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~-U National Univers1ty Queen's University ·-~ Loughborough

~-~ of Civil Engineering, Vietnam Belfast • University

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BUILT ENVIRONMENT
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Edited by: Soutsos Marios Goodier Chris ILe Trung Thanh INguyen van Yuan

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Sustainable
BUILT ENVIRONMENT
FOR NOWANDTHE FUTURE
MOl TRUONG XAY Dl/NG BEN VUNG CHO HI~N TJ:\1 VA TliONG LAI

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Edited by: Soutsos Marios Goodier Chris Le Trung Thanh Nguyen Van TuanI

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The International Conference on Sustainable Built Environment for Now and the Future. Hanoi, 26 - 27 March 2013

Preface

The development of a sustainable built environment is essential if we arc ever to develop an effective and
on-going approach for meeting the demands of the three key aspects of economy, environment and soc i-
ety, whilst also complying with the UN mi llennium goals of working towards a better life for all peop le.
In 20 I 0, a 3 year international project was sponsored by the British Government's Department for Inter-
national Deve lopment (DflD) to develop and share the latest knowledge and practices regarding sustain-
able construction between Loughborough University, University of Liverpool (Queen's Univers ity Bel fast
from January 20 12) and the National University of Civil Engineering in Vietnam (NUCE Vietnam).
As an important outcome of the project and dissemination of some of the key themes, the international
conference "S ustainable Built Environment for Now and the Future" is co-organised by the three Univer-
sities, the UK's British Council and UK T rade & Investment. The conference is under the auspices of the
Ministry of Construction in Vietnam and the British Embassy in Vietnam. The conference is also a formal
1
event of the activities to celebrate the 40 h anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations be-
tween Vietnam and the United Kingdom.
The conference is a forum for international and Vietnamese researchers, academics, industry profession-
als, experts and policy makers etc. to share their views, and to learn from others, from home and abroad,
and from a range of disciplines, about recent and current developments in sustainability and the built en-
vironment (i.e. "for now") and also to discuss actions required for forthcoming construction development
in "the future". We believe that this conference is an important part in a series of on-going steps to help
support and orient the continuing development of the bui lt environment in Vietnam, where the economy
and the urban development, both on a local and national scale, are progressing at an ever increasing rate,
and therefore care and consideration are required to ensure that these changes develop in as much of a
sustainable way as possib le.
The conference has a large number of good quality papers from all over the world in seven main themes:
1) Architectural design for sustainability, 2) Sustainable renewable energy in the bui lt environment, 3)
Construction management for a sustainable built environment, 4) Sustainable building materials, 5) Struc-
tural design for sustainabi lity, 6) Water and waste management for sustainability, and 7) Other related
topics for sustainabi lity.
We would not have such a successful and vibrant conference without the enthusiastic contribution, atten-
dance and support from international and Vietnamese researchers, academics, experts, industry profes-
sionals and policy makers. We therefore gratefully thank you a ll for your time, input and ideas. The fi-
nancial support from the UK 's Department for International Development (DflD), UK Trade & Invest-
ment, the British Council, and the Hung Long Phuoc JSC Company is also g ratefully received, without
which the conference would not have taken place.
On behalf of the organising and scientific committees, we wish you an enjoyable, thought-provoking and
inspiring event, and a safe journey home.

Chairma n of Organ ising Committee C hairme n of Scien tific Co mmittee

Dr Le Van Thanh Prof Marios Soutsos

cf&i__
Dr Chris Goodier
Vice Chancellor ofNUCE Queen's University Belfast Loughborough University
The International Conference on Sustainable Built Environment for Now and the Future. Hanoi, 26- 27 March 2013

Organising Committee Members

Dr. LeVan Thanh- Vice Chancellor, NUCE (Vietnam)- Chairman
Mr. Robin Rickard- Director, British Council (Vietnam)- Vice Chairman
Assoc. Prof. Pham Hung Cuong- NUCE (Vietnam)- Vice Chairman
Prof. Marios Soutsos, Queen's University Belfast (UK) - Vice Chairman
Dr. Chris Goodier, Loughborough University (UK)- Vice Chairman
Dr. Jason von Meding - Queen's University Belfast (UK) - Inter. Member
Dr. Le Trung Thanh- Ministry of Construction (Vietnam)- Coordinator
Assoc. Prof. Do Huu Thanh - NUCE (V ietnam)- Joint Coordinator
Dr. Nguyen Van Tuan- NUCE (Vietnam)- Secretary
Assoc. Prof. Pham Huu Hanh - NUCE (Vietnam) - Member
Assoc. Prof. Tran Van Lien- NUCE (Vietnam)- Member
Dr. Dinh Van Thuat- NUCE (Vietnam)- Member
Dr. Nguyen Hoang Giang- NUCE (Vietnam) - Member
MEng. Tong Ton Kien- NUCE (Vietnam)- Member

Scientific Committee Members

Chairmen
Prof. Marias Soutsos- Queen's University Belfast (UK)
Dr. Chris Goodier- Loughborough University (UK)

Scientific Committee Members

Dr. Mohammed Osmani - Loughborough University (UK)
Prof Muhammed Basheer- Queen's University Belfast (U K)
Dr. Mohammed Sonebi- Queen's University Belfast (UK)
Dr. Jason von Meding - Queen's University Belfast (UK)
Dr. James Lim- Queen's University Belfast (UK)
Dr. John Spillane- Queen's University Belfast (UK)
Prof. Peter Gosling- Newcastle University (UK)
Prof. Stephanie Glendinning- Newcastle University (UK)
Prof. Barry Jones- Cal Poly, California State University (USA)
Assoc. Prof. Ye Guang- Delft University of Technology (the Netherlands)
Prof. Piet Stroeven- Delft University of Technology (the Netherlands)
Prof. Marco Imperadori- Politecnico di Milano (Italy)
Dr. Kang Kang Tang - Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University (China)
Dr. Ubagaram Johnson Alengaram - University of Malaya (Malaysia)
Dr. Tan Cher Siang - University of Technology (Malaysia)
Assoc. Prof. Pham Huu Hanh - NUCE (Vietnam)
Assoc. Prof. Nguyen Viet Anh - NUCE (Vietnam)
Assoc. Prof. Do Huu Thanh - NUCE (Vietnam)
Dr. Bui Danh Dai - NUCE (Vietnam)
Dr. Nguyen Hung Phong- NUCE (Vietnam)
Dr. Nguyen Van Tuan- NUCE (Vie tnam)
Assoc. Prof. Nguyen Van Chanh- Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (Vietnam)
Dr. Le Trung Thanh- Ministry of Construction (Vietnam)
The International Conference on Sustainable Built Environment for Now and the Future. Hanoi, 26 - 27 March 2013

Recycling construction demolition waste in the world and in Vietnam

Tong T. Kien1, Le T. Thanh2 and Phung V. Lu1

1
National University of Civil Engineering , Hanoi, Vietnam
2
Ministry of Construction, Vietnam

ABSTRACT: A number of studies on reusing and recycling of construction demolition waste (CDW) as
well as the properties of building materials using recycled aggregates (RAs) have been carried out in
many countries. In Vietnam, researchers are also interested in using RAs for the construction industry in
order to develop sustainable construction and minimize environmental impact. This paper not only fo-
cuses on the review and discussion about the research and application of recycled CDW in the world and
in Vietnam. It also gives recommendations on researches and on recycling CDW technology as well as
the applicability of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) for sustainable construction in Vietnam.

1 INTRODUCTION

Cost of CDW disposal is becoming higher and difficult for demolition contractors. Due to environmental
and technical factors, scientists around the world are trying to find ways to reuse (or reutilize) these mate-
rials. It is not only bring significant economic, environment benefits but also demanding technical re-
quirements for building. Table 1 and Figure 1 show the level of recycledg and landfilled rate of CDW in
European countries [8] and Vietnam [25].

Table 1. Recycled and landfilled rate of CDW in Europe and in Vietnam

‘Hard’ CDW Recycled rate Landfilled or Landfill Tax for CDW
Countries
(million tonnes) (%) incinerated (%) (€ per tonne)
Germany 59 17 83 0
UK 30 45 55 2.9
France 24 15 85 6
Italy 20 9 91 1
Spain 13 <5 > 95 0
Netherlands 11 90 10 23-90
Belgium 7 87 13 5.75-16
Austria 5 41 59 5.79
Portugal 3 <5 >95 0
Denmark 3 81 19 45
Greece 2 <5 > 95 0
Sweden 2 21 79 30
Finland 1 45 55 19
Ireland 1 <5 > 95 0
Luxembourg 0 N/A N/A N/A
Vietnam 1.9 0 100 N/A

247
 Figure 1. Rate of recycled and reused CDW in EU in periods of time [10]

Mixture of crushed bricks and portland cement to produce concrete products was first recorded in Ger-
many in 1860 [9]. On behalf of RILEM technical committee 37DRC, Nixon prepared the first reports of
recycled concrete aggregate for concrete in the period from 1945 to 1977. The 2nd Report of RAs and recy-
cled aggregate concrete (RAC) was prepared by Hansen covering the period of 1978-1985 and the 3rd re-
port was an updated version of the second state of art report covering the development in the period be-
tween 1985 and 1989 [9]. In 1993, RILEM organised the International workshop on guidelines for demoli-
tion and reuse of concrete and masonry waste [19]. In 2002, ACI Committee 555 reported information on
evaluating and processing waste concrete as recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) to produce concrete con-
struction [1]. In recent years from 1996 to 2011, many Chinese researchers are interested in the studying on
nearly all aspects of mechanical properties and structural performance of concrete using RAC [39].
In Vietnam, the possibility of using recycled CDW aggregates substituting for natural aggregates
(NAs) in concrete and mortar construction has been studied [20, 36]. A pilot plant to produce recycled
aggregates from CDW was built [21]. Recycled CDW was used for road foundation layers [37].
To summerize all of those achievements, this paper is not only written primarily a state of art on recy-
cling CDW in over the world and in Vietnam, but also to recommend further studies on recycled concrete
for developing sustainable construction in Vietnam.

2 DEMOLITION AND RECYCLING CDW TECHNOLOGY

2.1 Demolition technology

Figure 2: Three construction and demolition waste pathways at a site

248
During the 1950s and 1960s, the demolition contractors generally were limited to hand held breakers,
jackhammers operated by compressed air, wrecking balls, etc. Only few demolition contractors can re-
move whole structures. However, with the development of modern technology, good demolition equip-
ment (devices) are now produced. They help us demolish constructions easily. ACI 555R [1] divides
methods of demolition into: Demolition by hand tools, hand operated power tools, vehicle mounted
equipment, explosive blasting, drills and saws, non-explosive demolition agents (mechanical or chemical
separation methods).
The choice of demolition methods depends on many factors such as: financial; time limits imposed on
a project; the strength and performance of concrete; the shape, size and accessibility of structure; the
amount of demolished concrete; environmental concerns (including noise, dust, vibration and debris);
worker safety and public safety; possible recycling of concrete and removal; transport and disposal of de-
bris.
CDW sorting at demolition site depends on the method of demolition. Method of demolition also will
affect the possibility of reused and recycled CDW. Some types of store and sort of CDW at a demolition
site is shown in Figure 2 [4].

2.2 Recycled aggregate technology from CDW

Plants processing recycled CDW are similar to natural aggregate plants. Only minor variations for the
removal of contaminants are found. . Currently, recycling technology can be divided into 3 levels as fol-
lows [1]:
- Level 1: Includes a mobile crusher with some classification screens. This technology is quite simple,
opten located at a demolition site and recycled materials for reconstruction at that site. It is suitable in
developing countries, where low cost burial CDW.
- Level 2: Includes equipments of level 1 with adding a metal separation and classification system in-
cludes many different sizes. This technology may be installed at fixity or mobile with bigger capacity.
- Level 3: The complete technology including equipments of level 2 and adding a separation to remove
the large pieces of wood, foam, plastic, nylon, etc. This separation can be by hand or mechanical re-
moval. Small impurities can be removed by dry or wet screening, washing with high pressure water,
pressing sludge, etc. This technology is used for recycled plants with medium and large capacity or put
on the closed landfills.
Up to now, there is no recycling center in Vietnam. One trial recycling plant was built as the result
of a research project [21]. This plant can recycle 40 tonnes CDW per hour and is in level 2 according
to ACI [1].

3 PROPERTIES AND TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR RAs

3.1 Characteristics of RAs

In general, RAs derived from crushed concrete consist of 65–80 vol.% of natural coarse aggregate
and fine aggregate and 20–35 vol. % of old cement paste. The latter is often more porous than the
former (make more precise). Consequently, RAs are less homogeneous, less dense and more porous
than the NAs.
Both open and closed recycling system can produce RAs achieving specifications of ASTM C33 [1].
RAs quality also can meet the requirements without washing even when there are fine-grained particles
on their surfaces [9]. Hansen assumed that aggregates from concrete rubbles (RCAs) generally angular
and rougher than NAs. O'Mahony supposed that when RAs is crushed from masonry (RMA), content of
the fine particles is much more than that from concrete. This leads to decrease workability and strength of
concrete containing recycled fine aggregates (RFA) [28].
In general, specific density of RAs is smaller than that of NAs because of the cement paste in RA par-
ticles. Hansen [9] concluded that 16-32mm aggregate particles of RAs have about 30 vol.% of old cement
mortar (paste?). Corresponding figures are 40 vol.% for the 8–16 mm fraction and 60 vol.% for the 4–8
mm fraction. Fine recycled aggregate particles below 4 mm contain approximately 20 wt.% of old cement
paste, while the filler fraction 0–0.3 mm may contain as much as 65 wt.% of old cement paste.

249
 Water absorption of both RCA and RMA are higher than that of NAs’. Water absorption of RCA is
from 3 to 12%. Water absorption of RMA is from 20 to 25%, while water absorption of RAs is only 0.5-
1.2% [31]. Water absorption of recycled fine aggregates is significant higher than that of recycled coarse
aggregates. Water absorption of RAs and NAs was summarised in Table 2 [20, 34, 36].

Table 2. Water absorption level of RAs and NAs

Water absorption value (%) of NAs Water absorption value (%) of RAs
Researchers Fine fraction Coarse fraction Fine fraction Coarse fraction
(< 5mm) (= 5mm) (< 5mm) (= 5mm)
10.3 (concrete) 5.6(concrete)
Levy and Helene 0.8 1.8
13.0(masonry) 7.9(masonry)
Poon et al 1.01* 1.25* 11.2-14.2* 4.19-7.60*
2.0
0.2 12.0 6.0
Zaharieva et al Particle sizes 4mm-
20mm-to-6mm 4mm-to-dust 20mm-to-6mm
to-dust
1.5 7.0 (concrete)
1.5
Topcu and Guncan 0.5 hour immer- N/A 0.5 hour immer-
0.5 hour immersion
sion sion
6.2 (concrete)
0.8* 0.5*
Khatib 14.8 (masonry) N/A
4mm-to-dust 37.5mm-to-5mm
5mm-to-dust
N/A 1.0* 5.6 (concrete)*
Sagoe-Crentsil et al N/A
14 mm
Salem et al N/A 0.3* N/A 4.7*
Sri Ravindrarajah et al 0.63* 0.3* 6.2 (concrete)* 5.68 (concrete)*
Shayan and Xu 0.59 0.5-1.0 6.3 (concrete) 4.7 (concrete)
4.5 7.0 (concrete)
Gutiérrez and Juan N/A N/A
16mm-to-4mm 16mm-to-4mm
11.3 (concrete)* 6.5 (concrete)*
1.6* 0.53*
Kien [36] 19.7 (masonry)* 14.3 (masonry)*
5mm-to-0.14mm 25mm-to-5mm
5mm-to-0.14mm 25mm-to-5mm
11.2 (concrete)* 6.4 (concrete)*
1.2* 0.52*
Hung [20] 17.5 (masonry)* 15.2 (masonry)*
5mm-to-0.14mm 25mm-to-5mm
5mm-to-0.14mm 25mm-to-5mm
* Aggregate was immersed in water for 24 hours to determine the water absorption ratio.

Khalaf [15] stated that the pores contained within the recycled aggregates vary in size over a wide
range. The largest pores can be seen easily by a microscope or even with the naked eye. The smallest
pores are usually larger than the size of the gel pores contained in the cement paste. Some of the aggre-
gate pores are closed. Others are open on the surface of the aggregate particle.
Los Angeles Abrasion of RAs is higher than that of NAs but most of RCA (including the worst type)
also meet the requirements of ASTM C33 (Los Angeles abrasion <50% for construction , <40% for roads
infrastructure) [9].
One of the problems inherent in use of RAs for manufacture of new concrete mixtures is the possibility
of contaminants in original CDW debris passing into new concrete mixtures. Contaminants may be clay
balls, bitumen joint seals, expansion joint fillers, gypsum, periclase refractory bricks, chlorides, organic
materials, chemical admixtures, tramp steel and other metals, glass, lightweight bricks and concrete,
weathered or fire damaged particles, particles susceptible to frost or alkali reactions, etc. [9].
To improve properties of RAs, several techniques have been developed, such as removing loose parti-
cles through an ultrasonic cleaning method [13], separating old mortar from virgin aggregate by ball-
milling [24] or by heating first and then rubbing [35].
In Vietnam, there is no study on microstructure of RA particles, content and contribution of pores in
RAs. A few research result on properties of RAs and RAC has been published [36]. The absorption and
desorption of water by porous RAs has not yet been investigated in detail.

250
3.2 Standards and specifications for RAs
Many countries allow using RAs for concrete and most of specifications in the same standard with NAs.
However, some countries only allow using RCA like as: RILEM (1994), ACI 555R [1], BRE Digest 433,
JIS technical report TRA 0006.
In Vietnam, technical standards and specifications for using RAs in concrete are not available. Guide-
line for recycling CDW technology and using RAs for construction from the research project [21] is still
not approved by Ministry of Construction of Vietnam.

4 RECYCLED AGGREGATE CONCRETE

Crushed brick concrete has been known since Roman time. The first application is concrete canals of Eif-
fel in Cologne, Germany in 1860 [9]. Mixture of brick debris with Portland cement was used to produce
concrete products.
After the 2nd World War, brick rubbles was around 400-600 million m3. Many recycling centers were
built in the Federal Republic of Germany. At the end of 1955, they recycled approximately 11.5 million
m3 of crushed brick aggregate for reconstructing of 175.000 housing units. By the end of 1956, about
85% of CDW was cleared in Germany [9].

4.1 Properties of Recycled Aggregate Concrete mixture

A comprehensive experimental work has been carried out by Zhang et al. [40]. It is found that, in general,
the mix design procedure for RAC does not differ much from that for conventional concrete. However,
more water is required to attain a similar workability due to the high water absorption of RAs.
Mulheron and O’Mahony [26] compared the use of recycled coarse aggregate from concrete and ma-
sonry. The result indicated that workability of RAC with RCA is much lower than that of RAC with NAC
but RAC mixture containing RMA has workability is similar to mixture containing NAC. They assumed
that RMA particles were less angular and rounder than RCA particles. This revealed that shape and sur-
face texture of aggregate particles have important effects on concrete workability.
Many researchers have proposed different ways to improve workability of RAC such as: Hansen [9]
concluded that RAs should moistened before mixing, this is the same point of Etxeberria et al. [7]. How-
ever Khaloo [17] said that deemed prewetting of recycled clay brick aggregates to be unnecessary.
Neville (1996) [27] supposed should not moisten for any types of aggregates for concrete because the ag-
gregate particles can become quikly coated with cement paste, preventing the further ingress of water
necessary for saturation.
Hansen [9] concluded that the air amount of concrete mixture containing RCA is higher than that of
NAC mixture. This leads to gravity density of RAC mixture decreased 5-15% compared to NAC mixture.
Katz (2003) [14] suggested that the amount of air bubbles in RAC mixture is 4 to 5% higher than that of
NAC mixture. This is cause of the higher porosity of RAs.

4.2 Properties of Recycled Aggregate Concrete

Akhtaruzzaman and Hasnat [2] carried out some researches using well-burned brick as a coarse aggregate
in concrete. They found that it was possible to achieve high strength concrete using crushed brick. Khaloo
[17] used crushed clinker bricks as a coarse aggregate in concrete. He reported that only 7% compressive
strength of the concrete is decreased compared to concrete made with natural aggregates. And 9.5% unit
weight reduction of crushed brick concrete is found. Jankovic (2002) [12] investigated the effect of poly-
mer additives at 0, 4 and 8% (referred to cement) on concrete performance using recycled brick aggre-
gates. It showed that compressive strength and tensile strength of this concrete do not change compared to
non-polymer concrete. Its waterproof ability and frost resistance are better. Concrete containing recycled
brick aggregates possesses smaller shrinkage and elastic modulus, higher creep compared to that of non-
polymer concrete.

4.2.1 Compressive strength

Many researchers have conducted experiments on compressive strength of RAC. The results indicated
that compressive strength of RAC decreases when the amount of RAs alternative for NAs increases [9,

251
39]. The decrease in compressive strength of crushed brick aggregate is greater than RCA. When replac-
ing 100% by RCA, the concrete strength at 28 days decreased 19% while by RMA down 35% compared
with the concrete used NAs. This is resulted from the low strength of crushed brick aggregate as a result
of Los Angeles abrasion [5]. The influences of sources and replacement content of RAs on compressive
strength are shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5.

Figure 4. Compressive strength versus replacement level

(%) of coarse aggregate with RCA or RMA Figure 5. Influence of RCA content on RAC
(W/C = 0.8 maintained in all mixes) [5] compressive strength [39]

The use of recycled fine aggregate (RFA) has an greater adverse effect on compressive strength of
RAC [6, 32]. Khatib [18] has studied this effect in a free water cement ratio of W/C= 0.5 when replacing
natural sand by RFAs from masonry and concrete. The result indicated that there was not significant de-
crease on compressive strength after 90-day curing in water. The same compressive strength was obtained
in RAC with 50% RFA from masonry compare to NAC [38]. Khatib attributed that the cementitious na-
ture of fine particles from masonry which contributed to enhancement of the long-term compressive
strength.

4.2.2 Uniaxial and splitting tensile strength

The uniaxial tensile strength of RAC using recycled coarse aggregate and natural fine aggregate is equal
or less than 10% compared to that of NAC [9]. In the case of using both coarse and fine recycled aggre-
gates, this strength is reduced about 10-20% compared to the NAC. This was tagreed with Rao J. et al.
results [31]. The bending tensile strength of concrete with 100% RCA also decreased by 15-20% when
compared to NAC.
Neville [27] and Poon and Chan [30] believed
that tensile strengths of concrete were primarily
governed by the quality of the interfacial transition
zone (ITZ) between aggregate and mortar, rather
than byproperties of aggregates. This conclusion
agrees with the finding of Dhir [5] who reported
that aggregate properties have more effectiveness
on compressive strength than tensile strengths of
concrete. For instance, when 100% coarse aggre-
gate was replaced by masonry-derived aggregate,
the reduction of compressive strength was ap-
proximately 40% , but the flexural strength of the
concrete reduced only 25% [5]. According to Xiao
Li et al. [39], the flexural strength of concrete using
Figure 6. Uniaxial/Splitting tensile strength
100% RCA decreased 31% compared to conven- as a function of RCA replacement percentage
tional concrete. Effects of RCA content replacing for RAC [39]
natural aggregate on uniaxial and splitting tensile
strength of concrete at different W/C are shown in Figure 6.

252
4.2.3 Elastic modulus
The elastic modulus of RAC decreased as the RAs replacement percentage increased and the elastic
modulus of RAC with 100% RCA was about 40% lower than that of conventional concrete (using present
sentence). Figure 7 indicates that the elastic modulus decreases with the increase of the replacement per-
centage of RCA. Most of studies on elastic modulus of RAC reported that elastic modulus decreases as
increasing RAs content. It can be reduced to 30-50% when replacing 100% NAs by RAs. The large
amount of old mortar with comparatively low modulus of elasticity in RAC results in this reduction of
elastic modulus of RAC [29, 31, 39].

Figure 7. Elastic modulus as a function Figure 8. Effect of replacing coarse or fine RAs on the
of RCA replacement percentage [39] water absorption values of RAC [22]

4.2.4 Water absorption

Levy and Helene [22] reported a significantly higher water absorption level of RAC contaning recycled
fine concrete aggregate compare to the RAC containing recycled coarse aggregate, see Figure 8. The
cause is that the high water absorption value of recycled concrete dust in RFA compare to coarse
aggregate.
According to Hansen (1992) [9], the degree of permeability of concrete using RAs with W/C of
0.5-0.7 is up to five times higher than that of NAC. Some other studies also indicate that the permeability
of RAC can be improved by the use of mineral additives such as fly ash, silicafume, etc [23].

4.3 Durability of Recycled Aggregate Concrete

Carbonization of RAC increases from 1.3-2.5 times at the age of 6 months compared with NAC [22]. Ac-
cording Building Contractors Society of Japan (BCSJ) the degree of carbonization of RAC is 65% higher
than that of NAC [3]. Besides, using RAs also increases the corrosion of reinforcing steel in reinforced
concrete. The reinforcing steel corrosion resistance of RAC can be improved by reducing W/C.
Due to the large amount of old mortar which is attached to original aggregate particles in recycled ag-
gregates, drying shrinkage and creep of recycled aggregate concrete are always from 40% to 80% higher
than that of corresponding control concretes which are made with conventional aggregates [9]. Drying
shrinkage of RAC is improved by using conventional sand.
There is evidence to support the fact that when recycled aggregate concrete is produced with coarse re-
cycled aggregate which originates from structural grade concrete, frost resistance of the recycled aggre-
gate concrete will be as good as, or better than the frost resistance of the original concrete [9].
No study has been reported on the detriment of alkali silica reaction of RAC produced from RAs
which are produced from original concrete that has been damaged by alkali silica reactions. The differ-
ences in chloride penetration between RAC and NAC have not yet been published.

253
5 CONCRETE BRICK BLOCK USING RAC

Khalaf and DeVenny [16] have studied the performance of concrete block using RA from crushed bricks
at high temperatures. Normal concrete with compressive strength of 35-45 MPa or high strength of 50-65
MPa can be produced by using coarse aggregate from crushed bricks. Concrete using crushed brick ag-
gregates has smaller density. Fire resistance of concrete blocks using crushed brick aggregates is similar
or better than that of the used granite stone.
In 2010, Ismail and Yaacob researched properties of concrete blocks using recycled fine aggregates
from masonry. Test results showed that the replacement of natural sand by recycled fine aggregates at the
levels of 50% and 75% improves compressive strength of the blocks [11]. However, when natural sand is
completely replaced by recycled fine aggregate, compressive strength of test samples is lower than that of
control sample.
Soutsos et al. [33] investigated the use of stone aggregates taken from waste concretes and bricks to
replace coarse and fine-stone aggregates. The maximum replacement levels for RCA were determined to
be 60% for the recycled coarse concrete fraction and 20% for the fine concrete fraction, will not have
significant detrimental effect on the compressive strength concrete blocks. While the maximum replace-
ment levels for RMA were determined to be 20% for the coarse fraction and 20% for the fine fraction.

6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

- Until now, using RAs in Vietnam is not much meanwhile a huge volume of construction demolition
waste is annually disposed. It strongly impacts on environment and cost of construction projects.
Hence, research on characteristics of RAs and performance of concrete containing RAs is desirable.
- Further studies of the microstructure and micro mechanical properties of RACs are recommended in
the world and in Vietnam. The interfacial zone between RAs surface and new cement paste are also
studied urgently needed. No studies have been reported on the susceptibility to alkali reactions of recy-
cled aggregate concrete produced from recycled concrete aggregates that has been damaged by alkali
reactions. Such studies are also urgently needed
- Water absorption of RAs is much higher than NAs. It revealed that there is a interconnected open pore
system in RAs. This lead to self-curing possibility of RAs during hydration of RAC mixtures. There
has not been any researches in Vietnam on this issue.
- Furthermore, it is necessary to understand the influence of chemical and mineral additives (such as fly
ash, blast furnace slag) on Compressive strength, tensile strength, elastic modulus, shingkage, autoge-
neous of RAC.

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank the project DELPHE 743 financing to this study.

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256
The International Conference on Sustainable Built Environment for Now and the Future. Hanoi, 26 - 27 March 2013

Utilisation of construction demolition waste as stabilised materials for

road base applications

Tong T. Kien1, Le T. Thanh2 and Phung V. Lu1

1
National University of Civil Engineering , Hanoi, Vietnam
2
Ministry of Construction, Vietnam

ABSTRACT: The rate of construction development in Vietnam currently increases rapidly. Many old
buildings have been demolished and replaced by new buildings. This demolition has caused a huge con-
struction waste at demolition sites but not yet been utilised. Meanwhile, natural materials to produce mor-
tar, concrete and road base is limited for the environment impact of exploiting process.
This paper presents experimental results of utilising construction demolition waste (CDW) as stabi-
lised materials for the subgrade or the base of roads. The CDW was used for substituting natural aggre-
gates in these road structures. The results focused on effects of cement content on some subgrade proper-
ties (such as: maximum dry compacted density, splitting tensile strength, compressive strength, etc.) with
different CDW sources (from concrete structures and from brick wall debris). The results indicated that
CDW could replace natural aggregate in road base layers in Vietnam.

1 INTRODUCTION

In Vietnam, the amount of solid waste are currently creating more in urban areas. As reported by the na-
tional environment agency on solid waste in 2011 (MORE, 2011), the amount of municipal solid waste
generated about 12.802 million tons in 2008 and estimated to be 22.352 million tons in 2015. In which,
CDW is around 10-15%, mainly arisen from works of construction and demolition. Approximately 2,200
apartments (about 6 million m2) were built in the 70’s - 80’s, in which approximately 90% are degraded
seriously (Nguyen, 2011). According to the resolution 34/2007/NQ-CP (Government, 2007), Vietnam is
striving to complete the renovation and reconstruction of the old and damaged apartments those are dete-
riorated or has expired in all urban areas by 2015. So in the coming years, a huge amount of CDW will be
discharged in the large cities or urban areas.
Recycling and reuse CDW has been studied and applied for practical since the last few decades in a
number of countries around the world (Hansen, 1992). Technical standards for recycled waste materials
to use as recycled CDW in building and road construction have been published elsewhere (ACI_555R-01,
2001). This has brought great benefits in terms of economic, engineering and environment aspects.
Through previous studies (Le, 2007; Tong, 2011; URENCO, 2009), most of CDW in Vietnam’s urban
areas is spread in the garbage dump, only a little amount is used for landfilling. This causes environ-
mental pollution, waste landfill area and costly transportation as well as waste of material sources. In ad-
dition, research on utilisation of CDW for road foundation has not been interested in Vietnam. In the
standard system of Vietnam (TCVN) and standard for transportation (22TCN). There are no construction
procedures and standards for testing as well as specifications of recycled CDW materials when they used
for foundation layers and pavement road.
Motorway generally consists of two parts (foundation structure and surface structure). These structures
possibly include multiple layers with different materials (Figure 1). The choice of materials for road-base
and subbase are guided in TCVN 4054: 2005 (TCVN4054, 2005) and specifications for these materials
are presented in table 1 and strength of cement treated sand in table 2.

285
 Figure 1: Diagram of pavement structure and foundation layers (22TCN211, 2006)

Table 1: The physical and mechanical requirements of macadammaterials (22TCN334, 2006)

Type of macadam Experimental
No. Properties
Type I Type II methods
1 Los Angeles abrasion (LA), % ≤35 ≤40 22TCN 318:04
2 CBR at compaction index K98, immersed 96h, % ≥100 N/A 22TCN 332:06
3 Liquid index (Wt), % ≤25 ≤35 AASHTO T89:02
4 The Plasticity index (Ip), % ≤6 ≤6 AASHTO T90:02
5 The PP index = Ip x Passing percent of 0,075mm ≤45 ≤60
6 Elongation and flakiness index, % ≤15 ≤15 TCVN 7572: 06
7 Compaction index (Kyc), % ≥98 ≥98 22TCN 333:06

Table 2: Required strength of cement treated sand (22TCN246, 1998)

Strength demand at 28 days (Mpa)
Position of cement treated structures
Compressive strength Splitting tensile strength
The upper layer of the high performance
pavement and surface layers with bitumious 3.0 0.35
laminatation.
The lower base layer of the high performance
2.0 0.25
pavement structures.
In other cases 1.0 0.12

In this research, an experimental investigation has been immplemented to examine the possibility of
using CDW for road-base, subbase layer without cement or cement treated. The characteristics of base or
subbase layers such as maximum dry density, optimum water content, compressive strength, splitting
strength, etc have been tested in laboratory conditions.

2 MATERIALS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2.1 Materials
CDW is heterogeneous, the quality is also very different because they have been collected from various
sources. Components of CDW usually contains fragments of concrete structures, reinforced concrete, ma-

286
sonry structures with brick, ceramic tiles, glass, ... In this study, CDW samples were collected at various
positions in the demolition site of the Southern hotel located at No 2 nd Ton That Tung street, Hanoi city,
Vietnam.

Table 3: Sources and main components of CDW samples

Label Sources of Demolition
Major composition of CDW Contaminants
of sample CDWs methods
RAC Concrete and Drilling, cutting Debris of cement concrete, Small steel wire reinforced,
concrete and beating cement and lime mortar nylon canvas
reinforcement
RMA Masonry struc- Chiseling Debris of hollow brick, Little clay, plaster, paper,
ture and beating ceramic tile, lime-cement plastic and wood
mortar and concrete

Concrete

Contaminants: steel
wire, wood, nylon
Masonry canvas, clay, etc.
structure:
brick,
mortar,
ceramic
tile, etc.

a) b)

Figure 2. CDW samples from concrete structures (a) and masonry structures (b)

Both CDWs were crushed to a size of less than 40mm. There are two types of recycled aggregates
(RAs) from two different sources, RA from masonry debris called recycled masonry aggregate (RMA),
and RA from concrete or concrete reinforcement structures called recycled concrete aggregate (RCA). A
control aggregate is comprised a natural coarse aggregate (NCA) that is crushed stone 1x2 from Phu Ly
quarry and a natural fine aggregate (NFA) from Lo River.

2.2 Research Methodology

The fundamental properties of NAs and RAs are determined by the Vietnamese standards TCVN 7572:
2006 (TCVN7572, 2006) and TCVN 4198: 1995 (TCVN4198, 1995).
Maximum dry density and optimum moisture content are determined using the standards for transpor-
tation 22TCN 333: 2006 (22TCN333, 2006). Natural coarse aggregate and RAs mixture using compac-
tion method I-D (mould with 152.4mm diameter, 2.5kg compacted hammer and 305mm height, number
of compaction: 56 pcs/layer x 3 layers). Natural sand and RAs sand treated cement mixtures used com-
paction method I-A (mould with 101.6mm diameter, 2.5kg compacted hammer and 305mm height, num-
ber of compaction: 25 pcs / layer x 3 layers).
Vibrating compacted density is determined in the following procedure: Place the mixed material in a
cylindrical tank (DxH = 240x200 mm) with 2 layers, each half of the height. During vibration of the sec-
ond layer, the material is fulfilled. The vibration table has a frequency vibration of 2800-3000 rounds per
minnute and an amplitude of 0.5mm oscillation.
The compressive strength and splitting tensile strength are determined using the standard for transpor-
tation 22TCN 73: 1984 (22TCN73, 1984). Cement treated sand is made in a cylindrical steel mould with
dxh=100x200 mm by I-A compaction method, the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength are
determined after 28 days curing in lab air (temperature of 20-250C, relative humidity of 60-80%).

287
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Properties of Natural aggregates and Recycled agregates

The properties of NAs and RAs are shown in Table 4.

Table 4: The basic properties of natural aggregate and RAs

No. Properties Unit NCA RCA RMA NFA

1 Specific gravity g/cm3 2.700 2.628 2.564 2.620
3
2 Bulk specific density kg/m 1410 1241 1097 1460
3 Water absorption Mass percent 0.53 8.6 17.3 1.6
4 Elongation and flakiness index Mass percent 12.9 14.2 13.6 -
5 Content of dust, mud and clay Mass percent 0.50 1.30 2.74 1.2
6 Crushing value of coarse Aggregate (CVA) Mass percent 13.2 17.8 25.4 -
7 Los Angeles abrasion Mass percent 28.7 38.1 44.2 -
Passing Percent, %

Sieve size, Requirements of 22TCN 334:06,

mm with Dmax=25 (22TCN334, 2006) NCA RCA RMA NFA
Min Max
37.5 100 100 100 100 100 100
Particle size 25 79 90 96.2 89.8 91.5 100
8
distribution* 76.6 79.5 100
19 67 83 69.9
9.5 49 64 13.5 55.4 58.2 100
4.75 34 54 2.9 39.8 40.6 98.6
2.36 25 40 0 26.4 32.3 91.8
0.425 12 24 0 18.0 28.3 18.7
0.075 2 12 0 11.9 23.6 5.9
* Particle size distribution is determined following the TCVN 4198: 1995 (TCVN4198, 1995)

Figure 3. Particle size distribution of natural aggregate and RAs

- From Table 4, we found that: Elongation and flakiness index of RCA are similar to the ones of NCA,
whilst the one of RMA is 5.7% higher. CVA of both RAs is also higher than that of NCA, specially

288
 CVA of RMA is nearly 2 times higher than NCA’s. This is due to RMA containing more soft particles
from brick and mortar than NCA.
- The Los Angeles abrasion of both RAs are over 40% and higher than that of NCA and these values are
higher than the requirements in standard 22TCN 334: 06 (22TCN334, 2006).
- Water absorption of both RAs is higher than that of the natural aggregates, this suggests that RAs can
be used appropriatly for wet road base layers.
Cement PCB30 Hoang Thach, available on the Vietnamese market, was used in this research to inves-
tigate the possibility of RAs used for road foundation layers reinforced with cement. The properties of
cement meets the requirement s of TCVN 6260: 1997 (TCVN6260, 2009).

3.2 Largest volume of dry weight and optimum moisture

From CDW derived (RMA, RCA), the dry density (γ0k) and water content (w) were measured by a proc-
tor test complied withstandard 22TCN 333-2006 (22TCN333, 2006), all results are shown in Figure 4.
From the relation between dry density and water content of RAs as well as NAs, the optimum moisture
and maximum dry density were also determined.

Figure 4: Relations between dry density and water content of RAs and NAs

- In Figure 4, maximum dry density of RCA is 2089 kg/m3 is similar to that of NCA (2253 kg/m3) but
the ones of RMA and NFA are lower (only 1749 kg/m3 and 1854 kg/m3). This may be due to the RCA
contained particles of natural stone aggregate that has greater density than NFA. And during compac-
tion, the mortar in concrete and masonry was probable broken, resulted in increase of the density.
RMA has composition of brick and mortar debris which is lighter than NAs, this may decrease the
maximum dry density of RMA to the smallest.
- Optimal moisture of RAs are greater than that of natural materials (from 3 to 5% higher). This suggests
that there are a lots of porosities in RAs which could absorb much more water than the natural materi-
als. This supports to the ability of using RAs for wet road layers with a fast draining capability for the
surface layer.

3.3 Effects of vibration time and RAs mixture ratio to compacted density of road foundation layer
To determine the compact-ability by vibration and the optimum ratio of RAs fraction to maximize
density. RAs particles larger 5mm and smaller than 5mm at difference ratios were mixed and
tested with various vibration time. The experimental results of two types RAs are shown in Table 5
and Table 6.
From the above Tables, the relationship between compacted density of RAs mixture with vibration
time are depicted in Figure 5 and Figure 6.

289
Table 5. Dry compacted density of RMA mixture with different vibration time
Dry compacted density of RMA mixture at various ratio Optimum ratio be- Maximum
Vibration RMA>5:RMA<5mm, kg/m3 tween dry density,
time, s
100:20 80:20 60:40 40:60 20:80 0:100 RMA>5:RMA<5mm kg/m3
0 1311 1391 1458 1569 1502 1438 36.2: 63.8 1521
30 1356 1558 1692 1770 1715 1529 41.6: 58.4 1752
60 1410 1580 1715 1770 1748 1574 40.6: 59.4 1764
90 1516 1569 1703 1770 1748 1608 39.3: 60.7 1744

Table 6. Dry compacted density of RCA mixture with different vibration time
Dry compacted density of RCA mixture at various ratio Optimum ratio be- Maximum
Vibration RCA>5:RCA<5mm, kg/m3 tween dry density,
time, s
100:20 80:20 60:40 40:60 20:80 0:100 RCA>5:RCA<5mm kg/m3
0s 1383 1458 1544 1592 1626 1513 33.1: 69.9 1593
30s 1580 1793 1904 1893 1849 1726 43.9: 56.1 1915
60s 1614 1782 1927 1949 1844 1675 46.9: 53.1 1939
90s 1636 1793 1871 1837 1815 1681 47.8: 52.2 1869

Figure 5. Relations between compacted density of RMA and vibration time

Figure 6. Relations between compacted density of RCA and vibration time

- In general, increasing the vibration time increased, the compacted density of RAs mixture, especially
at vibration from 0s to60s. Continuously increasing the vibration time up to 90s, RAs compacted den-
sity increased slightly (for RMA) or even decreased (RCA).
- The content of RCA particles above 5 mm of the optimal mixture increased as vibration time in-
creased. However, with RMA mixture, it appeared constant at the value of 40%.

3.4 The maximum compacted density and optimum moisture of RAs sand in cement treeated road base
When using RAs sand treated by cement, the key properties are maximum density and optimum moisture.
Experiments were carired out by proctor tests with the cement content of 5, 10, 15% (by mass). The re-
sults are shown in Table 7.

290
Table 7: Dry density and water content of RAs and control samples treated by cement
Sample of test First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Optimum
w (%) 5.2 6.8 10.0 11.6 13.8 10.2
RMA<5+5% C
γ0k (kg/m )3
1527 1596 1622 1612 1581 1625
w (%) 6.6 7.8 10.3 12.5 14.7 11.9
RMA<5+10% C
γ0k (kg/m )3
1503 1554 1592 1603 1578 1604
w (%) 6.8 8.4 9.7 12.4 16.4 12.3
RMA<5+15% C
γ0k (kg/m )3
1607 1648 1674 1682 1644 1687
w (%) 7.5 9.7 12.5 13.4 16.1 11.6
RCA<5+5% C
γ0k (kg/m )3
1812 1940 2017 1943 1770 1997
w (%) 6.9 9.4 12.4 13.8 15.1 16.7 11.9
RCA <5+10% C
γ0k (kg/m )3
1824 1944 2018 1942 1920 1841 1992
w (%) 8.7 10.6 12.8 14.0 16.6 17.4 13.9
RCA <5+15% C
γ0k (kg/m )3
1712 1906 1974 1996 1935 1857 2000
w (%) 4.1 6.3 7.9 9.6 12.4 8.4
NFA+ 5% C
γ0k (kg/m )3
1710 1864 1936 1978 1721 1955
w (%) 4.6 6.2 8.9 10.4 13.6 9.6
NFA + 10%C
γ0k (kg/m )3
1762 1901 2018 1989 1852 2011
w (%) 4.3 7.2 8.1 10.7 13.4 15.3 11.2
NFA + 15%C
γ0k (kg/m )3
1781 1934 2026 2037 1987 1964 2040

Comparison charts of optimal moisture and maximum dry density of cement treated mixtures are
shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Optimal water content and maximum dry density of RAs sand NFA treated by cement

- The optimum water content of all sand increased as the cement content and the value of the optimal
moisture of both RAs cement treated 1-2.5% higher than that of NFA .
- The maximum dry density of RMA sand is instable, that of RCA increased slowly when cement con-
tent increased. This is not the same rules occurred with natural sand.

3.5 Strength of the roadbed layer using RAs cement treated sand
To determine the bearing capacity of a road structure, two of the key properties are compressive strength
and splitting tensile strength. In this study, the experiments of the compressive strength and the splitting
tensile strength of cement treated sand RAs were implemented after 28 days curing in the air (20 0-250C
temparature and 60-80% relative humidity). The results obtained are shown in Figure 8.

291
 Figure 8. Relations between NFA, RAs sand and cement content

- The compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of RAs sand increased as cement content
increased, this is similar to the rules occurred with natural sand. However, when the cement content
increased from 10% to 15%, the compressive strength increased significally while the splitting tensile
strength increased gradually.
- The compressive strength and the splitting tensile strength of RCA cement treated sand are higher than
that of natural sand, however RMA cement treated sand is lower.
- According to standard 22TCN 246:98 (22TCN246, 1998): RAs sand can be used for lower layer of the
pavement structure when being reinforced with 5.5-7.1% (for RCA sand) or 7.1-10.5% cement (for
RMA sand), comparatively to the cement content of NFA is 5.9-8.1%. When RAs sand used for the
upper layer of the high performance pavement and surface layers with bitumious laminatation, the
cement content needs to be added about 6.2-10.5%, 7.1-10.9% and 10.1-12.8% respectively for RCA
sand, natural sand and RMA sand.

4 CONCLUSIONS

The experimental results lead to draw some conclusions as follows:

 Recycled construction demolition waste from concrete and masonry can be utilised as natural materials
for all subgrade, base and subase layers of road foundation without cement treated.
 When using recycled fine aggregate (RFA) for lower base layer of the high performance pavement
structures, it should be reinforced with 7.5% cement for RFA from concrete debris and 10.5% cement
for RFA from masonry debris.
 When using RFA for upper layer of the high performance pavement structures and the bituminous
pavements, it should be reinforced with 10.5% and 12.5% cement respectively from concrete and ma-
sonry debris.

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank National University of Civil Engineering for supporting this research.

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www.urenco.com.vn [Accessed June 2011].

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 The international Conference on Sustainable Built Environment for Now and the Future. Hanoi, 26 -27 March 2013

Enhancement of flexural toughness for steel fibre reinforced concrete

regarding sustainable development

Le Trung Thanh1, Nguyen

2
Cong Thang22, Tong Ton Kien
3
2
, Nguyen Thi Thang2,
Nguyen Manh Phat , Nguyen Van Tuan , Tran Ba Viet
1
Ministry of Construction, Vietnam
2
National University of Civil Engineering, Hanoi, Vietnam
3
Institute for Building Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam

ABSTRACT: Ordinary concrete can be considered as an unsustainable material because of brittleness and
low flexural toughness. Development of sustainability for concrete by addition of steel fibres to enhance
the flexural toughness was investigated in this research. Three different steel fibres that are Dramix RC-
65/35-BN, Dramix RC-80/60-BN and high strength steel fibres OL 13/0.2 were used in an investigation
to enhance the flexural toughness for three types of concrete which have compressive strength of 30 MPa
(ordinary concrete), 80 MPa (high strength concrete) and 150 MPa (ultra-high strength concrete).
The research results showed that fibres reduced the workability, increased the flexural strength and
negligibly increased the compressive strength. In details, the flexural strength increased 15-24% (addition
of 30 kg/m3 Dramix fibres); 53-60% (addition of 50 kg/m3 Dramix fibres) and 96% (addition of 157
kg/m3 OL fibres) for 30 MPa, 80 MPa and 150 MPa concrete, respectively. More important, the flexural
toughness of concrete using fibres increased tremendously, that could be enhanced over 40 times than that
of concrete without fibres.

1 INTRODUCTION

Concrete structures such as beams, slabs, piles, poles, etc. usually have cracks after hardening or during
working under loads. Cracking results in decrease of the load carrying capacity of concrete and also the
aesthetics. The main causes leading to this cracking problem are attributed for the brittleness nature of
concrete (i.e. weak in tension and flexure) and the shrinkage under the change of temperature and hu-
midity in working environment. A number of solutions for this issue are use of steel mesh, steel rein-
forced bars or pre-stressed steel reinforcement. However, the preparation stage for fabrication of steel
reinforced concrete is not really easy, particularly in thin, complicated-shape structures, due to costs of
time and labour for steel reinforcement. A solution of addition of small fibres into concrete to enhance
the flexural loading capacity and toughness as well as prevention of cracks for concrete structures has
been and being implemented for about 50 years (Balaguru P. N., Shah S. P., 1992; Shah S. P. et al.,
2004; ACI 544.1R, 1996; Concrete Society, 2003; Walraven J. C., 2009; Naaman A. E., Reinhardt H.
W., 2003). In Vietnam, research on steel fibre reinforced concrete has been also carried out since 1990s
(Le T.T, 2001; Nguyen T. B., 2007; Nguyen V. C. at al.., 2007; Tran B. V. et al., 2007), however the
research usually focused on the effect of fibres on two fundamental characteristics of concrete that are
compressive and flexural strengths.
Experts on fibre reinforced concrete agreed that the use of small fibres for preventing cracks and im-
proving load carrying capacity for construction materials were applied in practices by humans for a long
time ago. For example, rice straw was mixed with clay to fabricate bricks and horse’s hairs were added
into mortars. In Vietnam, a significant number of old houses with walls and roofs made by straw fibre

437
reinforced clay can be found in the countryside. Small fibres added into concrete are to prevent cracks
and also to improve the load carrying capacity of concrete even in post-cracking stage by holding broken
concrete parts to continuously carry loads. The bonds between concrete and the surface of fibres play a
crucial role in the load carrying capacity. Depending on type, content of fibres and the quality of concrete
matrix, the capability preventing cracks and the load carrying capacity after being cracked (post-cracking
staged) can be formed in various ways as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Mechanical behaviour of fibre reinforced concrete under tension (Naaman A. E. et al., 2003)
a – 1st Generation of Fibre reinforced concrete; b – 2nd Generation of Fibre reinforced concrete

Fibres used before 1990s are popularly to prevent cracks and to sustain the load carrying capacity of
concrete in the post-cracking stage. This sort of concrete is considered as the 1st generation of fibre rein-
forced concrete. These fibres commonly have the length of 30-65 mm and the diameter of 0.6-1.2 mm.
They can be made by metal or synthetic composite as shown in Figure 2.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. (a) Metal fibres and (b) synthetic fibres
(Cement & Concrete Association of New Zealand, 2009)

438
 Increase of this sort of fibres for enhancement of load carrying capacity for concrete faces difficulties
due to poor workability and fibre balling problem.
In 1990s, the 2nd generation of fibre reinforced concrete was presented with very high performance
shown after the concrete matrix being cracked, in some cases (in flexure) the fibre reinforced concrete can
carry loads that are two to three time higher than the load causing the first cracks (Rossi P., 2001; Le T.
T., 2008). The fibres used for the 2nd generation usually have the length of less than 20 mm and the di-
ameter of less than 0.3 mm. Reduction of the size of fibres helps increase the content of fibres used for
the concrete. Small aggregates only (less than 0.6 mm) and high content of cement and silica fume form a
homogenous concrete matrix to help improve significantly the bond of concrete matrix with fibres.
Regarding the performance of fibre reinforced concrete, besides the common properties of a concrete,
i.e. density, compressive and flexural strength, “flexural toughness” is a key property to evaluate the per-
formance of this kind of concrete. This property is measured by the area under the curve of flexural stress
vs. deflection (up to the deflection of 1/150 loading span) determined in test of beam specimens (JSCE,
1984). Experiments were carried out in this research to find the ways of enhancing the flexural toughness
for fibre reinforced concrete.

2 MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

2.1 Materials
Cementitious materials used in this research included PC40 Portland cement, silica fume and ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS). Medium sand and 5-20 mm gravel were used as aggregates for or-
dinary strength concrete M30 and high strength concrete M80. For ultra high strength concrete M150,
fine quartz sand (600 μm size) was used as the aggregate only. Polycarboxylate based superplasticiser
was used as the chemical admixture.
Three types of steel fibres were used in this research: OL 13/0.2, RC-65/35-BN and RC-80/60-BN.
The characteristics of fibres are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Characteristics of steel fibres

Type of steel fibres
Characteristics RC -80/60-BN RC-65/35-BN
OL 13/0.2
(Long fibre-SD) (Short fibre-SN)
Fibre shape Straight Hooked Hooked
Cross section Circular Circular Circular
Length (mm) 13 60 35
Diameter (mm) 0.2 0.75 0.55
Length/Diameter (l/d) 65 80 65
2
Tensile strength (N/mm ) 2750 1050 1345

2.2 Experimental procedure

The workability of ordinary concrete M30 and high strength concrete M80 was measured using slump
tests complied with Vietnamese standard TCVN 3106-1993, whilst the workability of ultra-high strength
concrete M150 was measured using flow table tests complied with British standard BS 4551-1:1998.
The density of concrete was measured using Vietnamese standard TCVN 3115-1993.
Measurement of the compressive strength of concrete followed Vietnamese standard TCVN 3118-
1995. The compressive strength of concrete M30 and M80 was measured using 150 mm cubes, whilst the
compressive strength of concrete M150 was measured using 100 mm cubes.
The flexural strength and the flexural toughness of concrete were measured using Japanese standard
JSCE-SF4 (JSCE, 1984). 150x150x600 mm beam specimens were used in the tests of concrete M30 and
M80; whilst 100×100×400 mm ones were used in the tests of concrete M150.

439
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Mix proportions

In this research, three types of concrete without fibre were used as the control ones. They included an or-
dinary concrete 30 MPa (M30), a high strength concrete 80 MPa (M80) and an ultra-high strength con-
crete 150 MPa (M150). Fibres with various dosages were then added to investigate the fresh and hardened
properties of concrete. The mix proportions of all types of concrete are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Mix proportions

Concrete composition, kg/m3
Concrete Grade

Admixture
Name of mix Type of Fibre
Cement

Gravel
GGBS

Water
Fibre
Sand
SF

M30-ĐC 267 805 1190 189 Without fibres

M30-30SD 267 805 1190 30 189 RC-80/60-BN
30 M30-50SD 267 805 1190 50 189 RC-80/60-BN
M30-30SN 267 805 1190 30 189 RC-65/35-BN
M30-50SN 267 805 1190 50 189 RC-65/35-BN
M80-ĐC 580 58 644 976 6.7 171 Without fibres
M80-30SD 580 58 644 976 30 6.7 171 RC-80/60-BN
80 M80-50SD 580 58 644 976 50 6.7 171 RC-80/60-BN
M80-30SN 580 58 644 976 30 6.7 171 RC-65/35-BN
M80-50SN 580 58 644 976 50 6.7 171 RC-65/35-BN
M150 800 228 114 1142 42 165 Without fibres
150 M150-78,5OL 792 226 113 1131 78.5 41.5 163 OL 13/0.2
M150-157OL 784 223 112 1120 157 40.8 161 OL 13/0.2

3.2 Workability
The experimental results showed that increasing fibre content reduced the workability of all types of con-
crete. With the same fibre content, long fibres made the workability of M30 and M80 worse. Concrete
mix M150 without fibre had a flow diameter of 175 mm, addition of 78,5 kg/m3 and 157 kg/m3 (equal to
1% and 2% by volume) OL 13/0.2 fibres reduced the flow diameter to 160 mm and 146 mm, respectively.
This means that the workability of M150 mix with 2% fibre volume was equal to 83% of the workability
of control concrete mix M150.

3.3 Density
The densities of concrete M30, M80 and M150 were in the range of 2.440-2.460, 2.490-2.520 and 2.390-
2.450 kg/m3, respectively. Addition of fibres appeared to increase the density but negligibility.

3.4 Compressive strength

Generally, fibres did not increase the compressive strength significantly. The compressive strength of
concrete M30, M80 and M150 measured at 28 day age were 31, 82 and 159 MPa, respectively.

3.5 Flexural strength

The results of flexural strength are presented in Figure 3. Generally, fibres increased the flexural strength
of concrete. The higher the compressive strength of concrete matrix was the higher the flexural strength
gained. The quality of concrete matrix appeared to influence the flexural strength.

440
 Figure 3 Influence of type and content of fibres on the flexural strength

For series concrete M30, the flexural strength of control concrete M30 was 2.4 MPa. The addition of
30 and 50 kg/m3 fibres increased 15 – 24% and 89 – 124%, respectively, for the flexural strength.
For series concrete M80, fibres also increased the flexural strength, from 6.4 MPa (control concrete
M80 without fibre) to 8.1-8.7 MPa (i.e. 26-37%) and 9.8-10.2 MPa (i.e. 53-60%) when 30 kg/m3 and 50
kg/m3 fibres, respectively, were added.
The control concrete matrix M150 with very fine aggregate only in the composition and very high
compressive strength appeared to have good bonds between concrete matrix and fibres’ surface, thus
helped enhance significantly the flexural strength. The control one had a 17.1 MPa flexural strength. Ad-
dition of 78.5 kg/m3 fibres increased 29% the flexural strength (i.e. 22 MPa), whilst 157 kg/m3 fibres
added into the concrete increased up to 96% the flexural strength (i.e. 33.5 MPa).

3.6 Flexural toughness

The flexural toughness of all types of fibre reinforced concrete was measured using the area under the
flexural stress-deflection curve (up to the deflection of 3 mm). The results showed that the flexural tough-
ness of fibre reinforced concrete was enhanced significantly in comparison with the control concrete
without fibres. This can be appreciated when observing the graphs of flexural stress-deflection curves, for
example, the one of series concrete M80 presented in Figure 4. The area under the curve of control con-
crete M80 is small, whilst the areas under the curves of fibre reinforced concrete are very large.

Figure 4. The relation between flexural stress and deflection of series concrete M80

441
 For series concrete M30, the flexural toughness of control concrete M30 had only 286 J/m2. The flex-
ural toughness increased to 7,218 – 7,734 J/m2 when 30 kg/m3 fibres added and increased to 11,839 –
13,389 J/m2 when 50 kg/m3 added.
For series concrete M80, the flexural toughness of control concrete M80 had only 855 J/m2, the addi-
tion of 30 kg/m3 and 50 kg/m3 fibres into the concrete increased the flexural toughness up to 11,496 –
16,647 J/m2 and 20,604 – 21,646 J/m2, respectively.
For series concrete M150, the flexural toughness of fibre reinforced concrete M150 increased up to
68,514 J/m2 when 157 kg/m3 fibres were added and increased up to 60,595 J/m2 when 78.5 kg/m3 fibres
were added, whilst the control one M150 had only 1,583 J/m2 flexural toughness. This means that the
flexural toughness of concrete M150 using 157 kg/m3 and 78.5 kg/m3 fibres increased over 43 times and
38 times, respectively, compared with that of control concrete M150 without fibres.
The influence of type and content of fibres on the flexural toughness of concrete M30, M80 and M150
is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Influence of type and content of fibres on the flexural toughness

4 CONCLUSIONS

The results of this investigation lead to some concluding remarks below:

• The workability appeared to get worse when fibres were added into the fresh concrete mixes. With the
same type of fibres added into a control concrete, increasing content of fibres reduced the workability
and the longer fibres the worse workability.
• The density and compressive strength of all types of fibre reinforced concrete gained a negligible
increase when fibres were added.
• The flexural strength increased significantly when fibres were added, for example, increased 15-24%
for the concrete M30 with 30 kg/m3 fibres; 53-60% for the concrete M80 with 50 kg/m3 and up to 96%
for the concrete M150 with 157 kg/m3 fibres.
• Tremendous enhancement was found with the flexural toughness of all types of fibre reinforced
concrete. For example, from 286 J/m2 (M30 without fibres) increased to 13,389 J/m2 (M30 with 50
kg/m3 fibres); from 855 J/m2 (M80 without fibres) increased to 21,646 J/m2 (M150 with 50 kg/m3
fibres); and from 1,583 J/m2 (M150 without fibres) increased to 68,514 J/m2 (M150 with 157 kg/m3
fibres). For improving the flexural toughness, the following principles might need to be applied:
minisation of aggregate’s size and increase of the strength of concrete matrix (reducing water-binder
ratio) to improve the bonds between concrete matrix and fibres’ surface; fibres’ size should be reduced
in order to increase content of fibres whilts still keep a good workability; and high strength steel fibres
should be used. The enhancement of flexural toughness for concrete also means that the sustainability
of the concrete is developed.

442
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank National University of Civil Engineering in Vietnam for financial
support, IPECO company for supplying the steel fibres and students Le Trong, Giang Thi Phuong, Mai
Thanh Tuan, Hoang Ngoc Hung and Nguyen Van Thuy for assistance of laboratory works.

6 REFERENCES

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Tran B. V., et al. (2008), Development of high performance concrete using artificial fibres for works in
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443
 National University of Civil Engineering,Vietnam
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Loughborough University, UK
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Ministry of Construction, Vietnam

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