Under External Forces (W89) of synaptobrevin (Syb). Compute the direction of the force
as a vector perpendicular to the plain defined by the constrained
atoms of the t-SNARE bundle (Fig. 3a, see Note 12). Perform
these calculations employing MatLab (see Note 13). Vary the mag-
nitude of the force within the limits predicted by the computations
of the membrane electrostatic potential ([7, 24], 2–4 kcal/mol/Å,
see Note 14). The force of 2 kcal/mol/Å produced unraveling of
the bundle within 100–200 ns (Fig. 3b).
8 Maria Bykhovskaia
Fig. 3 Simulations of SNARE unraveling under external forces. (a) The positions
of the C-terminal residue of Syx, C-terminal residue of SN1 subunit of SNAP25,
and N-terminal residue of SN2 subunit of SNAP25 are constraint (black circles).
The external force (arrow) is directed perpendicular to the plain defined by the
constraint atoms. (b) Unraveling of Syb under the external force of 2 kcal/mol/Å
at different time points of the trajectory. The structures are shown in two
representations: left—backbone; right—all-atom as VdW spheres
3.2.4 SNARE Assembly For the simulations of the SNARE assembly, use the initial states
obtained by the simulations under pulling forces (Fig. 3b), as
described in the previous section. Perform the simulations of the
SNARE assembly in two different ways [7]: (1) with no external
force applied, and (2) with a weak external force applied (see Note
16). We found that the second paradigm produced a faster zipper-
ing (see Note 17), since in the absence of constraints the unstruc-
tured C-terminus Syb tended to interact with distal layers of the
bundle.
The parameters of the simulation were identical to those
described in Subheading 3.2.2 for the paradigm 1, and to the
parameters described in Subheading 3.2.3 for the paradigm 2.
MD Simulations of the SNARE Complex 9
4 Notes
18. One needs to ensure that the unraveled terminus of Syb does
not contact with the periodic image of the SNARE complex.
The cell size we chose was sufficient as long as Syb was unra-
veled up to the layer 6. If a more radical separation is simulated,
the size of the periodic cell has to be increased.
References
1. Karplus M, McCammon JA (2002) Molecular 11. Reim K, Mansour M, Varoqueaux F, McMa-
dynamics simulations of biomolecules. Nat hon HT, Sudhof TC, Brose N, Rosenmund C
Struct Biol 9(9):646–652. https://doi.org/ (2001) Complexins regulate a late step in Ca2
10.1038/nsb0902-646 +dependent neurotransmitter release. Cell
2. Roux B, Schulten K (2004) Computational 104(1):71–81
studies of membrane channels. Structure 12 12. Kummel D, Krishnakumar SS, Radoff DT,
(8):1343–1351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Li F, Giraudo CG, Pincet F, Rothman JE,
str.2004.06.013 Reinisch KM (2011) Complexin cross-links
3. Zhou HX, McCammon JA (2010) The gates of prefusion SNAREs into a zigzag array. Nat
ion channels and enzymes. Trends Biochem Sci Struct Mol Biol 18(8):927–U1603
35(3):179–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 13. Durrieu MP, Lavery R, Baaden M (2008)
tibs.2009.10.007 Interactions between neuronal fusion proteins
4. Miao Y, McCammon JA (2016) G-protein explored by molecular dynamics. Biophys J 94
coupled receptors: advances in simulation and (9):3436–3446
drug discovery. Curr Opin Struct Biol 14. Bock LV, Hutchings B, Grubmuller H, Wood-
41:83–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbi. bury DJ (2010) Chemomechanical regulation
2016.06.008 of SNARE proteins studied with molecular
5. Phillips JC, Braun R, Wang W, Gumbart J, dynamics simulations. Biophys J 99
Tajkhorshid E, Villa E et al (2005) Scalable (4):1221–1230
molecular dynamics with NAMD. J Comput 15. Ghahremanpour MM, Mehrnejad F, Moghad-
Chem 26(16):1781–1802 dam ME (2010) Structural studies of SNARE
6. Shaw DE, Dror RO, Salmon JK, Grossman JP, complex and its interaction with complexin by
Mackenzie KM, Bank JA, Young C, Deneroff molecular dynamics simulation. Biopolymers
MM et al. (2009) Millisecond-scale molecular 93(6):560–570
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of the conference on high performance com- and pore block of eukaryotic voltage-gated
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Littleton JT (2013) Interaction of the com- 17. Bruhova I, Zhorov BS (2010) A homology
plexin accessory helix with the C-terminus of model of the pore domain of a voltage-gated
the SNARE complex: molecular-dynamics calcium channel is consistent with available
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(3):679–690 18. Ernst JA, Brunger AT (2003) High resolution
8. Vasin A, Volfson D, Littleton JT, Bykhovskaia structure, stability, and synaptotagmin binding
M (2016) Interaction of the complexin acces- of a truncated neuronal SNARE complex. J
sory helix with synaptobrevin regulates sponta- Biol Chem 278(10):8630–8636
neous fusion. Biophys J 111(9):1954–1964. 19. Li ZQ, Scheraga HA (1987) Monte-Carlo-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2016.09.017 minimization approach to the multiple-minima
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MD Simulations of the SNARE Complex 13
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CHARMM all-atom additive biological force (2):154a
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https://doi.org/10.1002/jcc.21367
Chapter 2
Abstract
Quantitative computational modeling of protein-membrane interactions is of great importance as it aids in
the interpretation of experimental results and enables design and exploration of new experimental systems.
This review describes one such computational approach conceived specifically to treat electrostatically
driven interactions between a lipid membrane and a protein (or protein domains) adsorbing onto the
membrane. The methodology is based on self-consistent minimization of the governing free energy
functional which is expressed in the mean-field approximation and has contributions from electrostatic
interactions as well as from mixing entropy of lipids in the membrane and ions in the solution. The method
enables calculation of the free energy of the binding process and quantification of the steady-state lipid
distribution around the adsorbing protein. The extension of the method to include membrane deformation
degrees of freedom further allows calculation of the equilibrium bilayer shape upon the protein binding.
1 Introduction
Rutilio Fratti (ed.), SNAREs: Methods and Protocols, Methods in Molecular Biology, vol. 1860,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-8760-3_2, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019
15
16 George Khelashvili
charged lipids near the protein (lipid demixing), the higher gains in
the translation entropy of the counterions due to their release. But
the local demixing of lipids itself comes at an entropic cost. For
example, multivalent lipids, such as phosphatidylinositol
4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), would incur a smaller demixing penalty
and larger counterion release entropy per sequestered lipid, com-
pared to monovalent phosphatidylserine (PS) lipids, simply because
each PIP2 head group carries a larger charge (but loses the same
entropy) [11].
The balance between the maximal counterion release and the
minimal lipid demixing ultimately determines the equilibrium state
of the system. To quantify the process of protein-membrane bind-
ing, it is therefore essential to take into consideration the degrees of
freedom related to mixing of lipids and the solution ions self-
consistently with the electrostatic interactions. Achieving such
description with conventional computational methodologies, such
as molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, remains a challenge due
to the extended time and length scales required for rigorous sam-
pling of protein-lipid interactions and concomitant lipid reorgani-
zation in the membrane plane.
A realistic alternative is to consider the free energy functional
(F) of the protein-membrane system on the mean-field level and
express it in terms of all the relevant degrees of freedom, i.e., local
lipid and ionic concentrations. Specifically, consider charged pro-
teins and lipid bilayers immersed in an aqueous solution. The
adsorbing protein is represented in full-atomistic three-dimensional
(3D) details (taking into consideration point charges and van der
Waals radii of all the constituent atoms), whereas the membrane is
treated as a two-dimensional (2D) incompressible, tensionless,
elastic medium comprised of 2D smooth charged surfaces (where
the lipid polar head groups reside), and a low-dielectric hydropho-
bic core volume. For simplicity, it is assumed for now that in the
process of protein adsorption the bilayer remains on average flat so
that it is sufficient to consider only one such 2D surface, represent-
ing the protein-facing leaflet (Fig. 1). This leaflet is presumed to be
a binary mixture of charged and neutral lipids. As described in
Subheading 4 below and in published papers [11, 12] the formula-
tion has been extended to the cases in which the membrane is
undergoing deformations (see Note 3) and/or contains mixtures
with arbitrary number of charged lipid species (see Note 2).
The free energy functional of the full-atomistic protein and
continuum membrane hybrid system introduced above can be
expressed in the mean-field approximation as a sum of three con-
tributions: electrostatic energy (Fel), mobile salt ion translational
entropy (Fion), and lipid mixing entropy (Flip) [5, 8–10, 13, 14]:
F ¼ F el þ F ion þ F lip : ð1Þ
Mean-field Modeling of Protein-membrane Interactions 17
Fig. 1 SNARE protein syntaxin 1B sequestering PIP2 lipids. Panels A and B depict
two views related to each other by 90 rotation, of residues 1–264 of syntaxin 1B
(in cartoon) interacting with a lipid membrane leaflet which contains 5% PIP2
lipid in mixture with other neutral lipids (see Ref. 27 for more details). Only part
of the membrane leaflet near the protein is shown and is represented by a plane
color according to PIP2 enrichment values (ratios of local, ϕ, and average, ϕ0,
PIP2 concentrations) as predicted by the self-consistent minimization scheme
described in this work. The locations with the enrichment value >1 represent
regions with elevated PIP2 concentrations compared to the average composition.
For completeness, in panel A some key basic residues driving the lipid seques-
tration are shown in licorice and labeled
be low inside the membrane and the protein and high in the
aqueous solution. ~ r denotes a position in the space, and the ð~ r; t Þ
notation represents the fact that the electrostatic potential can vary
in time in response to rearrangements of the solution ions or lipids
in the membrane. The integration in Eq. (2) is carried out over the
volume V of the entire space.
The translation entropy of mobile ions in the solution can be
written as
Ðh n ð~r;t Þ
F ion ¼ kB T nþ ð~ r;t Þ ln nþnð~0r;t Þ þ n ~
r; t ln n0
V
i ð3Þ
nþ ð~ r;t Þ þ n ~ r;t 2n0 dv:
24.
Niin oli. Tietysti niin oli. Koetin salata pahaa mieltäni, mutta sanoin
itselleni, että siinä se nyt taas oli, se mitä eniten vihasin — tuo
elämän taitamattomuus — ah, juuri senlaatuinen paha, joka estää
hetken tulemasta niin rikkaaksi kuin se muuten voisi olla! — Siinä ne
aina niin äkkiarvaamatta ilmestyivät eteeni, nuo laiminlyöntisynnit —
pahimmat kaikista — joita pitäisi olla helppo välttää ja joita kuitenkin
jokaisella on omallatunnollaan hirvittävä liuta.
25.
— Poika on.
*****
26.
Sinä, Yrjö, olit nukkunut kauan sinä aamuna. Tuntui niin suloiselta
herätä ja muistaa ettei tarvinnut mihinkään kiirehtiä. Nousit
kumminkin lopuksi ja pukeuduit hitaasti ja vihellellen
kylpyhuoneessa. Käväisit suihkun alla tutisten ja päristen kylmässä
räiskeessä, ja puistit sitten vaatteesi kappale kappaleelta
parvekkeella, avaten oven selkoselälleen ja vetäen vaatteet yllesi
raikkaassa ulkoilmassa. Ketään ei näkynyt tiellä, kukaan ei astunut
veräjästä sisään. Naapurienkin puutarhat olivat tyhjät, eikä
hiiskaustakaan kuulunut mistään. Kaukana vihelsi juna — tullen —
mennen — yhtä kaikki.
— Etpä olisi — etpä olisi, kyllä minä sen tiedän — etpä olisi
malttanut!
*****
Mummo istui ikkunan ääressä poimuttaen pieluksen päällisten
nauhoja, ennenkuin järjesti puhtaat liinavaatteet kaappiin. Hänen
valkoista päätään peitti musta pitsimyssy ja hänen ruskeat silmänsä
hymyilivät. Hän katsahti silloin tällöin lapsiin, asetti valmiin päällisen
muitten valmiitten päälle ja otti käsiteltäväkseen uuden
suoranauhaisen viereltään, antaakseen sillekin saman pienen
hienostuksen leiman. Niitä ei millään muotoa sopinut järjestää
paikoilleen ilman näitä poimutettuja nauhoja, jotka osoittivat niiden
sivistyneisyyttä.
*****
*****
Hänkin oli sitä, mikä kuului tänne. Miten kauan hän jo oli täällä
liikkunut pitämässä huolta kellareista ja keittiöstä ja kaikesta muusta
talossa, sitä et muistanutkaan. Ja ennen kuin hän tänne tuli, oli hän
ollut mummon kodissa ja sitä ennen isän vanhempien kodissa, niin
että meille hän oli kuulunut nuoruudestaan asti. Hän puhui hiljaisella
äänellä ja hiukan yksitoikkoisesti, mutta eihän hänen elämässään
ollut niin kovin paljon vaihtelua ollutkaan.
— Nuppineuloja, äiti!
27.