CHAPTER 2: RESPIRATION

Human Respiratory System

1) Respiration is the breaking down of food to produce energy.

2) Respiration can be divided into 2 stages:

a) external respiration/ breathing
b) internal respiration/ cellular respiration/ tissue respiration

3) Breathing is a process of inhalation and exhalation of air through the respiratory system.

4) Internal respiration is the oxidation 氧化 of organic molecules (glucose) to release the chemical energy
stored within these molecules. It involves a series of reactions controlled by enzymes.

5) Some part of the human respiratory

system.

6) (a) Nasal cavity 鼻腔

(b) Trachea 气管
(c) Bronchus 支气管
(d) Bronchiole 细支气管
(e) Alveolus 肺泡
(f) Diaphragm 横膈膜

7) From the nasal cavity, inhaled air goes

through the trachea, then through the
bronchus to the bronchiole. From the
bronchiole, air is pushed into the alveoli/
alveolus.

8) The summary of air passage through the

respiratory system.
（pharynx , larynx）

9) Air enters the respiratory system through the nose/ mouth. Air that is inhaled through the nostrils is
filtered by the hair in the nasal cavity.

10) Then, the filtered air enters the trachea. Trachea is the organ that is connected to the lungs.

11) Trachea consists of rings of cartilage. The trachea splits into two bronchi. Each bronchus is connected
to one side of the lungs.

1
12) Lungs are organs that are soft 柔软 like a sponge 海绵 and pale red 淡红 in colour because they are
rich 丰富 in blood.

13) Each bronchus splits to form a network 网状 of fine tubes 管 which are called bronchioles.

14) Each bronchiole ends 尾端 with air sacs which are called the alveoli. Each alveolus is covered 覆盖
with a network of blood capillaries 细微血管.
Singular 单数 Plural 复数
Bronchus Bronchi
Bronchiole Bronchioles
Alveolus Alveoli

Breathing Mechanism 呼吸机制

1. The breathing mechanism consists of two
processes:
(a) Inhalation 吸入 which is the taking in of air
(b) Exhalation 呼出 which is the removal of air

2. The following table shows the differences between inhalation and exhalation.

1)
2
 Inhalation / Inspiration
1. The external intercostals muscles 外肋间肌
contract 收缩 while the internal intercostals
muscles relax 放松. As a result, the ribs 肋骨 and
the sternum 胸骨 move upwards 向上 and
outwards 向外
2. The diaphragm muscles contract and the
diaphragm flattens 压平
3. The volume of the thoracic cavity 胸腔 increase
3. The pressure inside the thoracic cavity decrease
until it is less than the atmospheric pressure 气压
4. Air is drawn into the lungs
Exhalation / Expiration
The internal intercostals muscles 肋间内肌
contract while the external intercostals muscles
relax. As a result, the ribs and the sternum move
downwards 向下 and inwards 向内
The diaphragm muscles relax and the diaphragm
arches upwards 向上拱起
The volume of the thoracic cavity decreases
The pressure inside the thoracic cavity increases
until it is greater than the atmospheric pressure
Air is forced out of the lungs

Activity 1 To demonstrate the breathing mechanism

Procedure
1. Arrange the apparatus 一起 as shown in the diagram.
2. Push 推 and pull 拉 the rubber 树胶 sheet 片(diaphragm) up and down.
3. Observe 观察 the balloons 气球 in the jar 罐子.

Observation 观察 and inference 推断

1. When the rubber sheet (diaphragm) is pulled down, the volume inside the jar increases. This causes
the air pressure inside the jar to decrease. Therefore 所以, air from outside is pushed into the balloons.
The balloons inflate. 膨胀

2. When the rubber sheet (diaphragm) is pushed upwards, the volume inside the jar decreases. This
causes the air pressure inside the jar to increase. Therefore, air is pushed out of the balloons. The
balloons deflate. 泄气/缩小

Conclusion 结论
1. During inhalation, air is pushed into the lungs.
2. During exhalation, air is pushed out of the lungs.

Components of air Inhaled air Exhaled air Explanation

Oxygen 21% 16% Oxygen is used in cellular
respiration
Carbon dioxide 0.03% 4% CO2 is produced in cellular
respiration.
Nitrogen 78% 78% Nitrogen is neither used nor
produced in cellular respiration

3
 Exchange 交换 of Gases 气体
1. Exchange of gases occurs 发生 at the alveolus through a process called diffusion. 渗透/扩散

2. Air inside the alveolus is separated from the blood in the blood capillaries by a thin wall of the
capillaries and a thin wall of the alveolus.
3. Diagram below summarizes the pathway of gas exchange.

1 ） Oxygen dissolves in 溶 入 the moisture 水 分 found on the inner 内 部 surface of the alveolus. The
concentration 浓度 of oxygen in the alveolus becomes higher than in the blood.

2）Oxygen diffuses into the blood capillaries 毛细血管 through the thin wall 薄壁 of alveolus.

3）The oxygen combines 结合 with haemoglobin 血红蛋白 in red blood cell to form oxyhaemoglobin 氧化
血红素. The blood carrying oxyhaemoglobin is called oxygenated blood 带氧的血.

Oxygen + haemoglobin Oxyhaemoglobin

4）The oxygenated blood is transported to the heart.

5）The heart 心脏 pumps the oxygenated blood to other parts of the body. Once 一旦 it reaches 到达 the
cells, the oxyhaemoglobin in the blood breaks down 分解 and oxygen is released 释放.
Oxyhaemoglobin Oxygen + haemoglobin
The oxygen diffuses into the body cells and is used 用来 in cell respiration 细胞呼吸.

4
 Glucose + oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

6）Carbon dioxide 二氧化碳 and water vapour 水蒸汽 diffuse out of the blood into the alveolus through
经过 the blood capillaries.

7）Carbon dioxide and water vapour are exhaled out 呼出 of the lungs.

Exchange of gases in the body

Adaptation 适应 of the Alveoli for Efficient 有效 Gas Exchange 气体交换

The wall is thin as it is Moist 潮湿 alveolar wall
only one-cell thick which allows respiratory gas
increases gas diffusion rate to dissolve 溶化 and
across the wall between diffuse into the blood
the alveolus and the capillary.
blood capillary.

There are large number Alveolus is covered by a

of (millions) alveoli in the Network 血脉网络 of
lungs that give a big blood capillaries. Its
surface area 表面积 to purpose is to increase
increase gas exchange the gas exchange rate
efficiency. between the alveolus
and the blood
capillaries.

Harmful 有害的 Substances 物质 to the Respiratory System

Harmful Sources Effect on the respiratory system
pollutants
Tobacco tar Cigarette smoke 香烟烟雾 • Causes lung cancer (carcinogen 致癌物),
烟焦油 • Coats 覆 盖 the cilia 纤 毛 in the respiratory system
causing them to stop working. Toxic particles and
bacteria are no longer 不再 trapped 困住 by the cilia but
enter the lungs directly.

Nicotine Cigarette smoke Causes addiction 上瘾 to smoking.

尼古丁
Carbon Cigarette smoke, exhaust 排气 Reduces the amount of oxygen in the blood and the
monoxide Fumes 烟 雾 , emissions 排 放 物 supply of oxygen to body cells. Eventually, may cause
一氧化碳 from factories death.
Sulphur Emissions from factories, • Forms acidic solution that may damage lung tissues.
dioxide exhaust fumes • Irritates 刺激 the air passage of the respiratory system.
二氧化硫 • Causes breathing difficulties and worsens 恶 化 the
health of patients with respiratory diseases 呼吸疾病
5
 Emissions from factories, Causes cancer.
exhaust fumes
Nitrogen Emissions from factories, • Reacts with hydrocarbon 烃 to form haze. 烟霾
dioxide exhaust fumes • Dissolves in the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity
二氧化氮 and trachea, which leads to lung irritation.
Haze 烟霾 Emissions from factories, Causes breathing difficulties, asthma 哮 喘 and
forest fires, open burnings pneumonia 肺炎

Diseases 疾病 Related to 关于 the Respiratory System_

Some diseases involve respiratory system:
Disease Cause Symptoms Effects
(Harmful
substances)
Emphysema • Cigarette smoke • Breathing difficulties •Alveoli become inelastic 无弹性 and
肺气肿 • Exposure 暴露 to 呼吸困难 enlarged
chemical substances • Suffocation 窒息, •The walls of the alveoli become
and dust pain while breathing damaged
and fatigue. 疲劳 •The surface area of the alveolus
• Emphysema cannot decreases
be cured 治疗 but its •Inefficient 低效 gaseous exchange
symptoms can be •Permanent damage to the alveoli
controlled. and difficulty in breathing

Lung cancer • Cigarette smoke • Prolonged coughing • Lung cancer is caused by

肺癌 • Exposure to 久咳 Uncontrolled 不受控制 cell division.
Asbestos 石棉 • Breathing difficulties • Can spread to other organs such as
• Exposure to • Coughs out blood the liver 肝 and bones
Carcinogenic • Bloody phlegm 血痰
substances • Chest pain when
coughing

Bronchitis • Virus 病 毒 or • Prolonged coughing • Inflamed 发 炎 bronchioles and

支气管炎 bacterial • Breathing difficulties production of excessive 过多 mucus
Infections 感染 and chest pain 胸痛 粘液
• Tar and irritants
in
cigarette smoke

Asthma 哮喘 • Allergens 过 敏 原 • Coughing • Bronchioles become inflamed,

such as dust and • Breathing difficulties swollen 肿 and constricted 收缩
pollen 花粉 • Difficulty for air to pass into and
• fumes from out of the lungs
motorized vehicles
or smoke from
burning
2 Sulphur dioxide irritates the throat and causes damage to the lung tissues.
3 The oxides of nitrogen can cause haze and results in throat irritation and breathing difficulties.
6
4 Coal 煤炭, dust and asbestos can result in the congestion 堵住 of air passages 通道 and cause breathing
difficulties. The asbestos dust is carcinogenic and can cause lung cancer.
5 Carbon monoxide competes 竞争 with oxygen to combine with haemoglobin. This will reduce the oxygen
transported in the blood.
6 Cigarette smoke:
(a) Tar contains carcinogens which can cause lung cancer. Tar will deposit 沉淀 on the lungs and darken
the lungs.
(b) Nicotine in tobacco causes addiction to smoking.
7 Bacteria and viruses can cause the flu 感冒, whooping cough 百日咳 or pneumonia 肺炎.

Effects of Smoking to the Lungs

1 Smoking will reduce 降低 the efficiency 有效 of the respiratory organs.
2 A smoker has a higher risk of getting lung cancer, pneumonia (lung inflammation 肺炎),
bronchitis, weakened heart, and throat inflammation compared to a non-smoker.
3 The same risk is also experienced by a passive smoker. A passive 被动 smoker is not a smoker
but is always in an environment where cigarette smoke is present.
4. A good respiratory system can be achieved by:
• Regular 经常 exercise strengthens 增强 our hearts and the respiratory system making them
function 功能 more efficiently.
• A healthy lifestyle 生活方式 such as not smoking is important to ensure the respiratory system
functions well
5. Cigarette smoke is one of the
major 主要 factors 因素 of air
pollution 空气污染. The toxic
substances that are present in
cigarette smoke include 包括:
(a) nicotine
(b) carbon monoxide 一氧化碳
(c) carcinogenic substances 致癌
物
(d) hydrogen cyanide 氰化氢
(e) nitrogen dioxide
(f) phenol 苯酚，石碳酸
(g) naphthalene 卫生球
(h) nitrobenzene 硝基苯
6. Nicotine is dangerous 危险 because:
(a) stimulate 刺激 the production of cells at the respiratory tract 呼吸道 that may cause cancer 癌症
(b) increase the probability 可能性 of infection 感染 at the respiratory tract
(c) influence 影响 the blood circulation 血液循环 system and cause stroke 中风
(d) cause emphysema 肺气肿
(e) cause addiction 上瘾 to smoking

7
7. The effects 效果 of other toxic substances to our
respiratory system:
(a) Carcinogenic substances 致癌物 stimulate the
formation of cancerous cells 癌细胞
(b) Phenols can speed up 加速 the reaction of the
carcinogens 致癌物
(c) Dissolved nitrogen dioxide forms nitric acid 硝
酸, which corrodes 腐蚀 the wall of the alveolus
(d) Hydrogen cyanide prevents 组 织 the
production 生产 of energy during respiration
(e) Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin
to reduces 减少 the capacity 容量 of blood to carry
oxygen

Activity 2 To observe the effects of smoking on the lungs

Procedure
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the
diagram.
2. Close the glass tube at A to let the cigarette
smoke pass through the U-tube.

Observation
After a few hours, the:
1. temperature in the U-tube increases
2. colour of the cotton changes from white to yellowish brown 黄褐色
3. colour of the hydrogen carbonate indicator 指示剂 changes from red to yellow

Conclusion
The cigarette smoke causes the:
1. temperature in the respiratory system to increase
2. contamination 污染 of the respiratory system
3. corrosion 腐蚀 of the walls of the respiratory organs 呼吸器官 due to 由于 its acidity 酸性

Respiratory System Adapts in Different Environment

1. Three features 特征 that should be in the respiratory structure of most organisms, including humans
are:
• A moist 潮湿 respiratory structure surface such as the moist alveolus.
• A thin 薄 respiratory structure 呼吸结构.
• Respiratory structure with a large 大的 surface area 表面积.

Moist outer skin

8
1. Amphibians 两栖动物 like frogs are organisms
that can live on land 陆地 and in water. The frog
has a moist external skin, other than lungs for
gaseous exchange to occur.
2. Features of the frog skin that adapts 适应 for gas
exchange:
• frog skin is thin and extremely 极易 permeable to
gas 透气,
• frog skin is moist as it is covered by a layer of
mucus 粘液 to enable the respiratory gas to dissolve
and diffuse 渗透 easily and
• the compact 紧密 network 网络 of capillaries 血管
below the layer of its skin increases the gas
diffusion rate.

Tracheal system 气管系统

1 The tracheal system is the respiratory system in insects 昆虫.
2 The trachea is made up of a system of branching 分叉 tubes into the entire 整个 body of the insect.
3 The trachea branches into finer 比较细 branches called tracheoles 小气管. Tracheoles are the
respiratory surfaces.
4 Tracheoles channel 输送 oxygen directly 直接 into the cells.
• The ends of tracheoles are thin and moist to enable the respiratory gases to dissolve in it.
• Numerous 许多 tracheoles provide a large surface area for gaseous exchange by simple diffusion.

Gills 鱼鳃
1 Fish breathe using gills.
2 Gills absorb dissolved oxygen from the water
3 Each gill is made up of thin filaments. 细丝
• Numerous filaments provide a large surface area for the rapid diffusion of respiratory gases.
• The thin membranes of the filaments facilitate 促进 the diffusion of respiratory gases into the blood
capillaries.
• Filaments have many blood capillaries to facilitate the transport 运输 and exchange of respiratory gases.
• The gill filaments are always surrounded 包围 by water so that respiratory gases can easily dissolve in
them.

9
4. Gaseous exchange occurs when:
• The concentration of oxygen in the
water is higher than the concentration of
oxygen in the blood. The difference in
concentration
causes oxygen to diffuse from the water
into the blood.

5 The concentration of carbon dioxide in

the blood is higher than the concentration
of carbon dioxide in the water. This
causes carbon dioxide to diffuse out from
the blood into the water.

Adaptations of the Respiratory System in Different Situation

1. At the bottom 底部 of the oceans 海洋,
• pressure is high
• difficult for the lungs to expand 扩张 and breathing becomes
more difficult
• divers wear oxygen tanks 氧气筒 to help them breathe

2. At high altitudes 高海拔 such as mountain peaks 山峰,

• low atmospheric pressure causing partial pressure 分压
of oxygen to decrease
• difficulty in breathing
• rate of breathing and heart beat 心跳率 increases
• as a result, more oxygen is transported to body cells and
more carbon dioxide is removed from the body

3. Athletes 运动员 and swimmers

During vigorous 激烈 activities, 活动
• the rate of cellular respiration increases to
accommodate 应付 for the energy needs
• the rate of breathing increases to speed up 加速 the rate
of gaseous exchange
• intake 摄入 of oxygen increases and more carbon
dioxide can be expelled 输出
10
• the heart rate also increases so that blood flow 血流 is
faster to transport more oxygen and glucose to the body
tissues to be oxidised and produce energy
• carbon dioxide produced during cellular respiration
can also be transported and expelled at a faster rate by
the blood to the lungs

4. Anaemic 贫血 patients
• lack 缺乏 of iron causes a drop in haemoglobin 血红蛋白
formation
• anaemia is caused by a lack of haemoglobin.
• therefore, less oxygen is transported to the body cells.
• the patient looks pale 苍白, lacks energy and can faint 晕倒
easily.

5. Patients with sickle-cell 镰状细胞 anaemia 贫血

• Sickle cell anaemia is a genetic disorder
where the red blood cell has an abnormal 不正常
shape to transport oxygen to the all parts of the
body.
• The crescent shaped 新月形 (sickle-shaped)
red blood cells are stiff 僵硬, clump 聚集 together
and easily stuck 卡在 at the lining 内壁 of the
blood vessels.
• Sickle cells prevent the transportation of
oxygen to the body cells causing them to die
because of lack of oxygen.
• the patient looks pale 苍白 and lacks
energy.

Gaseous Exchange in Plants

Gaseous Exchange in Plants
1. The process of gas exchange between plants and the environment takes place through leaves, stems 茎
and roots because of the large surface area for gas exchange
2. During the day, the plants absorb carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. Plants
release oxygen as the product of photosynthesis 光合作用 and carbon dioxide as the product of
respiration.
3. Plants do not carry out photosynthesis at night. Plants absorb 吸收 oxygen and release carbon dioxide
during respiration.
4. Carbon dioxide diffuses through the stomata 气孔 according to the different in the carbon dioxide
concentration 浓度 in the cells and the air space between the cells.
5. How does carbon dioxide diffuse into the plant cells during photosynthesis?
• The concentration of carbon dioxide in the cell is lower compared to the concentration of carbon
dioxide in the air space between the cells, when carbon dioxide is used in the photosynthesis.

11
• The difference in concentration between the cells and the space 空间 between the cells caused the
dissolve carbon dioxide on the moist surface of the cell to diffuse into the cells.
• This causes the concentration of carbon dioxide in the space between the cells to become lower
compared to the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air outside the stoma. The difference in this
concentration enables carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to diffuse into the space between cells through
the stoma.

Stomatal Pore 气孔 and Guard Cell 保卫细胞

1. A stoma is made up of a stomatal pore that is surrounded by a pair of guard cells which contain
chloroplast 叶绿体 to carry out photosynthesis.
2. The diagram below shows the conditions of the stomatal pore in different situations.

Osmosis Influences 影响 Stomatal Pores

1. Osmosis 渗透 is a water molecules movement
process from a region 地区 of a higher water molecules
concentration to a region of a lower of water molecules
concentration across a semipermeable 半渗透
membrane.
2. The region with a higher water molecules
concentration has a lower solute 溶质 concentration
whereas 而 a region with a lower water molecules
concentration has a higher solute concentration.
3. A semipermeable membrane is a membrane that
is permeable to water but not permeable to some solutes.

1. The size of the stomata is controlled by the guard cells.

12
2. The guard cells have plenty of chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis.
3. The inner wall 内壁 of the guard cell is thicker and less elastic than the outer cell wall 外壁.
During the day At night

1) During the day, light stimulates
photosynthesis in the guard cells.
2) Glucose content inside the guard cells
increases.
3) Water diffuses into the guard cells by osmosis.
4) As a result, the guard cells swell up and
become turgid.
5) The stoma opens
At night, the guard cells do not carry out
photosynthesis
Glucose content decreases as they are converted
into starch or used for respiration.
Water diffuses out from the guard cells by
osmosis.
As a result, the guard cells become flaccid
The stoma closes

Effects of Pollution on Plants and Preventive Measures 预防措施

Pollutants Effects Preventive measures

污染物 效果
Smoke, soot 煤 • Smoke particles cause stomata pores to be • Stop burning of forests and open-
烟, dust, fine clogged 阻塞 and prevent gaseous exchange on burning 露天焚烧
particles 细小颗 plant leaves. The rate of photosynthesis • Ban 禁止 illegal logging 非法采伐
粒 and decreases. and burning of trees in a large scale
Haze 烟霾 • Haze prevents sunlight penetration 穿透 and 大规模 for the purpose 目的 of
reduces the rate of photosynthesis. farming 农业,

Poisonous gases • Gases dissolve in rain to form acid rain 酸雨. • Filter 过滤 the gases from
such as the • Acid rain damages the leaves and roots of industrial factories before emission
oxides plants. 释放 into the environment.
of nitrogen and • Acid rain causes the soil to become acidic 酸性 • Use catalytic converters 催化转化
Sulphur dioxide and unsuitable 不适合 for farming. 耕种 器 to clean the gases from the
exhaust 烟管 of vehicles.

13