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 SOCIOLOGY,
MEDIA AND
JOURNALISM
IN CHINA

Social Media
in China

Wenbo Kuang
Sociology, Media and Journalism in China
This series provides an interdisciplinary and cutting edge approach to the
key areas of media, journalism and communication in China. Offering
titles cutting across these areas, Sociology, Media and Journalism in China
addresses the rapid changes affecting how news is disseminated in China,
how people communicate in daily life, and how mobile technologies are
affecting contemporary human interaction in sociological and commercial
settings. This series also examines major sociological trends in China and
how these are developing, as well as rapid changes in how communication
is affecting and being affected by China’s growing population and internal
migration. Providing a vital comparative approach, notably with western
nations, this series considers the development of Chinese media, journalistic
cultures and histories and sociological development on a global scale.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/16016
 Wenbo Kuang

Social Media in China

Wenbo Kuang
Renmin University of China
Beijing, China

Translators
Hang Jiang Ying Zhang
All Star (Beijing) Translation Co., Ltd All Star (Beijing) Translation Co., Ltd
Beijing, China Beijing, China
Quanli Wang Mifen Yang
All Star (Beijing) Translation Co., Ltd All Star (Beijing) Translation Co., Ltd
Beijing, China Beijing, China

Based on a translation from the Chinese language edition: 新媒体舆论

by Kuang, Wenbo
Copyright © China Renmin University Press, 2014. All Rights Reserved
Sociology, Media and Journalism in China
ISBN 978-981-13-0913-7    ISBN 978-981-13-0914-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0914-4
The print edition is not for sale in China Mainland. Customers from China Mainland please
order the print book from: China Renmin University Press. ISBN of the China Mainland
edition: 978-7-300-18541-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018954354
© China Renmin University Press 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.
Cover credit: PeopleImages
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-­01/04 Gateway East, Singapore
189721, Singapore
 Contents

Part I Theoretical Foundations of New Media’s Public

Opinions   1

1 An Introduction to New Media   3

1.1 What Is the Definition of “New Media”?  3
1.1.1 The Concept of New Media  4
1.1.1.1 Interaction Is the Essential Characteristic
of New Media   5
1.1.1.2 Which Media Should Not Fall into
the Category of New Media?   7
1.1.1.3 Scientific Definition of New Media:
The Carrier that Communicates
Information by Means of Computers   8
1.1.2 Relevant Concepts  9
1.2 Strengths of the New Media 10
1.2.1 Quick Communication and Update and Low Cost 11
1.2.2 Massive Information and Rich Content 11
1.2.3 Cost-Free Global Communication 12
1.2.4 Convenient Retrieval 12
1.2.5 Multimedia Communication 12
1.2.6 Interaction 12

v
vi Contents

1.3 Impact of the New Media on the Media Industry 13

1.3.1 Change the Current Pattern of Communication 13
1.3.1.1 Form a New Communication
Environment  13
1.3.1.2 Make the Media Ecology More Complicated  13
1.3.1.3 Make the Communication Subjects More
Diversified  14
1.3.1.4 Make Audiences More Differentiated  14
1.3.2 Impact on the Public-Opinion Regulation
Mechanism 14
1.3.2.1 Impact on the Traditional Public-
Opinion Regulation Mechanism  15
1.3.2.2 Impact the Order of Information
Communication  15
1.3.2.3 Impact the Environment for Media
Development  16
1.3.3 The Print Media Is Withering Away 16
1.3.3.1 Is the Print Media Portable?  16
1.3.3.2 Is the Print Media More Authoritative
and Authentic than the New Media?  17
1.3.3.3 Is the Print Media More Economical?  19
1.3.3.4 Is the Print Media More in Line
with People’s Reading Habit?  19
1.3.3.5 Does the Print Media Have Less Influence
on Readers’ Health?  20
1.3.3.6 Is It Easier to Preserve the Print Media?  20
1.3.3.7 A Lesson from Kodak: The Most
Dangerous Opponent Is Outside the
Industry  21
1.3.3.8 Smart Phones Accelerate the Extinction
of the Print Media  21

2 New-Media Public Opinion Becomes Mainstream Social

Opinion  25
2.1 Characteristics of New-Media Public Opinion 27
2.1.1 Definition of the Concept of New-Media Public
Opinion 27
2.1.1.1 Definitions of Public Opinion  27
2.1.1.2 Network Public Opinion and New-
Media Opinion  29
 Contents 
   vii

2.1.2 Characteristics of New-Media Public Opinion 31

2.1.2.1 Rich and Diversified  31
2.1.2.2 Open, Free and Interactive  31
2.1.2.3 Fast  31
2.1.2.4 Co-existence of Rational and Irrational
Factors  32
2.1.2.5 Hard to Control  33
2.1.2.6 Easily Manipulated  34
2.2 Management of New-Media Public Opinion 34
2.2.1 Functions of New-Media Public Opinion 34
2.2.2 Problems of New-Media Public Opinion 36
2.2.3 Management of New-Media Public Opinion 36

3 Theoretical Models for Studying New-Media Public

Opinion  39
3.1 Theoretical Models of New Media Studies 39
3.1.1 Diffusion of Innovations Theory 40
3.1.1.1 Levels of Individual Innovativeness  41
3.1.1.2 Stages of the Process of Diffusion of
Innovations  41
3.1.1.3 Innovation Features Affecting the
Adoption Rate  41
3.1.2 Technology Acceptance Model 43
3.1.3 Theory of Planned Behavior 44
3.1.3.1 Five Elements of the Theory of Planned
Behavior  44
3.1.3.2 Main Views of the Theory of Planned
Behavior  46
3.2 Butterfly–Effect Model in Studies of New–Media Public
Opinion 47
3.2.1 Butterfly Effect of the Evolution of New-Media
Public Opinion 47
3.2.1.1 Definition of the Butterfly Effect
of Network Public Opinion  47
3.2.1.2 Elements and Characteristics
of the Butterfly Effect of Network Public
Opinion  49
3.2.2 Model and Variables of the Evolution of New-
Media Public Opinion 50
3.2.2.1 Model Overview  50
viii Contents

3.2.2.2 Network Participation  53

3.2.3 Participation of Traditional Media 64
3.2.3.1 Synergy Motives of Traditional Media  64
3.2.3.2 Synergistic Advantages of Traditional
Media  66
3.2.3.3 Factors Influencing the Synergetic Effect
of Traditional Media  68
3.2.3.4 Final Way to Make Good Use of Network
Public Will: Full Social Mobilization  71
3.2.4 Feedbacks from Stakeholders 71
3.2.4.1 Factors Influencing Stakeholders’
Responses  72
3.3 Life-Cycle Model of the Butterfly Effect of New-Media
Public Opinion 74
3.3.1 Specialness of the Life Cycle of the Butterfly Effect
of Network Public Opinion 74
3.3.2 Incubation Period of the Butterfly Effect
of Network Public Opinion—“A Butterfly Flaps Its
Wings” 76
3.3.3 Outbreak Period of the Butterfly Effect of Network
Public Opinion—Formation of a Public-Opinion
Tornado 77
3.3.4 Dissipation Period of the Butterfly Effect
of Network Public Opinion 78
3.3.5 Model of Network Topic Emergence, Existence,
Public Opinion Integration and Dissipation 79
3.3.5.1 Period of Topic Appearance  80
3.3.5.2 Topic Existence Period  82
3.3.5.3 Public Opinion Integration Period  83
3.3.5.4 Public Opinion Dissipation Period  84

Part II Study of the Main Body of New-Media Public

Opinion—Users  85

4 Study of the Characteristics of New-Media Users  87

4.1 Audience Theories in the New-Media Era 87
4.1.1 Audience, Network Audience and Cybercitizens,
Users 87
4.1.2 Interactivity of New Media 89
 Contents 
   ix

4.1.3 Information Access Initiative Brought

to the Audience by New Media 89
4.1.4 New Media’s Breakthrough of Users’ (Audience’s)
Right of Access to the Media 90
4.2 Analysis of Cybercitizens’ Fundamental Characteristic—
From Being Elite to Being Popular 92
4.3 Analysis of New-Media Users’ Psychology and Behavioral
Characteristics 94
4.3.1 Types and Mentality of New-Media Users 94
4.3.2 Analysis of the General Psychology of New-Media
Users 95
4.3.2.1 The Psychology of Participation  95
4.3.2.2 The Psychology of Personalization  95
4.3.2.3 Anonymity Psychology in a Virtual
Environment  96
4.3.3 Analysis of Cybercitizens’ Purposes of Surfing
the Internet 96
4.3.4 Analysis of Cybercitizens’ Motives for Surfing
the Internet 96
4.3.4.1 To Pursue Knowledge  97
4.3.4.2 To Be Entertained and Pass Time  97
4.3.4.3 To Pursue Fame  97
4.3.4.4 For Convenience  97
4.3.4.5 To Escape Reality  97
4.3.5 Analysis of Cybercitizens’ Behavioral
Characteristics—Cybercitizens’ Attention Shows
the “Matthew Effect” 98

Part III Study of the Objects of New-Media Public

Opinion—Platforms  99

5 Network Forums 101
5.1 Dissemination Characteristics of Network Forums101
5.1.1 Concept of Network Forums101
5.1.2 Development of Network Forums102
5.1.3 Dissemination Characteristics of Network Forums103
5.1.3.1 Decentralized 103
5.1.3.2 Beyond Time and Space 104
5.1.3.3 Language-Based 104
x Contents

5.1.3.4 Expansive 104

5.1.3.5 Indirect 105
5.1.4 Characteristics of Public Opinion in Network
Forums105
5.1.4.1 User-Generated Content 105
5.1.4.2 Instant and Interactive Opinion
Communication 105
5.1.4.3 Public-Opinion Objects Are Both Fixed
and Dispersed 106
5.1.4.4 Emotional Public Opinion Holds a High
Proportion of Public Opinion 107
5.1.4.5 The Pluralism Characteristic Is Even
More Significant 108
5.1.5 Network Forum Administration109
5.1.5.1 Developing Network Forum Ethics 111
5.1.5.2 Reasonably Setting Topics in Network
Forums 111
5.1.5.3 Giving Play to Opinion Leaders’ Active
Role 112
5.1.5.4 Application of Mandatory Regulations
and Network Technology 114
5.1.5.5 Network Commentators with Chinese
Characteristics 115
5.2 Network Water Army115
5.2.1 Concept of Network Water Army115
5.2.1.1 Network Shuijun: A New Word
and a New Occupation 115
5.2.1.2 Communication Mechanism of Network
Water Army 116
5.2.2 Operation of Network Water Army117
5.2.2.1 Making Topics to Attract Public
Attention—The “Jia Junpeng event” 117
5.2.2.2 Promotion of Consumer Products—“The
Wanglaoji Event” 118
5.2.2.3 Deleting Posts—“Sanlu Milk Powder
Event” 119
5.2.2.4 Repeated Voting Online 120
5.2.3 Control of Network Water Army120
 Contents 
   xi

6 Blogs and Microblogging 123

6.1 Blogs123
6.1.1 The Concept of Blog124
6.1.2 Characteristics of a Blog124
6.1.3 Blog’s Influence on News Communication127
6.1.4 Problems of Blogs129
6.1.4.1 Blogs Still Need Mainstream Media
and the Information Provided by Blogs
Needs to be Verified 129
6.1.4.2 The Audience (Users) Is (Are) Limited 130
6.2 Microblogging130
6.2.1 Development of Microblogging130
6.2.1.1 Development of Twitter 130
6.2.1.2 Development of Microblogging in China 131
6.2.2 Advantages of Microblogging133
6.2.2.1 Simple and Easy to Use 133
6.2.2.2 Timely 133
6.2.2.3 Highly Initiative 134
6.2.2.4 Open and Diversified Platforms
for Publication 134
6.2.3 Influences of Microblogging on the News Industry134
6.2.3.1 Microblogging Becomes an Important
Source of Information 134
6.2.3.2 To a Certain Degree Microblogging
Affects the Development of Major News
Events 135
6.2.3.3 Microblogging Is a New Way
of Propagating Products by Media
Organizations 136
6.2.3.4 Network Word-of-Mouth Marketing
of Microblogging and the Media
Organizations 136
6.2.3.5 Application of Microblogging in Media
Organizations 137
6.2.4 Microblogging and the Public Sphere138
6.2.5 Microblogging and Information Cocoons139
xii Contents

6.2.6 Calm Thinking of Microblogging140

6.2.6.1 Information Release Is Highly Arbitrary,
and Information Truthfulness Cannot
Be Guaranteed 140
6.2.6.2 Microblogging Is User-Friendly
for the Grassroots and Is by Nature
an Entertaining Platform 141
6.2.6.3 Microblogging Has Become a Tool
for Commercial Speculation 142
6.2.6.4 Microblogging Easily Causes Social
Instability 143
6.2.6.5 It Lacks an Effective Profit Model 144
6.2.6.6 Management Plight 145
6.3 Analysis of Microblogging Public Opinion146
6.3.1 Characteristics of Microblogging Public Opinion147
6.3.1.1 Microblogging Public Opinion Is Formed
Very Quickly 147
6.3.1.2 Autonomy of Agenda Setting
of Microblogging Public Opinion 148
6.3.1.3 Microblogging Public Opinion Is
Grassroots and Extensive 150
6.3.1.4 Opinion Leaders in Microblogging Public
Opinion and the Dandelion Effect 152
6.3.1.5 Co-existence of Rationality
and Irrationality in Microblogging
Public Opinion 156
6.3.1.6 Public Opinion Dissemination
on Microblogging Sites Can Be Self-
Purified 157
6.3.1.7 “Tacitus Trap” in Microblogging Public
Opinion Events 158
6.3.1.8 Public Opinion Dissemination
Through Microblogging Sites Has
the “Group Polarization” Effect 161
6.3.2 Microblogging’s Public Opinion Generation
Mechanism162
6.3.2.1 First stage, the formation of public
opinion 163
 Contents 
   xiii

6.3.2.2 Second Stage, the Outbreak of Public

Opinion 163
6.3.2.3 Third Stage, the Crest of Public Opinion 163
6.3.2.4 Fourth Stage, the Ease of Public Opinion 164
6.3.2.5 Fifth Stage, the Pacification of Public
Opinion 164
6.3.2.6 Sixth Stage, the Reappearance of Public
Opinion 164
6.3.3 Expansion Mechanism of the Influence
of Microblogging Public Opinion167
6.3.3.1 Combination with Mobile Phone Media 167
6.3.3.2 Multipoint Release
and “Synchronization” 167
6.3.3.3 Chain Reaction and Circulating Reposts 168
6.3.3.4 Interaction with Traditional Media 169
6.4 Comparison of Public Opinion in Network Forums
and Public Opinion on Microblogging Sites169
6.4.1 Comparison of the Differences Between Network-­
Forum Public Opinion and Microblogging Public
Opinion169
6.4.1.1 Network Forums Put Hot Topics High
on the Page, While Microblogging Focuses
on Reposts 169
6.4.1.2 Network Forums Are Professional,
and Microblogging Does Not Have Many
Classifications 170
6.4.1.3 Network Forums Are One-Way,
but Microblogging Is Interactive 171
6.4.2 Reasons for the Differences Between Network-
Forum Public Opinion and Microblogging Public
Opinion171
6.4.2.1 Evolution of Technical Form 171
6.4.2.2 Differences of User Characteristics 172
6.4.2.3 Change of the Management Style 173
6.4.2.4 Forums and Microblogging in the Mobile
Internet Era 174
xiv Contents

7 Mobile Phone Media and Its Public Opinion Management  175

7.1 Concept and Characteristics of Mobile Phone Media175
7.1.1 Characteristics of Mobile Phone Media176
7.1.1.1 Advantages of Mobile Phone Media 176
7.1.1.2 Disadvantages of Mobile Phone
Dissemination 180
7.2 Problems Caused by Mobile Phone Media182
7.2.1 Illegal Short Messages182
7.2.2 Garbage Information Disseminated
Through Mobile Phones183
7.2.3 Security Problem Brought About by Mobile Phones184
7.2.4 Problem of Citizen Privacy Protection Brought
About by Mobile Phones185
7.2.4.1 Mobile Phones Have Multiple Functions,
and Their Filming and Sound Recording
Functions Are Worrisome 186
7.2.4.2 Different Countries Legislate Laws
and Regulations to Ban Taking Stealthies
with Mobile Phones 186
7.2.4.3 Analysis of the Motives of Taking
Stealthies 187
7.2.5 Mobile Phone Viruses188
7.2.6 Other Problems Brought About by Mobile Phones188
7.2.6.1 Mobile Phone Ringtones or Mobile Phone
Talk May Cause Noise Pollution
in Public Places 188
7.2.6.2 Mobile Phone Addiction 189
7.2.6.3 Road Safety 189
7.2.6.4 Environment Protection Problem that Is
Brought About by Mobile Phones 189
7.3 WeChat189
7.3.1 Development of WeChat189
7.3.2 Dissemination Advantages of WeChat190
7.3.2.1 Human-Oriented Design, Convenient
Operation 190
7.3.2.2 Multimedia Dissemination 190
7.3.2.3 Open System for Free Use 191
7.3.2.4 High User Stickiness 191
 Contents 
   xv

7.3.2.5 Two-Way and Interactive Dissemination

Entities 191
7.3.2.6 Disseminated Content is Private
and Instant 191
7.3.2.7 Dissemination Channels Are
the Integration of Multimedia Platforms
for Co-sharing 192
7.3.2.8 WeChat Builds an Omnibearing
and Three-­dimensional Social Network
for Its Users 192
7.3.2.9 Diffused and Accurate Dissemination
Effect 192
7.3.3 Problems of WeChat193
7.3.3.1 Information Overload 193
7.3.3.2 Privacy Protection 193
7.3.4 WeChat Diversifies Opinion Leaders194
7.3.5 WeChat Integrates Interpersonal Dissemination,
Group Dissemination and Mass Dissemination194
7.3.6 Comparison of WeChat and Microblogging195
7.3.6.1 Mode of Dissemination: WeChat
Highlights Interpersonal Dissemination
and Group Dissemination;
Microblogging Highlights Mass
Dissemination 195
7.3.6.2 Users’ Network Social Interaction:
WeChat Stresses Interpersonal
Relationship, Microblogging Does Not 196
7.3.6.3 Dissemination Effect: WeChat
Information Is More Reliable
than Microblogging Information 197
7.4 Management of Mobile Phone Media200
7.4.1 Difficulties in the Supervision of Mobile Phone
Media200
7.4.1.1 Massive Population of Mobile Phone Users 200
7.4.1.2 Challenges of Cross-Region
Dissemination 201
7.4.1.3 Policies, Laws and Regulations that Lag
Behind 201
xvi Contents

7.4.2 Problems of Mobile Phone Media in News

Dissemination201
7.4.3 Problems of Mobile Phone Media Management
in China203
7.4.4 Policies and Laws on the Management of Mobile
Phone Media in Developed Countries204
7.4.5 Management Measures of Mobile Phone Media205
7.4.5.1 Ways of Management of Mobile Phone
Media 205
7.4.5.2 Respecting the Special Development Rules
of Mobile Phone Media, Innovating
on the Principles of Management
of Mobile Phone Media 206

Part IV Hot Topics of Studies of New-Media’s Public

Opinions 209

8 Studies of New Media’s Rumors 211

8.1 The Evolution of the Rumor211
8.1.1 Studies of the Concept of the Rumor211
8.1.1.1 From the Perspective of History 212
8.1.1.2 From the Perspective of Social Psychology 213
8.1.1.3 From the Perspective of Social Public
Opinions 213
8.1.2 The Evolution of the Communication Form
of the Rumor214
8.1.2.1 The Relation Between the Traditional
Rumor and the Network Rumor 215
8.1.2.2 Similarities and Differences
Between the Weibo Rumor
and the Network Rumor 215
8.1.2.3 The Mobile Weibo Rumor
and the Network Weibo Rumor 216
8.2 The Rumor Communication and Dissolution Model
in the New Media216
8.2.1 Gordon Willard Allport Model217
8.2.2 The Communication, Spreading and Dissolution
Model of the Network Rumor219
 Contents 
   xvii

8.2.3 Strategies for Dissolution of the Network Rumor

Based on the “Communication, Spreading
and Dissolution Model of the Network Rumor”222
8.2.3.1 The Government Should Enhance Its
Credibility, Publish Information Based
on Facts and Lay the Foundation
for Dissolution of the Rumor 222
8.2.3.2 Pay Attention to the Impact
of the “Tacitus Trap” 223
8.2.3.3 The New Media is the Important
Platform to Successfully Dissolve
the Rumor 223
8.2.3.4 The Public Will Be the Final Propellent
for Successful Dissolution of the Rumor
by Virtue of Their Unremitting Pursuit
of the Truth 224

9 New-Media’s Public Opinions of the Mass Incident 225

9.1 The Mass Incident: A Concept with Chinese Characteristics226
9.1.1 The Definition of the Concept of the Mass Incident226
9.1.2 The Definition of the Concept of the New-Media
Mass Incident230
9.1.3 Characteristics of the Mass Incident231
9.1.3.1 Collectiveness 231
9.1.3.2 Burstiness and Quick Communication 231
9.1.3.3 Co-existence of Irrationality
and Rationality 232
9.1.3.4 Interaction 232
9.1.3.5 Cross-Region Property 232
9.2 The Evolution Mechanism of the Mass Incident233
9.2.1 Theoretical Basis233
9.2.1.1 Social Conflict Theory 233
9.2.1.2 Collective Behavior Theory 236
9.2.2 The Basic Process of the New-Media Mass Incident239
9.2.3 Analysis of the Social Context for the Mass Incident240
9.2.3.1 Social Transformation
and Redistribution of Interests 240
9.2.3.2 Pressure of the Social Structure 241
xviii Contents

9.2.4 Influencing Factors of Evolution of the Mass

Incident and Analysis of the Action Mechanism245
9.2.4.1 Influencing Factors of Evolution
of the Mass Incident 245
9.2.4.2 Analysis of the Action Mechanism
of These Factors 249
9.2.5 Analysis of the Evolution Mechanism
of the Network Mass Incident251

Part V Empirical Studies 255

10 Empirical Studies on New-Media Public Opinion 257

10.1 The Credibility of the New Media Is Not Less than that
of the Traditional Media258
10.1.1 The Credibility of the New Media, Represented
by the Mobile Media and the Internet, is Similar
to that of Newspapers, While the Credibility
of TV is the Highest258
10.1.2 Chinese Netizens Would Rather Believe Weibo258
10.2 The Mobile Media Has Become the New Media of New
Media259
10.3 The New Media Has Become the Mainstream Media260

Part VI Countermeasures and Prospects 263

11 Countermeasures Against New-Media Public Opinion 265

11.1 Daily Monitoring and Analysis of Public Opinion266
11.1.1 Monitoring of Public Opinion266
11.1.2 Analysis of Public Opinion267
11.2 Response Principles268
11.2.1 The Rule of the Golden Twenty-­Four Hours268
11.2.2 The Principle of Information Disclosure270
11.2.2.1 Relevant Government Departments
Should Give Full Play to Home
Advantages and Guard
against Home Disadvantages 270
11.2.2.2 “Take the Banner” and the Dividing
Strategy 270
 Contents 
   xix

11.2.3 Take the Initiative to Communicate with Media

and People271
11.2.4 The Fundamental Way to Solve Issues is to Solve
the Conflicts in Real Society274

12 Future Prospects of New-Media Public Opinion 277

12.1 Prospects of the New Media278
12.1.1 The New Media Becomes the Mainstream Media278
12.1.2 Diversified New Media Platforms and Forms279
12.2 Prospects of New-Media Public Opinions281
12.2.1 Internationalized New Media Public Opinions281
12.2.2 Innovative Management Thinking is
Demanded for Management of New-Media
Public Opinion282

References 285

Index 289
 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 The extension of new media 8

Fig. 1.2 Credibility of different forms of media 19
Fig. 2.1 Deustcher④ “waterfall model” of public opinion formation 29
Fig. 3.1 Diffusion of innovations theory model①40
Fig. 3.2 S curve of the diffusion of innovations model 42
Fig. 3.3 English expression of TAM 44
Fig. 3.4 Chinese expression of TAM 45
Fig. 3.5 Illustration of Theory of Planned Behavior model①45
Fig. 3.6 Influencing factors of network public opinion 52
Fig. 3.7 Life cycle of the butterfly effect of network public opinion 75
Fig. 3.8 Dynamics mechanism of the evolution from micro content to
public opinion tornado 78
Fig. 3.9 Topic Appearance, Topic Existence, Public Opinion
Integration and Dissipation Model of Network Public Opinion 81
Fig. 4.1 S curve theory of diffusion 93
Fig. 6.1 A Twitter page 131
Fig. 6.2 Input and output interfaces supported by Twitter 132
Fig. 6.3 (Sina) microblogging opinion leaders judgment indicators
system155
Fig. 6.4 Role of microblogging in the formation of network public
opinion165
Fig. 6.5 Influencing factors for the formation of network public
opinion166
Fig. 6.6 Formation of network public opinion 166
Fig. 7.1 Mobile phone photos of London subway bombing 179

xxi
xxii List of Figures

Fig. 7.2 Harms of short messages 183

Fig. 8.1 The communication, spreading and dissolution model of the
network rumor 221
Fig. 9.1 Development stages of the new-media mass incident 240
Fig. 9.2 The model for evolution of the network mass incident 252
Fig. 11.1 Development of network public opinion observes the life-cycle
theory266
Fig. 11.2 Three factors for the response to emergencies 271
Fig. 11.3 Multiple forms of press release 272
 PART I

Theoretical Foundations of New

Media’s Public Opinions
 CHAPTER 1

An Introduction to New Media

Looking back over human communication’s history, we can easily see the
historic role of the development of information technology as a lever for
progress. A great transformation of information communication always
follows an innovation in information technology. Each transformation
exerts an immeasurable influence on people’s political, economic, cultural
and social lives and promotes the advancement of human civilization.
Information technology has powerfully transformed people’s production
and daily lives, mainly as a result of changes in the modes of information
communication. Within the history of human communication, which, up
to now, can be divided into three stages—respectively, oral communica-
tion, typographic communication and electronic communication, every
leap from the previous stage to the following one was achieved as a result
of the revolutionary progress of information technology. The advance of
computer-network technology, particularly the development of the
Internet, laid the latest foundation for the development of information
communication.

1.1   What Is the Definition of “New Media”?

Within industry and academia, as yet, no consensus has been reached on
the exact definition of “New Media.”.

© The Author(s) 2018 3

W. Kuang, Social Media in China, Sociology, Media and Journalism
in China, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0914-4_1
4 W. KUANG

1.1.1  The Concept of New Media

The term New Media first emerged in 1967 in a commodity development
plan prepared by P. Goldmark, the Director of the CBS (Columbia
Broadcasting System) American Institute of Technology. Later, E. Rostow,
the Chairman of the US President’s Special Committee on Communication,
mentioned New Media several times in his 1969 report to President
Richard Nixon. The term New Media spread rapidly over America and has
since expanded to the whole world.
Experts throughout the world hold different opinions on the definition
of new media. In the early stage, the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defined “new media” as the on-­
line media. Similarly, the term new media was also defined as “the media
for information communication with digital technology as the basis and
the network as the carrier.”1
Jiang Hong and Xu Jian from Shanghai Jiao Tong University defined
new media from the perspectives of connotation and denotation.
According to them, in terms of connotation, “new media” refers to the
new type of media established based on the digital technology that
emerged in the social information communication sector thanks to the
great progress of science and technology in the late twentieth century and
enables the wider range, faster speed and more diversified methods of
information communication, which is vastly different from the traditional
media. Regarding denotation, the new media consist of the fiber-optic
cable communication network, the cable TV network, teletext, the com-
puter communication network, the large-scale computer database com-
munication system, the direct broadcast satellite system, the Internet, the
short message service (SMS), the multimedia information interactive plat-
form, the multimedia technology broadcasting network, and so on.2
Professor Huang Shengmin from the Communication University of
China considers Internet protocol television (IPTV), terrestrial mobile TV
and mobile TV as the three major parts of the new media.3

1
Tao Dan, Zhang Haoda, New Media and On-line Advertising, Page 3, Beijing, Science
Publishing, 2001.
2
Jiang Hong, Xu Jian, Introduction to New Media, Page 14, Shanghai, Shanghai Jiao Tong
University Press, 2006.
3
Guo Yabing, Huang Shengmin, Wang Lanzhu, Report on Development of Digital New
Media in China, Page 1, Beijing, Communication University of China Press, 2006.
 AN INTRODUCTION TO NEW MEDIA 5

Gong Chengbo holds that portal sites, search engines, virtual commu-
nities, e-mails, Internet literature and on-line games all belong to new
media.4
Therefore, we believe that the biggest issue in the definition of new
media lies in the too extensive range and the logical confusion.
Some people believe that the new media also include a few new com-
munication approaches that arose in the recent decade due to technology
improvements or a few channels and carriers that have existed for a long
time without their value in communication being discovered.5 They
include the mobile TV, IPTV, webcast, blog, podcast, office-building TV,
vehicle mobile TV, the fiber-optic cable communication network, the
urban two-way transmission cable TV network, high-definition TV
(HDTV), the Internet, SMS, the digital magazine, the digital newspaper,
digital broadcasting, digital TV, digital movie and touch media in the list
of new media. In addition to the too-wide range, this definition is also
exposed to logical confusion by putting all these media on a par with each
other, since the sum of the subclasses should be equal to the parent class
and subclasses should be mutually exclusive as per the logic of classifica-
tion. Currently, many people make logical mistakes when defining the
connotation and denotation of new media.

1.1.1.1 Interaction Is the Essential Characteristic of New Media

Though commonly known as “new media,” the complete expression
should be “digital interactive new media.” That is to say, the “new media”
are technically digital and are highly interactive from the perspective of
communication characteristics. “Digitalization” and “interaction” consti-
tute fundamental characteristics of the new media. Being a non-linear
form of communication, the new media may have information sending
synchronous or asynchronous with information receiving. For example,
office-building media and vehicle mobile TV do not fall into the category
of “new media.”
As a relative concept, the connotation of “new media” will always
develop along with the progress of communication technology. However,
from the perspective of the history of human communication, it should be

4
Gong Chengbo, Introduction to New Media, Page 1, Beijing, China Radio & television
Publishing House, 2007.
5
Chen Xiaoning, Research on Policies and Regulations on New Media of Radio and TV,
Page 16–35, Beijing, China Legal Publishing House, 2001.
6 W. KUANG

confined to a certain era and indicate “the new for today” but not “the
new for yesterday” or “the new for tomorrow.” The new media should
not be defined by the standard of “the new for yesterday,” as radio and
TV, which emerged in the early twentieth century, are traditional media
now though they were new at that time. It also shall not be defined by
“the new for tomorrow,” otherwise there is no new media now.
Moreover, the international standard should be applied as the criterion
for the “new” in “new media.” Some media forms that appear to be “new”
to Chinese people have actually been in existence for many years in devel-
oped countries and, therefore, are not considered as new media—an
example would be vehicle mobile TV.
The concept of “digital media” is not recommended, since here “digi-
tal” could refer to the digital production process. If so, many more media
would be listed as digital media.
Compared to traditional media, new media are characterized by imme-
diacy, openness, individuation, audience-segmentation, massive informa-
tion, low-cost global communication, quick search, integrativeness and so
on. However, the essential features of new media lie in its digital technol-
ogy and interactive communication.
In traditional media, the communicator and audience were clearly posi-
tioned—the communicator distributed information and the audience
accepted information passively without a way to express their views,
whether positive or negative. By contrast, the new media create a fuzzy
boundary between the communicator and the audience, where the audi-
ence no longer consumes information passively, but engages in informa-
tion exchange with the communicator and may even play a part as a
communicator.
The magazine Online once defined “new media” as “communications
for all, by all.” The traditional media divided the world into two camps,
communicators and audiences, when people were writers or readers,
broadcasters or viewers, performers or appreciators. New media, on the
contrary, offer everyone the opportunity to listen and talk and realize
unprecedented interaction. Therefore, the concept of “audience” is not
now used in new-media research—it is recommended to replace the word
“audience” with “user.”
Judging the current various forms of new media by the interaction cri-
terion, we can see that some so-called “new media” are actually “tradi-
tional media that are new,” typically represented by vehicle mobile TV,
outdoor media, and office-building TV.
 AN INTRODUCTION TO NEW MEDIA 7

Vehicle mobile TV and outdoor media are simply traditional media that
have recently appeared in China, as they show no interaction, the essential
characteristic of new media. Vehicle mobile TV has no interaction with
users at all. Instead, it exists in an enclosed space, where users have no
choice but to accept the information without the option to change the
channel or shield the advertisement; and users have to watch it as they
move, independent of their will.
Office-building TV transmits through cable. As with traditional radio
and TV, it is characterized by a wide audience, great timeliness, rich and
visual content, voluntary acceptance, sequential acceptance and fleeting-
ness. Office-building TV can and should be considered as cable radio or
closed-circuit radio based on its transmission mode, and mainly displays
advertisements. Someone 0spending time in a very boring space (such as
waiting for an elevator) would rather watch advertisements, which leads to
the psychological coercion utilized by office-building TV. Thus, the infor-
mation transmission by office-building TV exhibits strong audience pas-
sivity and goes against two essential characteristics of new media—users’
initiative and interaction.

1.1.1.2 Which Media Should Not Fall into the Category of New Media?
Academia has reached a consensus that the print media and the traditional
analog radio and TV are traditional media. However, does this mean that
all other media forms can be considered as “new media?”
In the author’s opinion, not all media forms that newly appear are new
media. For example, bicycles and even people’s foreheads are used as
advertisement media; and these cannot be considered as new media but
can only be called the traditional media that are new.
Then, how about digital TV? Digital TV is a kind of TV where the digi-
tal TV signal is applied to every link from the studio to transmission and
reception, or where all signals of the system are transmitted through a
binary data stream composed of numeric strings of 0 and 1. Compared to
analog TV, it features smaller signal loss and better reception.
However, the digital TV popular in China now only increases the num-
ber of TV channels and improves definition, but still lacks interaction. For
example, the video-on-demand service has not yet been popularized.
Hence, currently, in my view, digital TV is not a kind of new media.
However, as with the mobile phone, TV constantly evolves following techni-
cal developments and may become a type of computer in the future. By then,
digital TV provided with interaction will become a member of new media.
8 W. KUANG

Fig. 1.1 The extension of new media

The extension of new media is listed in Fig. 1.1. It should be noted that
the extension will expand along with the technical development.
The new media, the focus of media development in the future, points
out this inexorable trend and direction for development of media
communication.

1.1.1.3 S cientific Definition of New Media: The Carrier that

Communicates Information by Means of Computers
The current new media consist of the Internet and mobile media, since
only these feature real interaction. While the Internet is the product of
computer technology development, mobile phones nowadays are no lon-
ger just hand-held phones, but are mini-computers provided with com-
munication functions.
In the early stage of the mobile phone—the age of the first-generation
(1G) mobile phone—it was only used as a hand-held phone and had no
function to communicate news.
Looking back on the development of the mobile phone, it can be seen
that the mobile phone has followed a trend towards a lighter design, more
Another random document with
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the class I used to mix with as the parson's
daughter at Welton. How can I thank God enough
for all His goodness?"

"I have so long been used to my Christian

name only, that it seemed quite strange when
Mrs. Ross with marked emphasis, called me 'Miss
Mirlees,' and I subsequently found that the
servants were instructed to address me in the
same way. They obeyed quite willingly, and the
little maid who waits at nursery meals seemed so
charmed to apply it, that she repeated the 'miss'
as often as possible."

"I wonder the servants are not jealous, but I

presume they catch the spirit of their employers.
As to dear old Mrs. Powell, she is almost as
pleased as you will be, dear Sarah, when you
read my good news."

"I know that my uncle, cousins, and Mrs. Evans

are away. When they return, give Adelaide this
letter to read, and she will show it to her father,
at any rate."

"In a day or two, this house will be full of

visitors for the shooting. I have been beset by a
cowardly dread that anyone who knew me at
Welton should be amongst them. You see I have
the old pride to conquer yet; but, as the
governess, Mrs. Ross will treat me with
consideration, I know, and I did not really feel
ashamed of being only a servant."

"With more love than I can

express,"
"Your ever
 affectionate foster-child,"
"
JOYCE MIRLEES."

How often Sarah had to wipe her eyes whilst reading the
letter, and how she exulted that her darling was working her
way upward again, and would yet lift her head amongst the
best, may be left to the imagination.

CHAPTER VI.

WHEN Mrs. Caruth invited Joyce Minces to stay at Fernsclough

she was quite in earnest, and yet, whilst anxious to serve the
daughter of her old friend, she was hardly sorry that the girl
did not accept the invitation. Her only son was absent, but
time would bring him back. Joyce had been his pet, and he
had made himself her playfellow as a child. But she was a
woman now, and the best of mothers are ambitious for their
sons. It was, perhaps, as well that Alec should find a partner
for life before he and Joyce met again.

She was a dear girl, undoubtedly. Good, true, and with a

sturdy independence of character which Mrs. Caruth
respected. But Alec was master of Fernsclough, and Joyce the
penniless daughter of his old tutor. She had been a little afraid
that something might come of that old companionship
between the child and the youth; but Alec was every inch a
soldier, and duty with him always came first. He had been less
at home than he might well have been, but the mother was
proud to see her son's name in the honour lists from time to
time. He had rejoined his regiment after his recovery, but now
it was ordered home, and she was looking forward to having
him near or with her for, perhaps, years to come. They would
spend next Christmas together, and the mother was planning
what friends should be gathered at Fernsclough to make the
happy season still brighter for her son.

It was November before he arrived, brown, bearded, more

erect and strong-looking than before his illness.

Mrs. Caruth must have stood on tiptoe, if her son had not
bent his tall head to receive her kiss of welcome, and return it
with interest.

"It is delightful to have just you alone to receive me, mother,"

he said. "I was half afraid you might have visitors, seeing you
could not know quite when to expect me. I might have
brought one myself, Captain Tyson, whom I have named in
my letters as such a fine fellow and reliable friend. But he
would not come straight here with me—I think on your
account, that we might be together for a few days first. He is
leaving the army for good."

"He will be welcome, Alec, for your sake. But there will be
plenty to talk over. Butler, too, is longing to go into business
matters with you as soon as possible."

"Dear mother, do not compel me to assume the

responsibilities of a landowner until twenty-four hours have
been given to inquiries and reminiscences. I have shaken
hands with Butler, and promised to talk to him the day after
to-morrow. Till then, my time is my mother's."

Mrs. Caruth's face showed her pleasure; and after dinner her
son said—

"Let us go into your boudoir, cosiest of rooms, and question

each other about everything and everybody."
The mother agreed, and the mutual questioning went on for
some time.

"Now," said Major Caruth, "I want to know all about my dear
old tutor's death. You told me very little beyond the bare fact
when you wrote to me."

Mrs. Caruth gave all the particulars, adding, "I believe the loss
of everything broke Mr. Mirlees' heart. But I was not at home
when he died. I preferred remaining abroad for some time
after you left me to facing home without you."

"But there was his little girl—Joyce. What became of her?"

"You forget, Alec, Joyce is now twenty-one. Her uncle, Mr.

Walter Evans, took her to his home."

"Evans! Surely you mean a subdued-looking man with a rich,

vulgar wife, and two very handsome daughters, whom we first
saw when we were staying with the Clives at The Warren. Mr.
Evans had a beautiful place near theirs. We afterwards met
the family at Mentone."

"The same people. Mr. Evans was poor before his marriage,
but a man of good birth, refined manners, and excellent
education. Every one liked him, but the wife was tolerated for
his sake, or by some, perhaps, on account of a full purse."

"So my little Joyce went to live with that vulgar, purse-proud

woman; my playmate, whom I petted and protected when she
was a child and I a man. Have you heard from her lately; I
should like to know how she gets on with Mrs. Evans, seeing
that she had a wonderfully tender nature, combined with a
fine spirit of her own, which would ill brook a position of
dependence on such a woman."

Mrs. Caruth could only answer truly, and she said—"I fear
Joyce was unhappy at The Chase. Mr. Evans was fond of his
niece, but he yielded to his wife, and was hardly master in his
own house. Joyce grew tired of her position, and wrote to me
for a character to enable her to obtain a situation."

"A what? Joyce Mirlees used that word in connection with

herself? What could she mean?"

"I use her own word, Alec."

"Then I presume she was falling back on the only resource of

a friendless young gentlewoman, a governess's post."

"No, dear; Joyce did not consider herself sufficiently

accomplished to take a situation as governess. People want so
much nowadays, and Joyce, though to my mind unusually
well-educated in all that is most valuable, had none of the
more showy qualifications."

"She had those which, showy or not, are most valuable in

every-day life, and really show the most too, because they are
in hourly exercise for the good of others. Tell me, now, what
were the duties she undertook?"

"She went as attendant to two little children."

"Do you mean as a nursemaid?"

"The children were too old to need nursing. Joyce wrote of

them that they were the most winning little creatures
imaginable, and quite a comfort to her."

"She needed some comfort, poor child!" said Major Caruth,

with a sigh. "And you, mother; what did you do for the
daughter of an old friend?"

He spoke quietly, but his face and words expressed deep

feeling.
"I wrote to Joyce and offered her a home and a welcome here,
Alec. I have a copy of my letter and of Joyce's answer. You will
see from these that she had a choice in the matter. I can
scarcely be blamed if, in spite of my offer, she yet preferred
her own independent course, even to a home at Fernsclough.
I was grieved to think of Joyce in the position of a mere
serving-maid, but I own I did not respect her the less for
declining to eat the bread of dependence."

Major Caruth took the letters, read them through, and then
returned them without a word of comment to his mother. His
face did not express entire satisfaction, and of this she was
sensible.

"Do you not think I wrote kindly, and did what I could under
the circumstances?" she asked, in a somewhat aggrieved
tone, and after a rather prolonged silence.

"You did well, so far, mother. But do not be hurt at my saying,

I think you should not have stopped where you did. Joyce was
not the girl to accept home and maintenance from anyone on
whom she had no claim but that of life-long acquaintance,
without doing something in return. She had already tried that
sort of existence with relatives, and knew what it meant."

"Joyce could never suppose that she would receive anything

but the greatest kindness and consideration here, and as my
friend. She would never make a mental comparison between
me and Mrs. Walter Evans."

"Certainly not; but you must remember Joyce was bound to

earn something. Where would her clothes and mere pocket
and travelling expenses come from? She had no income from
any source. What could the girl do? Come to Fernsclough as
your guest and friend, without a pound in her pocket? I
presume you made no allusion to money matters?"
"I assure you, Alec, I did not think of doing so. Had Joyce
come here, she would have wanted for nothing."

"I believe you meant all that was kind. What you might have
done is this: represented to Joyce that, being alone, you
wished for a lady companion, and that your old friend's
daughter would be so much more agreeable to you than
anyone else could be; but that, for her sake and your own,
the arrangement must be made on a business basis, the same
as with a stranger, and so as to leave you both perfectly free
to end it, should either wish to do so."

"I see, dear, and I wish I had done this; but it is too late now."

"Quite too late, mother," said Alec, thoughtfully.

"After all, Joyce has not done so badly. The lady she is with,
who must be exceptionally nice, treated Joyce from the first
with great consideration, and, finding out how well qualified
she was to teach the children, made her their governess at
three months' end. She now fills a position that would
disgrace no lady."

"I am certain she never did fill one that the idea of disgrace
could be associated with. Perhaps her employer thought it
would be more economical to promote the capable maid than
to engage a governess proper. One has heard of such things
before."

"You do not know of whom you speak, my dear Alec, or you

would not say so."

"Then tell me the lady's name. If she is on my visiting list, I

shall be better able to judge."

"Joyce particularly requested that I would tell no one the

name of her employer, or communicate her present address. I
do not suppose she would mind now, because her position is
so entirely satisfactory. Still, I am bound to respect her wishes
until I have asked permission to do otherwise. If you like, I
will write at once."

"You shall violate no confidence for me, mother; and to-night

you must talk to me instead of wasting these precious first
hours in writing to anyone."

Then, as if wishing to hear no more of Joyce, Major Caruth

began to ask after old acquaintances, and the rest of the
evening passed without further allusion to her.

When bed-time came, he remarked—

"According to Tyson's plans when we parted, he will probably

be with us on Friday night. This is Tuesday, so before he
comes I shall have time to satisfy old Butler, have a run round
the place, make myself acquainted with all that has been done
during my absence, and be ready for Tyson when he arrives.
He will have to settle down now, though he is four years my
junior, for he has just succeeded to a fine estate."

"I wish you would settle down, Alec."

"So I shall, mother—for a while at any rate."

"But I mean get married."

"That even is within the verge of possibility. I will look for

some one who is worthy to be your daughter, and when I find
her—"

He did not say what would follow, but kissed his mother, and
disappeared into his own room.
 CHAPTER VII.

JOYCE had kept her friends and kinsfolk at The Chase fully
acquainted with her improved position, and the consideration
with which she was treated at Springfield Park.

"You will hardly believe it," she wrote, "but I

have the most perfect home here. Mr. and Mrs.
Ross treat me as a friend, and it is delightful to
feel that I have their confidence and the love of
my darling pupils. If I am absent from the
children for awhile, they are no sooner within
reach of me, than little clinging arms are clasping
my neck, kisses rain on my face, each child
contending which shall love me best; whilst Mrs.
Ross, instead of discouraging these marks of
affection, smiles with pleasure, and says, 'This is
as it should be. No power can compare with the
influence of love in training children.' But in this
house love reigns supreme. I never thought I
could be so happy again as I am now. How sweet
it is to be wanted, and to have a place to fill and
work to do for others."

Joyce had three correspondents at The Chase—Sarah Keene,

Mr. Evans, and Adelaide. It was the latter who persisted in
making her mother acquainted with Joyce's present happiness
and the consideration with which she was treated.

"And," continued the daring girl, "I think Joyce ought to spend
the Christmas holidays here, if she will. Shall I invite her, and
say that we will try to make her happier than she was
before?"
"You will do nothing of the kind," replied Mrs. Evans; "she has
chosen to leave us, and if she wants to come back she will
have to ask—not me."

"We were not kind to her before, mamma. I think we all feel
that now," said Adelaide, glancing at her sister, who assented.
"If we might have the time over again, I think we should act
differently. However, if you will not ask Joyce, I should think
her friend Mrs. Caruth will invite her to Fernsclough. You know
how anxious she was about Cousin Joyce, and how wishful for
her to stay with her altogether. No fear but Joyce will have
friends to think of her at Christmas."

And with this parting remark the girl left Mrs. Evans to
meditate on her suggestion.

"Really, I think every one has gone mad about Joyce since she
left, though no one cared much for her when she was here. It
was no fault of ours that her father died and left her a mere
beggar."

"But it was our fault that she was miserable here," said
Augusta. "It told against ourselves, I know, for she is our
cousin, and her parents were well-born and respected by
people who care little enough about us."

This was Augusta's remark, and a certain amount of worldly

wisdom which pervaded it had more effect on Mrs. Evans than
all Adelaide's regrets for the past neglect and unkindness
experienced by Joyce when at The Chase. She began to think
that, for her own sake, it might be politic to extend the shelter
of its roof to her husband's niece during the holiday season.

A few days later Mrs. Evans told Adelaide that she might invite
"that girl" for Christmas, if she chose. "But send no message
from me," she added.
"Too late, mamma. Joyce has already declined an invitation
from Mrs. Caruth, and has decided to spend Christmas in what
is a true home—Springfield Park. There will be a large
gathering of friends, and I hope Joyce will have as happy a
season as she deserves. I wish I could look forward to one
such as hers promises to be."

It was quite true that Mrs. Caruth had written to invite Joyce
to spend Christmas at Fernsclough. She did this unknown to
her son, and immediately after that first conversation with
him on the night of his return home. She was a generous-
hearted woman, and his words about Joyce had touched her
deeply. She looked back over the years during which the girl's
parents had been her own most trusted friends. She recalled
the wise advice Mr. Mirlees had given her during her early
widowhood, and to the excellent influence he had exercised
over her own son.

"But for him, Alec would never have been the noble man he is
to-day," she owned to herself; and she was anxious to make
prompt amends for anything that had been lacking in her own
conduct to Joyce. "Mine has been but a poor, half-hearted
friendship," she said to herself. "I fear I thought more of
consequences than of doing what my better feelings prompted
for that dear orphan girl. I may be mistaken in fancying that
Alec cares more for her than for other girls, but if he does,
what then? He has enough, and can afford to be indifferent
about fortune in a wife."

"As his father was before him."

Mrs. Caruth almost thought she heard these last words

spoken, but they were only the final echo of her own
thoughts. Yet they were true words, for she had been a
portionless bride five-and-thirty years before, and had known
the happiness of being loved only for what she was in herself.
So her heart went with the invitation to Joyce, and she told
the girl of her son's happy return to Fernsclough, and his wish
to meet again his old pet and playmate.

When Joyce received the letter she had already promised to

remain at the Park, for Mrs. Ross had told how glad they
would all be to keep her with them, and to make the season a
real bright holiday to her. The prospect of having their darling
governess had made the children almost wild with delight. So,
when Mrs. Caruth's letter came, Joyce could only send grateful
thanks, and tell her what had been already decided upon.

The thought that Major Caruth might probably leave England

again without her seeing him was the one cloud in what was
otherwise all bright and hopeful. He had been so much to her
in those old days, when she owed her chief childish pleasures
to his kind thought, and was accustomed to appeal to him in
every difficulty and trouble.

Yet Joyce had other memories of nearer date. She recalled

that time when Alec Caruth came to Fernsclough after a long
absence, during which she had changed from the merry,
romping schoolgirl into the tall, slender maiden of seventeen,
and she could picture his look of surprise and admiration,
mingled with regret, as he said in his frank fashion—

"I was coming to meet my child-friend, and, alas! I have lost

her, and find that I have to make acquaintance with a new
Joyce Mirlees, who has grown-up to young ladyhood in a most
objectionable manner during my absence."

She had laughed at his rueful face, and taken his arm to be
led in to dinner, instead of dancing into the room holding by
his hand, as in former days. She had noticed a little change in
Mrs. Caruth's manner from that day—a sort of reserve
towards herself and watchfulness over her son, as if she were
a little jealous of his attentions to her. And her father had
seemed to want her more, and kept her by his side at times,
when formerly she had been accustomed to run over to
Fernsclough and spend hours together with Mrs. Caruth,
always receiving from her a motherly welcome.

"She has her son now, Joyce," he would say. "She will not
want my little girl from me so much, and I shall be so glad to
have more of your company."

Joyce could recall how, at length, the conviction dawned upon

her that the old, free intercourse between her and Alec Caruth
must be deemed a thing of the past—dead and buried with
her childhood. Also that Mrs. Caruth, whilst still as kind and
motherly as ever, did not express regret at her absence when
she had stayed away longer than usual, or urge her to come
more frequently, until she was once more left alone by the
departure of her son.

Then Joyce's pride took alarm, and she did not respond quite
readily to the renewed invitations of Mrs. Caruth, though she
was most careful not to allow her feelings to be suspected. On
the contrary, her manner was perfectly frank and natural as
she replied—

"Thank you so much, dear Mrs. Caruth, but my father really

requires my help more than he did. He finds that I can now be
of some use to him, and I am quite proud to feel that he
misses me when I leave him. I fear I used to leave him too
much alone, for Fernsclough had so many charms for me,
thanks to your great kindness. But there is something else. I
am supposed to have finished my education and to be a
grown-up girl, but really I am only just finding out how
ignorant I am, so my father is going to let me read with him,
that I may gain more information, instead of losing the little
already acquired."

Joyce remembered that conversation with Mrs. Caruth, and

how, after it, she had gone less to Fernsclough, until the time
of her great trouble came. Then her old friend had been
constant in her attentions to the dear father, and full of
sympathy with herself. Her uncle's arrival had taken her out of
Mrs. Caruth's hands, and they had drifted widely apart from
each other during the last nine months.

This unexpected invitation to spend Christmas at Fernsclough,

and with it the direct news of Major Caruth's presence there,
seemed to say, "Forget that I raised a barrier between you
and ourselves. Come back to Fernsclough, and take again
your old place. Rejoice with me in having my son here once
more, and be to us both, what you were during those happy
years long ago."

Joyce had answered the letter with a somewhat heavy heart,

whilst feeling angry with herself that she could be anything
but glad at the prospect of staying at Springfield Park for
Christmas.

"Before your kind letter came, I had promised

to remain here," she wrote. "Indeed, I felt only
too happy at the thought of being allowed to stay,
and did not dream of receiving any other
invitation. You will know, dear Mrs. Caruth, that I
would rather spend Christmas at Fernsclough
than in any other place in the world, for, though
Welton and its neighbourhood are associated with
the greatest sorrows of my life, all its joyful
memories are bound up with them also. Thank
God these are so many!"

"I should dearly love to go in and out of the

cottages, and see my old friends there, but it
cannot be. I have promised Mrs. Ross; the
children count on my staying; I am pledged to
help here in everything that I used to have a
finger in at Welton. I can only thank you again
and again, and wish you every joy that the word
Christmas can suggest. The presence of Major
Caruth will make amends for the absence of all
others. I do rejoice that he will be at Fernsclough
for Christmas, especially as he has so often been
away at that season. Nevertheless, I hope you
will both miss me a little, as I have never before
been absent from Welton at Christmas. Please
give him my kind remembrances and all
imaginable good wishes."

"I think you will be pleased to know that my

cousin, Adelaide Evans, has also written to ask
me to The Chase, and this, too, with her mother's
knowledge and, to some extent, approbation. I
am glad of this, and the letter has set me
thinking and wondering whether I was as kind
and as considerate as I might have been when
under my uncle's roof. I went to The Chase
almost a stranger, and I fear I was more ready to
look for slights than to expect kindness. The very
fact that my cousin Adelaide sought me out as
she did, met me more than half-way in sympathy
and friendship, and has continued ever since my
affectionate relative, correspondent, and friend,
proves that I was harsh in my judgment, and
unnecessarily proud. My aunt was not kind, and I
was very desolate; nevertheless, if I had to live
over again those months at The Chase, I believe I
should act very differently, and try more to merit
and to win the love of those around me."

"All recent circumstances have been made to

work together for my good in a manner that I
neither hoped for nor deserved. I trust the
memory of mercies received will make me more
thankful, trustful, and humble in the future."
The letter contained allusions to old Welton friends, and other
matters which need not be repeated.

Mrs. Caruth closed it with mingled feelings of pleasure and

disappointment. She was glad of all the good that had come
to Joyce, and of the glimpse of the girl's heart which it gave
her. But she was honestly sorry that she could not come to
Fernsclough, for, having made up her mind to ask Joyce, she
really wanted her.

Mrs. Caruth told her son what she had done, and had her
reward in seeing the lighting up of his face, and in feeling
herself drawn to his side by an embracing arm.

"Thanks, little mother," said he, then bent down and kissed
her. "You have carried out the thought that came into my own
mind after we were talking of Joyce the other evening. It
would have brought back old times most delightfully if she
could have come to us, but seeing she is obliged to refuse, we
must make all the more of each other. One thing, however, I
should like to do. You know how Joyce thought of all the poor
folk at Christmas time, and stirred up the richer ones to give
of their abundance, so that there might be a cheery fireside
and a well-spread table in every cottage. You can tell me just
how she managed this, and whom she helped. We will do it
this year, and tell the people that we act for their old friend
and pastor, Mr. Mirlees, and for Joyce. They will miss her face
as we shall, little mother, but they shall miss nothing else, and
still, as in old times, many a voice will pray, 'May God bless
Miss Joyce, and give her a happy Christmas, and many more
to follow it!'"

"It is a good thought, Alec, and we will carry it out together. I

will write and tell Joyce, and that it was your suggestion. Or
would you like to write yourself?"

"Thanks, no; you shall write, and put in all the kind wishes
you can think of on my behalf," which decision perplexed Mrs.
Caruth not a little. She had quite expected an eager
affirmative response when she proposed that Alec should
write to Joyce, and was somewhat disappointed at his matter-
of-fact refusal.

Could it be that, after all, Joyce was only thought of as the

child-friend of her son's youthful days? Contradictory as this
may seem, Mrs. Caruth was quite prepared to be indignant,
should this prove to be the case, and to ask what he could
want in a wife which he would not find in Joyce? Also, where
should she meet one whom she would so gladly welcome as a
daughter?

This second letter from Mrs. Caruth delighted Joyce, as may

well be imagined. One of her troubles in connection with the
coming season had been caused by the thought of her poor
friends at Welton. The new clergyman had a delicate wife and
a family of young children. He could not take up Joyce's old
work, and there was no one else to step into the gap and do
it.

Joyce one day accompanied Mrs. Ross in a drive to town, and

while she was buying Christmas gifts for her friends and
household, the girl strolled through the market, crowded to
overflowing with everything suggestive of good cheer. She
asked prices, and began to calculate how many dinners the
utmost amount she could spare would purchase for some of
her poorest friends at Welton. She had already occupied her
spare moments in making a number of pretty and useful
articles for them.

Joyce sighed as she said to herself—

"The most I can do is so little when compared with their need

and my desire to help them; but I must do my best and leave
the rest."
Now she knew that all would be remembered, and was
thankful on their behalf, whilst again and again the memory of
one sentence in Mrs. Caruth's letter brought a bright flush to
her cheek.

"Alec bade me tell you that none for whom you cared shall be
forgotten, and all will know that they owe their Christmas
dinners this year to your loving thought and labour in former
seasons. I am sure the good cheer will taste twice as good
when it is known that you, dear Joyce, though absent, have
your full share in its distribution."

"I should be wicked and ungrateful indeed, if I could cherish a

single discontented thought," she said to herself; and she
worked cheerfully on, completing her little presents. To each
article she attached a short note and a card painted by her
own hand, for Joyce was no mean artist, and could use pencil
and brush with considerable skill.

There was something for each friend at Welton, Mrs. Caruth

included; something for all at Springfield Park, for though
Joyce had not found time to do so much during her residence
there, she had brought with her many pretty articles, on
which she had occupied what would otherwise have been
weary days at The Chase.

There was only one friend to whom no Christmas gift was

addressed, and that was Major Caruth.

CHAPTER VIII.
MAJOR CARUTH was mistaken in supposing that his friend
Captain Tyson had no visit to pay before joining him at
Fernsclough, and the latter did not arrive until a day later than
the one originally fixed when they parted.

"I was obliged to run over to my sister's, and have a look at

her and her belongings, though I did not stay longer than I
could help. They will see enough of me when I settle down, as
our homes will be near together," said the captain, in
explanation of his tardy arrival.

Mrs. Caruth was charmed with her son's friend, and, as the
days passed, felt how pleasant it would be if Alec could induce
him to extend his visit until after the New Year.

"I wish I could stay; many thanks to you for asking me," he
replied; "but Kate, my sister, made me promise to go back for
the Christmas doings at her house. If only—"

Here Captain Tyson paused, and fell into a species of brown

study, the purport of which he did not reveal. This was at
breakfast, and an hour later he said to his friend—

"Caruth, I wish you would go with me to my sister's for a

single night. I have a special reason for asking this, and I
think Mrs. Caruth will spare you to me for so long."

"Do you mean to go to-day?" asked the major.

"Well, yes; it only wants a week to Christmas, and things

must be arranged soon, you understand."

Major Caruth did not understand, but was quite willing to take
everything for granted and Captain Tyson, having announced
that no one ever came at a wrong time whom he invited to
Kate's house, and that he would in any case "wire" from the
station, so that she might not be taken by surprise, went off
with his friend by the 2.30 train.
It was only after they were gone past recall that Mrs. Caruth
remembered she was quite ignorant as to her son's
destination. Captain Tyson had neither mentioned his sister's
surname nor the place of her abode; but she said to herself,
"It is only for a night; Alec will be home to-morrow." And
made herself contented in the meanwhile.

It was growing dusk as Major Caruth and his friend alighted at

the door of a beautiful country house. It stood hospitably
open, having been flung wide at the sound of approaching
wheels. There was a rosy glow from within, which came from
a blazing fire in the wide hall, where space, warmth, and
comfort were well combined. A tall, graceful woman stood
near the doorway, extending welcoming hands to the newly
arrived guests.

"Kate," said Captain Tyson, "this is my good friend and wise

mentor, Major Caruth, of whom you have heard before.
Caruth, this is my sister Kate, otherwise Mrs. Ross; and here
come the children to welcome Uncle Jack."

Turning aside from the elders after this introduction, Captain

Tyson seized the smaller girl of the two and lifted her for a
kiss, then exchanged her for the other, whom he mounted on
his shoulder amid a burst of merry laughter from the pair of
little people. There was another female figure visible, but in
shadow, and with her head turned from the door, as the
gentlemen entered.

"I am sorry my husband will not be in yet," said Mrs. Ross.

"He made an appointment before my brother's telegram
came, and was obliged to keep it; but he will be here in good
time for dinner. I have, however, a friend and guest, whom
you, I think, will be glad to see."

Mrs. Ross advanced, the figure turned towards her and her
companion, and Major Caruth clasped the extended hand of
Joyce Mirlees.