History of Assam Till 16th Century

BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONS) (HISTORY)
FOUR YEAR UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMME
(CBCS and Accordance with NEP 2020)
HISTORY OF ASSAM UPTO THE 16TH CENTURY C.E
Block-1
(Discipline Specific Core Course/Discipline Specific Minor

Course)
SEMESTER-IV
Surya Kumar Bhuyan School of Social Sciences

KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY
History of Assam up to the 16th century A.D.(Block 1) 1
Subject Experts
1. Prof. Paromita Das, Gauhati University

2. Prof. Rajiv Handique, Gauhati University
3. Dr. Bornali Sarmah, Cotton University
Course Coordinator : Dr. Priti Salila Rajkhowa, Asst. Prof. (KKHSOU)
SLM Preparation Team
UNITS CONTRIBUTORS
1,2,3,4 Muktar Rahman Saikia, St. John College Dimapur, Nagaland

5 Dr. Mridutpal Goswami, Dudhnoi College
6& 7 Dr. Mamoni Sarma, LCB College
Editorial Team
Content (English Version) : Prof. Paromita Das, Deptt. of History, GU
Language (English Version) : Rabin Goswami, Retd. Professor, Deptt. of English,
Cotton College
Structure, Format & Graphics : Dr. Priti Salila Rajkhowa, KKHSOU
March, 2023
© Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University

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is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0
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2 History of Assam up to the 16th century A.D.(Block 1)

UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMME
HISTORY OF ASSAM UPTO THE 16TH CENTURY CE
DETAILED SYLLABUS
BLOCK - 1
CONTENTS Pages
UNIT 1 : Sources of Ancient Assam 5-16

Literary and Archeological administration
UNIT 2 : Geographical Outline of Assam History 17-24

Original boundaries and Natural Features
UNIT 3 : Cultural Contact and Migration 25-32

Negritos, Austroloids, Mongoloids, Meditaaranean Races, Alpines or
Armenoids, Indo-Aryans
UNIT 4 : Historicity of Naraka and His Sucessors 33-42

Naraka in Puranas, Different stories of Naraka and his Sucessors
UNIT 5 : Ruling Dynasties of Ancient Assam since 4th century 43-57

The Varmanas, The Palas, The Salastambhas
UNIT 6 : Society, Economy and Religion in Ancient Assam 58-73

Society, Economy, Religion
UNIT 7 : Administration in Ancient Assam 74-85

Central and Local Administration, Judicial administration, Revenue
administration, Military administration

COURSE INTRODUCTION
This Course is meant for the Fifth semester learners of History of BA programme under the revised
semester system of Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University. The course is titled History of Assam
upto the 16th century AD. This course discusses the history of ancient and medieval Assam in detail.
There are fifteen units in this course.
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
This is the first block of the course and it consists of seven Units. The Block will highlight the
history of ancient Assam and establishment of the Ahom rule in detail.
The first Unit is the Sources of Ancient Assam. The unit discusses different sources of ancient
Assam.
The second Unit Geographical Outline discusses the original boundaries and natural features of
ancient Assam.
The third Unit Cultural contact and Migration discusses the cultural contact of different races and
migration of people into Assam in the ancient period.
The fourth unit Historicity of Naraka and His Sucessors throws light on historicity of Naraka and
his Sucessors in detail.
The fifth unit Ruling Dynasties of Ancient Assam since 4th century . The unit discusess the
ancient dynasties of ancient Assam- the Varmanas, the Palas and the Salastambhas.
The sixth unit titled Society, Economy and Religion in the Ancient Assam. The unit discusses the
society, economy and religious condition of ancient Assam.
The seventh unit Administration in ancient Assam. The unit deals with the central and local
administration of ancient Assam along with the Judicial, revenue and military administration of ancient
Assam.
While going through this paper, you will notice that some boxes are put in the left hand or right
hand side of the text. These boxes are meant to serve the purpose of in-text glossary for you. Again, you
may find some boxes marked with: “LET US KNOW”. These boxes will provide you with some additional
interesting and relevant information. The boxes marked with “ACTIVITY” will help you in making your
learning more active and efficient. And, at the end of each section, you will get “CHECK YOUR PROGRESS”
questions. These have been designed to self-check your progress of study. It will be better if you solve
the problems put in these boxes immediately after you go through the sections of the units and then
match your answers with “ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS” given at the end of each unit.

UNIT 1: SOURCES OF ANCIENT ASSAM
UNIT STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Sources of Ancient Assam
1.3.1 Literary Sources
1.3.2 Archaeological Sources
1.4 Let Us Sum Up
1.5 Further Reading
1.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.7 Model Questions
1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to

 identify various literary source materials for the study of history of
ancient Assam,
 discuss the archeological sources of ancient Assam.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
Dear learners, this is the first unit of this course. In this unit we are
going to discuss about the sources of ancient Assam . The history of ancient
Assam roughly covers the period from the days of the Epics to the early
part of the 13th century A.D. For studying the history of the ancient period of
Assam, we have to depend upon different types of sources, these are
basically literary and archeological sources. So, in this unit we shall discuss
these sources of ancient Assam in detail.
1.3 SOURCES OF ANCIENT ASSAM
1.3.1 Literary Source
Literary sources are a very important source of information

for the reconstruction of the past. These sources can be further

Unit 1 Sources of Ancient Assam
sub-divided into Indigenous and Foreign literature. We are now going

to discuss both the Indigenous and Foreign Literary sources.
 Indigenous Literature: The Brahmanical works of the early
and later Vedic period are important for the study of the cultural
relations between the Aryans and the Non-Aryans of India with
eastern India. The gradual advance of the Aryans to eastern India is
described in these works. The Satapatha Brahmana records the
progress of the Aryan culture up to the river Sadanira, identified with
the river Karotoya, the permanent western boundary of ancient
Assam. The Aiteraya Brahmana records the progress of that culture
in Kamarupa. The Gopatha Brahmana narrates a tradition regarding
the origin of the name Kamarupa indicating an early contact of the
Aryan and Non-Aryan elements. The Sankhyayana Grihasamgraha
refers to Kamarupa as the land of sunrise.
The Puranas are invaluable for reconstructing the history of
ancient Assam. Most of them like the Garuda, Markandeya,
Naradiya, Brahmana, Skanda, Agni and Vishnu contain references
to ancient Assam and her rulers. The Garuda Purana mentions
Kamarupa and Kamakhya as great centres of pilgrimage. The
Markandeya Purana mentions Pragjyotisha along with Udayachala,
Lauhitya and Kamarupa as countries in the east. The Varaha (Boar)
incarnation of Lord Vishnu, the killing of Naraka and the enthronement
of Bhagadatta in Pragjyotisha are mentioned in Vishnu Purana. The
latest form of Naraka legend is noticed in the Kalika Purana, which
th th
was composed in Assam during the 10 or 11 century A.D. The
Kalika Purana depicts a clear picture about the traditional boundaries
of Pragjyotisha- Kamarupa as well as the importance of Goddess
Kamakhya in the religious life of the people of Assam. The Kalika
Purana is invaluable for a study of the political and cultural history of
ancient Assam.
In addition to the Puranas, the Tantrik-Buddhist literature of
Eastern India, Tibet and Nepal contain materials relating to the
religious and political history of ancient Assam. All of them mention
Sources of Ancient Assam Unit 1
about Kamarupa-Kamakhya and other pithas of Assam. The Hevajra

Tantra of the 8th Century A.D. mentions Kamarupa as one of the
four pithas of India. The Kamarupa-Yatra, a Sanskrit work composed
in Assam, deals with the mode of worship of Kamakhya and records Pithas- Shakti- Shrines
the origin of the names of Pragjyotisha and Kamarupa. The Tikkha-
Kalpa deals with the worship of Tara and the ancient geography of
Kamarupa. The Kamakhya Tantra gives an account of Naraka-
Bhagadatta. The Yogini Tantra discusses the ancient geography of
Kamarupa and the cultural conditions of the people. The Yogini
Tantra also mentions the Koch King Visvasimha. Another tantric
work Haragaurisamvada which gives an account of the early history
of the territories of Kamarupa contains the genealogy of the rulers
of ancient Assam, and an account of the medieval Kamarupa rulers
of the Indra-vamsa (i.e., the Ahom kings). However, the last work
while giving details about mythical rulers fails to discuss actual
historical rulers.
LET US KNOW
Some other Tantrik works containing references

to ancient Assam:
 The Pag Som Zon Zan
 The Kahgyur
 The Tangyur
 The Kamakhya Guhyasiddhi
 The Goraksha-Samhita
 The Kamaratna Tantra
 The Sadhanamala
Epics provide an illuminating picture of the political and social

life of the people in ancient Assam. They are a valuable source of
information about the foundation of Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa. The
Adikanda of the Ramayana records the foundation of the city of
Pragjyotisha by Amurtaraja. The Kiskindhyakanda refers to Naraka’s

city of Pragjyotisha in the Varaha Mountain. The Mahabharata refers

to the city and the country of Pragjyotisha, to its ruler Naraka and
Bhagadatta, and to the Chinas, Kiratas and other people constituting
the army of Bhagadatta, who gallantly fought the Pandavas in the
Mahabharata war.
Sanskrit literature from other parts of India is another
important source for reconstructing the history of ancient Assam.
The Arthasastra of Kautilya refers to many places of Kamarupa like
Suvarnakundya, Paralauhitya, etc in connection with the economic
products of Kamarupa. In Raghuvamsa, Kalidasa refers to both
Pragjyotisha and Kamarupa as lying to the east of the Brahmaputra.
The Harshacharita of Banabhatta provides information about the
political and cultural history of the 7th century Kamarupa. Bilhana’s
Vikramankadevacharita refers to an invasion of Kamarupa by his
patron Chalukya Vikramaditya VI (c.1076-1126). Sandhyakaranandi’s
Ramacharita describes the conquest of Kamarupa by Mayana, the
general of Ramapala (c.1085-1130). Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
contains an account of the marriage between the Kamarupa
princess Amritaprabha and Meghavahana, the king of Kashmir. It
also mentions Lalityaditya’s campaign as far as the Lauhitya.
LET US KNOW
Some other Sanskrit works along with their

authors containing references to ancient Assam:
 The Brihatsamhita by Varahmihir
 The Kavya-mimansa and the Karpuramanjuri by Rajasekhara
 The Abhidhanachintamani by Kshemendra
 The Kathasaritsagara by Somadeva
The Buddhist or Jain literature does not have any definite

mention of Assam. But in the Nikayas we find mention of Lohicca
which is identified as Lauhitya in connection with two Brahmanas
who came to the greater kingdom of Magadha. The Buddhist literature

of Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan associates ancient Assam with the

Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha, which is said to have taken place
at modern Hajo. But the tradition is yet to be corroborated by any
historical evidence.
Although there was no pure historical literature in Assam in
the ancient period, yet there were Chronicles having history of the
land. Reference has been made to the Kalika Purana, Yogini Tantra
and Haragaurisamvada. There is the Haragaurivilasa which gives
the ancient geography of the land. The genealogy of the rulers of
the Dimarua family is also found in the Haragaurivilasa and the
Bhuyar Puthi. Besides, the old manuscripts written in Sanskrit and
Assamese cover political and cultural subjects, and supply materials
not found in other historical sources.
 Foreign Literature: Foreign sources are also equally important
like the indigenous sources. The foreigners who travelled from one
country to another and left an account of political, social, religious
and cultural aspects of the country which help us a lot to know about
the history of the country.
Among the works of foreign literature, there is a reference
to the land of the primitive Kirata people, probably including Assam
in the Greek works of the early centuries of the Christian era. But it
is difficult to identify the places and peoples mentioned in them.
Herodotus mentions the Kalatiai along with Gangaridae and Prasioi
of Assam. It is possible that due to their predominance, some part
of Kamrupa was known as the land of Kalitas. Probably ancient
Assam was known to them by other names or included in the
kingdom of the Prasioi and the Gangaridae. Megasthenes and Strabo
refer to the Derdai of the east, who were noted for their working in
gold. It is probable that the reference is to some hill people of this
region. Pliny in his Natural History refers to a number of people of
the frontier and trans-Himalayan regions, who can be identified with
some Tibeto-Burman tribes of Assam. In the Periplus of the Erythrean
Sea and Ptolemy’s Geography we find references to people and
places which may possibly be identified as being located in ancient

Assam.
The Chinese works were another important source. The
accounts of Chang Kien of the 2nd century B.C. mention the existence
of commercial and cultural contacts between ancient Assam and
China from very early times. The accounts of the Shung Shu (c.420-
479 A.D.) record the sending of two embassies from India to China,
of which, one was sent by Yu-Chai of the Kapili valley. Yu-Chai is
identified with King Kalyanavarman (c.420-440A.D.) of the Varman
dynasty ruling in ancient Assam. I-Tsing in his account refers to
King Devavarma of Eastern India who held sway over the Nalanda
region. This Devavarma has been identified with King Avantivarman,
who may have been a successor of Bhaskaravarman. The most
important Chinese source was Si-Yu-Ki written by Chinese pilgrim
Hiuen-Tsang, who visited India during the period 629-45 A.D. It gives
us an account of Hiuen-Tsang’s visit to Kamarupa and stay at the
court of king Bhaskaravarman providing information of the political,
social and religious life of the people of Assam. Another Chinese
work New History of the Tang Dynasty gives us information about
the relation between Kamarupa king Bhaskaravarman and the
Chinese mission of 648 A.D. The Chinese sources in short are
valuable for our period.
The writings of the Muslim scholars are important for the
geography of Assam. Among the Arabic and Persian works the
earliest one to mention about Kamarupa was a book written by the
Arab merchant Sulaiman in 851 A.D. but completed by Abu Zayd in
916 A.D. Another work was Hudud-ul-Alam composed by the
unknown author in 982 A.D. Alberuni’s Arabic work entitled Tarikhul-
Hind written about 1030 A.D. mentions that Kamrupa lies to the
east of Kannauj. The Persian work Tabaqat-i-Nasiri of Minhajuddin
Siraj gives information about Muhammad-i- Bakhtiyar’s expedition
against Tibet through Kamarupa and the destruction of the major
part of his army in Assam near Guwahati.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Fill in the blanks:

Q.1: Yogini Tantra mentions about Koch King
……………
Q.2: The genealogy of the rulers of the Dimarua family is found
in ……………………. and …………………. .
Q.3: Among the Chinese works …………………….. was most
important.
Like the literary sources, the Archaeological remains too are

an important source for reconstructing the history of ancient Assam.
Archaeological sources can be studied under three heads, namely:
1. Inscriptions or Epigraphy
2. Coins or Numismatics
3. Material Remains
1. Inscriptions
Inscriptions are writings engraved on copper plates and
rocks and impressed on clay seals. The king issued inscriptions for
different purposes such as donation of lands, to commemorate
achievements along with ideals and also to record diplomatic
relations with contemporary powers. No genuine history of ancient
Assam can be written without the epigraphic evidences which are
reliable to a great extent. Hence, as historical sources inscriptions
have great significance. They give us lots of information regarding
the political, social, administrative, diplomatic relations and religious
conditions of a particular period. They also provide information about
the power, policies and achievements of the king and other officials.
The local epigraphs or inscriptions of Assam are found in
many numbers. They are engraved on copper plates, stone tablets,
rocks, pillars, outer parts of caves, temples and other buildings.
They are also impressed on clay seals. Their language is Sanskrit

and the scripts are Devanagari and north Indian Brahmi. They are
composed in verse or prose or a mixture of the two. Most of them
bear no date, and only a single inscription is dated in the Gupta era
and three in the Saka era.
More than fifty inscriptions belonging to the early period have
so far been discovered. The Tezpur Rock Inscription of king
Harjaravarman is the earliest known dated inscription of ancient
Assam. It is dated 510 of the Gupta era corresponding to 829 A.D.
Most of these inscriptions are copper plate grants in which the
genealogy of the king, who issued the charter, is found in accordance
with an old practice. Among this the Umachal Rock Inscription,
Barganga Rock Inscription, Doobi Copper Plates, Nidhanpur Copper
Plates and Nalanda Clay Seals provide information about the
Varman dynasty. For the history of the Salastambhas, we have the
Tezpur Rock Inscription, Hayungthal Copper Plate, Tezpur Copper
Plate, Parbatiya Copper Plates, Howraghat Copper Plates, Nagaon
Copper Plates and Ulubari Copper Plates. The history of the Pala
dynasty can be known from the Caratbari Copper Plates, Bargaon
Copper Plates, Soalkuchi Copper Plates, Guwahati Copper Plates,
Guakuchi Copper Plates, Gachtal Copper Plates, Khonamukh
Copper Plates, Subhankarapataka Copper Plates and
Pushpabhadra Copper Plates.
Apart from these dynastic inscriptions, there are some other
local inscriptions providing information about ancient Assam. The
Kamauli grant of Vaidyadeva (c.1126-1140A.D.) found at Varanasi
records the victory of Mayana, the general of the Gauda ruler
Ramapala, over the king of Kamarupa and Vaidyadeva’s conquest
of the western part of the kingdom of Kamarupa. The Assam Plates
of Vallabhadeva (c.1180-1200 A.D.) give the names of three kings
who were probably the successors of Vaidyadeva. The Kanai Barasi
Bowa Rock Inscription dated 1205 A.D. records the destruction of
the Turkish army while invading Kamarupa.

Some contemporary inscriptions from other parts of India

too contain information on the history of early Assam. In the Allahabad
Prasasti of Samudragupta the name of Kamarupa occurs as a
frontier kingdom, whose king owed allegiance to king Samudragupta
of his own accord. The Mandasore Inscription of Yasodharman
mentions Yasodharman’s invasion upto the neighbourhood of the
Lauhitya. The Aphsad Inscription of Adityasena refers to the conflict
between Mahasenagupta and Susthitavarman (c.585-593 A.D.), the
king of Kamarupa. The Pasupati Temple Inscription at Kathmandu
gives information about Nepal king Jayadeva Parachakrakama, who
married Rajyamati, the daughter of king Harshadeva of Bhagadatta’s
family. The Bhagalpur grant of Narayanapala of Gauda refers to
diplomatic relations between Pragjyotisha, Gauda and Orissa during
the reign of Devapala. The Belava grant of Bhojavarman records a
conflict between Jatavarman of Bengal and a ruler of Kamarupa.
The Silimpur Stone Inscription of a Brahmana named Prahasa
records that the Kamarupa king Jayapala offered 900 gold coins
equal to his own body weight to the Brahmana along with other
gifts.
2. Coins
Numismatic evidence is one of the most reliable sources
for the study of the early history of any land, especially when the
coins help us in determining the chronology of a dynasty. But
unfortunately very few coins of the early period have so far been
discovered. This is no doubt about one of the reasons why we have
faced a great difficulty in determining the chronology of the rulers of
the period. There is hardly any dynasty in ancient India which did
not issue coins of its own, and it is therefore, reasonable to suppose
that the rulers of Kamarupa also minted coins of their own.
Among coins of pre-Ahom times found in Assam so far, there
are certain gold issues of the type called Imitation Gupta, found in a
hoard discovered at Paglatek, in the south bank of Brahmaputra.
The same types of coins are also found in Bangladesh and Tripura
which gives information of Assam-Bengal trade relationship. Some

Copper coins discovered in Dhulapadung Tea Estate near Tezpur
are roughly round in shape and of varying weight. These coins have
a blank reverse and a single letter ‘Va’, ‘Ha’ and ‘Ba’ on the obverse.
It is probable that ‘Va’ indicates the name of Vanamalavarman and
‘Ba’ (Ba) Balavarman and ‘Ha’ indicates Harjaravarman. The Silimpur
Stone Inscription of Prahasa records a tulapurush gift along with
900 gold coins of Jayapala, who is generally identified with the last
member of the Pala line of kings of ancient Assam. However, the
Ambari stone Inscription found at Guwahati issued at a later date
records the name of Samudrapala.
3. Material Remains
The remains of the undated history of ancient Assam consist
of neoliths, megaliths and pottery which help us in studying the pre-
Aryan and non-Aryan elements in Assam. Old monuments in
th th
between the period 5 to the 12 Century A.D. are found scattered
throughout the land. These consist of remains of architecture and
fortifications, sculptured designs and icons of various deities. As a
subject of historical study, they are useful not only for their artistic
value but also for the light they throw on the religious conditions of
the people. The temples and images of the various deities of different
faiths supply us with information about the state of social and religious
life of the people.
Some of the prominent monuments are the door frames
found at Dah-Parvatia, remains of a gigantic Sun temple at Tezpur,
Buddhist, Saivate, Shakti and Vaisnavite shrines lying scattered
throughout the state. Only few places have been satisfactorily
excavated. At Dah Parvatiya near Tezpur some early sculptures
and statues were discovered of which some belong to the Gupta
age. A few years back, a good number of remains were unearthed
at Narakasurgaon. Then at Ambari in the city of Guwahati, beautiful
architectural remains of the ancient period came to light along with
an abundance of icons of Mahisamardini Durga, Surya and Indra.
Thus, the ancient architecture and monuments help us a lot

of to understand the evolution of the artistic and cultural development
of our ancestors. These also inform us about different schools of
art, its development and the amount of foreign influence upon it.
ACTIVITY-1.1
Study an inscription located in your locality and write

down a few lines about that inscription.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.4: Match the following:
KINGS INSCRIPTIONS
a) Samudragupta 1) Pasupati Temple Inscription
b) Bhutivarman 2) Aphsad Inscription
c) Jayadeva 3) Allahabad Pillar Inscription
d) Adityasena 4) Barganga Rock Inscription
Q.5: Fill in the blanks:
a) Some …………….. coins were discovered in
Dhulapadung Tea Estate.
b) The remains of a gigantic ……………. temple is found
in Tezpur.
1.4 LET US SUM UP
After going through this unit, you have learnt-

 various literary sources of ancient Assam and their importance in
reconstructing the history of ancient Assam.
 Literary sources are divided into two groups- indegeneous literary
sources and foreign literary sources.
 different categories of archeological sources. These are- Inscriptions,
Coins and other material remains. All these are of different importance
to reconstruct the history of ancient Assam.
1.5 FURTHER READING
1. Barpujari, H. K. (2003): The Comprehenhive History of Assam, Vol-

ume-I, Publication Board, Assam, Guwahati
2. Chaudhury, P.C. (1966): The History of Civilization of the People of
Assam to the 12th century A.D., 2nd edition, Department of Historical
and Antiquarian Studies in Assam, Gauhati
1.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: Visvasimha
Ans to Q No 2: Haragaurivilasa, Bhuyar Puthi
Ans to Q No 3: Si-Yu-Ki
Ans to Q No 4: a) 3, b) 4, c) 1, d) 2
Ans to Q No 5: a) Copper b) Sun
1.7 MODEL QUESTIONS
A) VERY SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question within 50 words)

Q 1: Who authored Raghuvansam?
Q 2: Mention oneTantric work of ancient Kamarupa.
Q 3: Who authored Ntural history?
Q 4: Who authored Si-Yu-Ki ?
B) SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question within 150 words)
Q 1: Briefly discuss the importance of Sanskrit literature in reconstructing
the history of ancient Assam.
Q 2: Write a short note on Muslim literature of ancient Assam.
Q 3: How coins are important to reconstruct the history of ancient Assam?
C) LONG QUESTIONS: (Answer each question within 300-500 words)
Q 1: Discuss the importance of literary sources of ancient Assam.
Q 2: Analyse the importance of archeological sources in reconstructing
the history of ancient Assam.
*** ***** ***
UNIT 2 : GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF ASSAM
HISTORY
UNIT STRUCTURE
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Geographical Outline of Ancient Assam
2.3.1 Assam- Origin of the name
2.3.2 Mountain Routes
2.3.3 Climate
2.3.4 Extent of Pragjyotisha- Kamarupa
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.5 Further Reading
2.7 Model Questions

 describe the mountain routes and climate of ancient Assam
 discuss the extent of Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa.
2.2 INTRODUCTION
As you have already learnt about the different sources of ancient

Assam in your first unit of this course, and on the basis of these sources of
ancient Assam, in this unit we shall discuss the origin of the name Assam,
differnet mountain routes, climate of ancient Assam and the extent of
Pragjyotisha- Kamarupa.
2.3 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF ANCIENT ASSAM
2.3.1 Assam- Origin of the Name
Assam is known by different names in the Epics, Puranas

and early literature. It is mentioned as Pragjyotisha in the Epics, the

Unit 2 Geographical Outline of Assam History
Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Several theories are put forward

regarding the origin of the name Pragjyotisha. According to one
theory, a branch of people called Chao- Theius of China migrated to
India at a very early period. In India, they came to be known as the
Zuhthis and one of their centres was known as Prag-Zuhthis. But
this theory is not supported by sufficient evidence. According to
another theory, the name Pragajyotisha originates from an Austric
phrase Pgar-Juh, meaning a region of extensive hills. Another theory
associates the name with the astronomical importance of the
country. The Kalika Purana mentions that the creator Brahma made
the first calculation of the stars in Pragjyotisha. In his “A History of
Assam”, E. A. Gait says that ‘Prag’ means former or Eastern and
‘Jyotisa’, meaning a star, astrology, shining. Therefore, Pragajyotisha
may be taken to mean the “City of Eastern Astrology” derived from
Prag-Jyotisa. Early literature and inscriptions often refer both to the
land and its capital city as Pragjyotishapura.
Ancient Assam is known for the first time as Kamarupa in
the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta (4th century A.D.)
and in the early Puranas. Hiuen Tsang who visited Kamarupa in the
first half of the 7th century A.D. referred to it as Kamolupo. It is also
opined that the word Kamarupa has been derived from an Austric
formation like Kamru or Kamrut. Banikanta Kakati in The Mother
Goddess Kamakhya states that the word symbolises a new cult,
namely the worship of the mother goddess Kamakhya. He also states
that the word Kamakhya too was derived from an Austric formation
such as Kamoi (demon) in old Khmer, Kamoit (devil) in Cham, Kamet
(corpse) in Khasi, Komui (grave) in Santali.
The word Kamarupa may have been a Sanskritisation of a
non-Sanskrit word. Persian works like the Tabaquat-i-Nasiri and the
Riaz-ul-Salatin, as well as the 19th century Assamese chronicle the
Haragaurisamvada even refer to this land as Kamru or Kamrud.
The territory is called Asham in the Ain-i-Akbari and Asam in the
Padshahnama. The origin of the name Assam is uncertain. According
Geographical Outline of Assam History Unit 2
to Bani kanta Kakati, Asama may be a later Sanskritisation of an

earlier form Acham. In the Tai language Cham refers to the Tai-
Shan people and Acham meant those who were not Tai or Shan.
These groups entered the Brahmaputra Valley in the beginning of
the 13th century A.D. There is another suggestion which states that
the word Assam is derived from a Bodo formation like Ho-Chom
which means low land.
Local legends claim that it was in Assam that the Indian cupid
Kamadeva who was reduced to ashes by the Lord Siva regained
his rupa or form. Hence it was renamed as Kamarupa. The island
of Umananda at Guwahati in the midst of the Brahmaputra is referred
to as Bhasmachal in early literature and is said to be formed of the
ashes or bhasma of the ill-fated Kamadeva.
The early Persian works like the Tabaquat-i-Nasiri and the
Riaz-ul-Salatin have referred to this land as Kamru or Kamrud. The
territory is called Asham or Asam in the later Persian works like Ain-
i-Akbari and the Padshahnama. In the Fathiya-i-Ibbriyah, the term
Asham or Asam occurs. Tavernier took it as Asam. When the term
was used in Persian sources, it referred to the people of the Ahom
kingdom only and not the territory of modern Assam. Assam is
apparently the English form of Asam.
2.3.2 Mountain Routes
Assam may be broadly divided into two physical units’

namely, the North-Eastern and the Central hill tracts and the Valleys
of the Brahmaputra and Barak. The Eastern Himalayas lies in the
North of Assam. The different parts of the sub Himalayan region are
named after the semi Mongoloid tribes who inhabit these hills viz:
the Bhutias, Akas, Dafalas, Mishings, Adis, Mishimis, etc. Assam
was linked to the neighbouring countries by several routes. The Patkai
hill was a natural boundary between Assam and Myanmar. Assam-
Myanmar routes in the East that runs through Cachar-Manipur
helped the migration of the racial elements from South-East Asia.

The Patkai hills route was followed by the Ahoms and other Tibeto-
Burman migrants from the North- East. The hill passes of Tibet,
Nepal and Bhutan were also probably used by certain waves of the
Tibeto-Burmans. The frequent routes in the West were the Valleys
of the Brahmaputra and the Ganges. This is the route through which
the Aryan speakers penetrated into Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa.
LET US KNOW
The physical divisions led to the emergence in

Assam of two distinct ethnic groups namely, the
dwellers of hills and those of the plains. However there had been
a frequent intercourse between the people of the hills and the
plains. The hill men by and large depended on the plains for their
foods and other necessities and the plainsmen provided them
their requirements. Thus, they ensured friendly relations with
their neighbouring hill tribes.
2.3.3 Climate
Lack of materials makes it difficult to reconstruct the climatic

condition of ancient Assam. There is no literary evidence nor any
extensive excavation made so far in Assam to arrive at some
tentative conclusion. We come to know only from Hiuen Tsang that
in the 7th century A.D., the country was low and damp. The Muslim
chronicler Shihabuddin Talish who accompanied Mir Jumla in his
expedition to Assam in 1662 informs that it used to rain in Assam for
eight months in the year. Even the four months of the winter were
not free from rain. Extreme humidity and excessive rainfall are the
peculiarities of the climate of Assam. Assam is covered with
evergreen forests. References from Hiuen-Tsang and the evidence
from the local inscriptions indicate a climate and soil suitable for
growing rice, jackfruit, coconut, sugarcane, mango, cane, bamboo,
and bay leafs.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Answer the following questions:

Q.1: Who authored the book ‘The Mother
Goddess Kamakhya’?
............................................................................................
Q.2: Padshahnama called the territory of Kamarupa
as...............(fill in the blank)
Q.3: ........................ was the natural boundary between Assam
and Myanmar.
2.3.4 Extent of Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa
The modern state of Assam is only a part of the extensive

kingdom of Pragjyotisha or Kamarupa of ancient times. Political
boundaries of the kingdom fluctuated from time to time but there is
no doubt that it’s Northern and South-Western limits extended much
beyond the modern state of Assam.
 Pauranic Account
A good number of ancient scriptures have defined the
boundaries of ancient Assam. According to most of the Puranas,
Kamarupa extended up to the river Karatoya in the West and included
Manipur, Jayantia, Cachar, parts of Maimensing, Sylhet, Rangpur
and portions of Nepal and Bhutan. The Kalika Purana of 9th century
A.D. has mentioned Karatoya as its Western boundary. It also
mentions that the kingdom of Kamarupa was triangular in shape,
100 yojanas in length and 30 yojanas in breadth and Devi
Dikkaravasini existed towards its Eastern boundary. The river
Swetaganga was said to have existed bordering the shrine of
Dikkaravasini, identified with her excavated shrine at Sadiya.
The Yogini Tantra of 12th century A.D. (with addition up to
17th century A.D.) states that Kamarupa was divided into Ratnapitha,
Bhadrapitha, Saumarpitha and Kamapitha. It states in brief that the
four boundaries of Kamarupa are Karatoya (West), Dikshu river

(East), Kanjagiri (North) and the Laksa river (South) respectively.

As for the geometric shape of Kamarupa, Yogini Tantra also refers
to it as triangular in shape and also gives the same measurement
to the kingdom of Kamarupa as stated in the Kalika Purana with
slight variation in its expression only. The Haragaurisamvada also
divides Kamarupa into four pithas marked by river boundaries. It
states that Ratnapitha was between the river Karatoya and the
Swarnakosha, Kamapitha was between the Swarnakosha and the
Kapila, Swarnapitha was between the river Puspika and Bhairavi,
and Saumarpitha was in between the river Bhairavi and the Dikrang.
Ramayana and Mahabharata
The references in the Epics indicate that the country
stretched as far as the sea and that it was partly a hilly country. The
Ramayana locates the city of Pragjyotisha on a gold-crested
mountain called Varaha which stood on the fathomless Varunalaya.
The Mahabharata calls Bhagadatta, the king of Pragajyotisha as
Sailalaya (dwelling among the mountain), Parvatapati (lord of the
mountain) Purvasagaravasi (inhabitant of the Eastern sea) and
refers to his troops as consisting of the Chinas, the Kiratas and the
dwellers of the sea coast. The Varaha mountain was the Assam
range. The sea was the Lauhitya (Lohit) Sagara. The Kiratas meant
the Mongoloid people and the Chinas probably meant the Bhutanese
and the Tibetans.
Accounts of Hiuen-Tsang
Hiuen-Tsang, the eminent Chinese scholar visited Assam
during the reign of king Bhaskaravarman in 638 A.D. He states that
the kingdom was more than a myriad li or 1667 miles in circuit. He
travelled from Pun-Na=Fa-Tan-Na (Pundravardhana) on the east
more than 900 li or 150 miles then crossed a river Ka-lo-tu (Karatoya).
In his records, he mentioned that to the East of Kamarupa, the country
is a series of hills and hillocks without any principal city and one can
reach the South-West barbarians (of China). He also describes
Kamarupa as being 1600 li to the West of upper Burma beyond the
black mountains. It was situated in Eastern India, 600 li to the South-

East of Pundravardhana with river Ka-lo-tu between the two
countries. Thus, it appears that the kingdom of Pragjyotisha-
Kamarupa covered the major portion of Eastern India.
ACTIVITY – 2.1
Locate the rivers and hills in the map of ancient

Assam.
a. Patkai b. Barak c. Karatoya
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.4: Into how many divisions Kamarupa was
divided according to Haragourisamvada?
...........................................................................................
Q.5: Huen Tsang visited Assam in .....................(fill in the blank)
2.4 FURTHER READING
1. Barpujari, H.K. (2003): The Comprehensive History of Assam

(Volume- I) Publication Board, Assam, Guwahati
2. Choudhury, P.C.: The History of Civilization of the People of Assam
to the 12thcentury A. D.

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: Dr. Bani Kanta Kakati

Ans to Q No 2: Asam
Ans to Q No 3: Patkai hill
Ans to Q No 4: Four
Ans to Q No 5: 638 A.D.

2.6 MODEL QUESTIONS
A) Very Short Questions (Answer each and every question within 50

Words)
Q 1: What does Klika Purana speak about the name Pragjyotisa?
Q 2: Name the earliest Inscription that mentions about Kamarupa.
Q 3: Ain-i-Akbari called the territory of Kamarupa as...............(fill in the blank)
Q 4: What was the western boundary of ancient Assam?
B) Short Questions (Answer each and every question within 150 words)
Q 1: Write briefly about the account of Hiuen Tsang on ancient Assam.
Q 2: What did the epics speak about the extent of Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa?
Q 3: What did Mir Jumla speak about the climate of Assam?
C) Long Questions (Answer each and every question in between 300-

500 words)
Q 1: Discuss the lorigin of the name ‘Assam’.
Q 2: Discuss the mountain ranges and climate of ancient Assam.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 3: CULTURAL CONTACT AND MIGRATION
UNIT STRUCTURE
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Cultural Contacts and Migration
3.3.1 Negrites
3.3.2 Australoids
3.3.3 Mongoloids
3.3.4 Alpines or Armenoids
3.3.5 Indo-Aryans
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
3.5 Further Reading
3.7 Model Questions

 discuss about cultural contacts and migration into Assam
 understand different routes and characteristic features of different
groups of people.
3.2 INTRODUCTION
Cultural contacts and migrations are the unavidable parts of any

historical process. Geographically, Assam contains fertile river valleys
surrounded by mountains and hills. It is accessible from Tibet in the north,
accross the Patkai in the Southeast and from Burma accross the Arakan.
In the west both the Brahmaputra Valley and the Barak Valley open widely
to the Gangetic plains. Thus Assam has been populated via all these
accessible points in the past. Now in this unit we are going to discuss
about the cultural contacts and migration of people to this Valley in the
different historical phases.

Unit 3 Culture Contract and Migration
3.3 CULTURAL CONTACTS AND MIGRATION
Since very ancient times Assam saw the migration of nearly all the
principal human races in different waves and periods of history. The Negritos,
the Austroloids, the Mongoloids, and the Alpines, all immigrated to this land
in different times and with their mutual inter-fusion the Assamese culture
evolved.
LET US KNOW
We cannot definitely ascertain the exact date of their

migration. It is generally held that the Mongoloids, called
Kiratas in literature poured into India from 2000 B.C. onwards. The
Negritos and the Austroloids preceded them by two or three millenniums.
Many scholars are of the opinion that a wave of Alpines also came to
Assam and it is held that the Kalitas, a caste- Hindu community of Assam
are Alpine in origin. The Aryan speakers probably migrated to this area
in circa 700 B.C. The modern Assamese are mainly the descendents
of three major linguistic groups, namely the Mon-Khmer speaking
Australoids, the Tibeto- Burman Mongoloids and Indo-Aryan speakers.
3.3.1 Negritos
The Negrito element forms one of the earliest strains in the

population of the hills, particularly among some Nagas. Both
ethnography and material culture of the tribes point to the existence
of such a strain. The original home of the negroids was Africa. From
Africa they entered India via Arabia and the coastland of Baluchistan
and Iran and subsequently spread to different parts of India including
Assam.
B.S. Guha refers to the census of India (1931) where there
were six main races in the population of India namely Negrito, Proto-
Austroloid, Mongoloid, Mediterranean, Western Brachycephal and
Nordic. Of these first three elements i.e. Negrito, Proto-Austroloid
and Mongoloid are found among the tribal population of India. On

Culture Contract and Migration Unit 3
the basis of hair forms and certain elements of material culture,

some scholars including Hutton, Mills and others have pointed to
the existence of a Negrito strain in Assam. According to Mill inhabitants
of the mountains of Assam were almost certainly Negritos. S.K.
Chatterjee writes ‘first we have in pre-historic times the arrival of
the Negritos from Africa traces of them being found as far east as
Assam among the Nagas and remnants of them are found in south
India among a few wild tribes.
3.3.2 Australoids
Australoids deserves careful consideration in the context of

studying ethnic history of Assam. They are characterised by
dolichocephalic head, broad nose which is depressed at the root,
dark brown skin colour and curly hair. They are also known by
different names like pre-Dravidians, Nishada etc. In south India there
are some important tribes belonged to Australoid group. They are
Chenchus of Hyderabad, Kadars of Cochin, Kurumba and Irulla of
Nilgiri, Muthuvan of Travancore etc. The tribes having Australoid
affinities are known in South India as Pre-Dravidians.
At one time this ethnic element was not concentrated only
in south or middle India but also spread to north and north-east
India as well. This is evident from the study of the skeleton remains
unearthed from the pre-historic times. The Australoids were primarily
hunters and gatherers and knew primitive agriculture. They preferred
to live in the hill slopes and forests. They made pottery with the help
of hand. Their main tool was stick. With the help of the stick they
dug earth and practised primitive agriculture.
We cannot say anything definitely about the language spoken
by the Austroloids. According to S.K.Chatterjee ‘the speech-family
known as Austric was associated with the proto-Austroloids and
their descendents.’ The Austric speech-family can be divided into
two main groups — Austro-Asiatic or Mon-Khmer and Austronasian.
In India the Kol and the Mundas of Central India, Nicobaries of the

Nicobar Island and the Khasis of Meghalaya speak the language of

Austro-Asiatic. The Khasi-Synteng speaking the Mon-Khmer speech
is considered as representatives of the Austro Asiatic. Besides the
Khasi Syntengs other tribes of Austro-Asiatic stock are believed to
have migrated to Assam.
The Wanchoos of Arunachal use certain Austric word in their
dialect. Among the various Bodo tribes also there appear certain
Austroloid traits. It is interesting that the Rabhas, Garos and the
Mikirs have dolichocephalic head. According to Flatz the entire area
of Assam, northern Bengal and possibly a part of Nepal were
inhabited in prehistoric times by a contingent of matrilineal Austroloids
tribes. Thus the Austroloids appear to have come first to Assam
and left behind some genetic endowment. They came before the
advent of the Mongoloids who partially or fully absorbed the earliar
Austroloids traits.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Fill in the blanks:

Q.1: The original home of the Negrids
was.....................
Q.2: Australoids preffered to live in the ......................an ................
Q.3: .........................of Meghalay speak the language of Austro-
Asiatic.
Q.4: The tribes of north east are mostly .............................
3.3.3 Mongoloids
The tribes of the north east are predominantly Mongoloid.

The Mongoloid populations entered into region through various routes
in different times. The Mongoloid could be grouped under a broad
heading Tibeto-Burman. Generally they have yellow brown skin
colour and flat wavy coarse head hair. The face is broad.
The original home of these Mongoloid people was the upper
courses of the Yangtse-kiyang and the Hwang-ho in North West
China. Probably from 2000 B.C. onwards some people of this area
migrated towards Assam and hills of Myanmar. The Mongoloid
followed the courses of Brahmaputra, Chindwin, Irrawaddy, Salween,
Mekong and Menam. They used the mountain passes of Assam
and Myanmar through the north east and the south east. Another
branch followed the courses of Teesta, Dharla and Sankosh to north
Bengal. Some of them occupied the hills of Assam and gradually
spread over the whole of the Brahmaputra valley. Most of the tribes
and communities of the Brahmaputra valley like Koches, Kacharis,
Morans, Chutias, Barahis, Rabhas, Tiwas, and Hasongs are of Indo-
Chinese, Tibeto-Burman origin. There was a constant flow of the
Tibeto-Burmans of the Indo-Chinese stock to Assam through the
mountain passes of the south east. The Ahoms were also members
of this family.
3..3.4 Mediterranean Races
After the Austroloid a Mediterranean stock came to India.

Their original home was eastern Mediterranean region. So they are
called the Mediterranean which is a variety of the Caucasoid. Their
head was long and narrow. They had narrow faces and low orbits.
At one time they migrated from eastern Mediterranean region to
south east Asia through India forming a continuous chain. Among
the Indo-Mongoloid we find non-Mongoloid elements which is the
contribution of the ancient Mediterranean. It indicates that a very
early time Mediterranean people migrated to Assam.
3.3.5 Alpines or Armenoids
During the period of the third to second millennium B.C. the

Paleo-Alpines entered India through the north western route. The
Alpine or Armenoid followed the Mediterranean or came almost at
the same time from the west or the north-west. It is not definitely
known at what time the Alpine people entered into Assam. According
to K.L.Barua the Alpines made significant contribution to the culture

and civilization of eastern India prior to the advent of the Vedic Aryans.
According to some scholars the Kalitas of Assam were supposed
to have been of Alpine origin and they had early settlements near
Sadiya. However other reject this view. The Alpine people are
characterized by brachycephalic head with flat occiput, whereas
the Kalitas by and large are mesocephalic. However, admixture of
the Alpines not can be totally ruled out.
3.3.6 Indo-Aryans
The Aryans speakers were the last to migrate into Assam. It

is difficult to ascertain when and how the Aryans entered into Assam.
With the advent of the Aryans or the Indo Aryans a new chapter
opened in the history of Assam. The newcomers possessed a
culture of their own which was different from those of Austroloids
and Mediterranean. Their head was bigger and massive. The colour
of their skin, eye and hair are not dark, but lighter.
According to S.K.Chatterjee Indo-Aryans arrived at North
Bihar by 700 B.C. At different time they moved towards eastward.
Assam had early contacts with the early Aryans. This is proved by
Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsam (4th century A.D), and the 10th century
A.D, Kalika Purana etc. The Doobi and Nidhanpur Copper plate
inscriptions of Bhaskar Varman record the presence of Indo Aryans
in Kamarupa during sixth century B.C.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Prepare a list of some races that migrated to

Assam.
.........................................................................................
........................................................................................
..............................................................................................

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Choose the correct Answers:

Q.5: Alpines entered India through north
eastern/ north western/ South-eastern route.
...........................................................................................
Q.6: Indo-Aryans/ Alpines/ Mediterranean races were the last to
migrate into Assam.
...........................................................................................
Q.7: The original home of the mediterranean race was eastern
Mediterranean region/ western Mediterranean region/
northern Mediterranean region.
...........................................................................................
3.4 LET US SUM UP
After going through this unit, you have learn about,

 A proper reading of the unit helps you to understand the migration of
some principal human races in different waves to this land. We have
discussed the migration of the Negritos, the Austroloids, the
Mongoloids, the Alpines, and the Aryans etc to this land in different
times.
 Though Assam received a large variety of racial elements, the Austric
and the Tibeto-Burman elements have made immense contribution.
Assam gave shelter to many races at different period.
3.5 FURTHER READING



PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: Africa
Ans to Q No 2: hill slopes, forests
Ans to Q No 3: Khasis
Ans to Q No 4: Mongoloids
Ans to Q No 5: north western
Ans to Q No 6: Indo-Aryans
Ans to Q No 7: eastern Mediterranean
3.7 MODEL QUESTIONS
A) Very Short Questions (Answer each and every question within 50 Words)
Q 1: Who were Pre-Dravidians?
Q 2: What were the primary professions of Australoids?
Q 3: Mention the tribes of Assam belong to Indo-Chinese, Tibeto-Burman
origin.
Q 4: The Alpine people were charactrised by ......................with
..................... (fill in the blank)
Q 1: Write briefly about the Mongoloid people of Assam.
Q 2: Write short notes on the following:
a) Indo-Aryans
b) Australoids

500 words)
Q 1: ‘Since very ancient times Assam saw the migration of nearly all the
principal human races in different waves and periods of history’-
Discuss.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 4: HISTORICITY OF NARAKA AND HIS
SUCCESSORS
UNIT STRUCTURE
4.1 Learning Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Naraka in Different Texts
4.3.1 Naraka in the Mahabharata
4.3.2 Naraka in the Puranas
4.4 Different Stories on Naraka and His Successors
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.6 Further Reading
4.8 Model Questions

 know Naraka in different Texts like the Mahabharata and the
Puranas,
 discuss different stories on Naraka and his successors.
4.2 INTRODUCTION
Dear learners, hope all of you have heard about king Naraka of
Kamarupa. But historicity of Naraka is still questionable. Most of the Indian
texts and scholars prefer to call him as a mythological king of Kamarupa
rather than a historical king. Now in this unit we are going to discuss the
historicity of Naraka through different Texts.
4.3 NARAKA IN DIFFERENT TEXTS
4.3.1 Naraka in the Mahabharata :
The Mahabharata allows an insight into the earlier myths of

Naraka and his successors. He is recognized as being one of the
ancient kings of Assam with the name Bhauma (son of the Earth or

Unit 4 Historicity of Naraka and His Successors
Bhumi) and Asura. He is referred to have stolen Aditi’s ear-rings

and was slained by Krishna Vasudeva (a form of Lord Vishnu) who
recovers the ear rings. In a later stanza, it is narrated that Lord
Asura- A demon. Vishnu killed Naraka at the insistence of Indra, whose status was
Kuru- A royal dynasty threatened by Naraka. Likewise, it is also narrated that the Earth,
Rajasuya- A sacrifice mother of Naraka, secured the Brahmastra (a powerful weapon) for
performed by a monarch her son from Lord Vishnu. It was later passed on to his son,
as a mark of his subduing Bhagadatta.
all other kings.
The Mahabharata contains numerous references to Naraka’s
son, Bhagadatta. Bhagadatta was the ruler of Pragjyotisha and a
friend of Indra, king of gods as well as of Pandu, the Kuru Prince.
He is said to have presented an iron vessel and swords with ivory
hilts to Yuddhisthira on the grand occasion of the Rajasuya sacrifice.
He also provided soldiers to the Kuru king Duryodhana which
included the Chinas and the Kiratas. He fought for Duryodhana in
the war of Kurukshetra. He is said to have been killed by Arjuna and
so was his son, Vajradatta while guarding the horse of Yuddhisthira
for the Ashwamedha sacrifice (horse sacrifice).
We must however not attach undue importance to the
Naraka legends especially the association of Bhagadatta and
Vajradatta with the heroes of the Kurukshetra war, the Kauravas
and the Pandavas, as the historicity of the legends of the Kauravas
and Pandavas and the war of Kurukshetra has yet to be satisfactorily
determined. Moreover, the dates of the war are a matter of confusion
as the traditions regarding the war are conflicting.
One very interesting aspect of the legend as mentioned in
the Mahabharata is the fact that Naraka is not regarded as the son
of Earth or Bhumi, as depicted in the Puranas. But his son
Bhagadatta resided in the hilly region of the Himalayas and other hill
ranges of Assam can be accepted because his followers, the Kiratas,
were Himalayan mountaineers of Mongolian stock, while the Chinas
were Tibetan Mongoloids. It is stated in the Digvijaya section of the
Sabha Parvana of the Mahabharata that Bhagadatta was known as
Historicity of Naraka and His Successors Unit 4
dwelling in the eastern sea with his followers and people who lived
along the sea coast. It is said that Arjuna during his march to the
north, came across the Pragjyotisha king, whom he defeated.
Similarly, Bhima is mentioned as having defeated the Mlechchha
king and his people of the sea coast, while he was on his expedition
to the east. He is said to have reached Lauhitya (Brahmaputra).
Historian K.L. Barua suggests that the sea mentioned above should
be located in and around the Sylhet and Mymensingh district (now
in Bangladesh). He also suggests the connection of the said area,
in ancient times, with the Bay of Bengal. Early epigraphic records of
the kings of Assam refer to the Lauhitya or Brahmaputra as the
Lauhitya Sagara or Sindhu (Sea). There is a tradition in ancient times
which mentions of the eastern sea extending to Devikota (West
Bengal). This gives an explanation of the mentioning of the Lauhitya
along with the reference to the people living alongside the sea coast.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Fill in the blanks:
Q.1: Pandu was a ………Prince.
Q.2: Naraka is said to have been slained
by………………..
4.3.2 Naraka in the Puranas
The Puranas give a different version of the story revolving

round Naraka. According to the avatara (incarnation) theory, the Hindu
god Vishnu descends to earth in ten different forms or incarnations
to save mankind. Rama and Krishna are the two most famous
incarnations of Vishnu. The avatara theory traces the legend of
Naraka to the theory of his being born of the Varaha (boar) form of
Vishnu and Bhumidevi or Earth. The Satapath Brahmana describes
the rescuing of the Earth from the ocean by Prajapati in the form of
a boar. The Taittiriya Aranyaka, of a later date, mentions the boar to
be of a black colour and having a hundred arms. In the later

mythology, the god Vishnu is regarded as Prajapati. The Harivamsa

gives a hint of the birth of Naraka as a result of the union of Earth
and her saviour, Vishnu.
LET US KNOW
Harivamsa is assumed to date back to the

beginning of the 5th century A.D. It is a supplement
of the Mahabharata, and sometimes called a Purana.
The Varaha Avtara of Book I of the Harivamsa speaks of the

Earth being rescued. Book II records the speech as given by Earth
to Krishna Vasudeva. This speech can be assumed to be spoken
to a husband. She says: “It is you, O Govinda who gave him and it is
you who have killed him. The Vishnu Purana too puts similar speech
in the mouth of the earth: “He whom thou gavest me has now been
killed by thee”.
The Harivamsa version of the legend of Naraka narrates the
story as follows. Indra, the king of gods, visits Dvaraka and pleads
with Krishna to punish Naraka who was misbehaving with the gods,
women, and sages. He tells Krishna about Naraka’s stealing Aditi’s
ear rings, the rape of Tvashtri’s daughter, the seizure of 16100 girls,
gandharvas, apsaras etc. Hearing this Krishna readily agreed and
left for Pragjyotisha on the back of his Garuda along with his wife
Satyabhama. Krishna had to wage a war with Naraka’s warriors
like Muru and his son, Nisunda, Hayagriva and Panchanda. In the
end, Naraka was slain by Krishna. The mother of Naraka returned
Aditi’s earrings. Krishna found many treasures of Naraka, among
which were Varuna’s umbrella, Maniparvata (a solid heap of precious
gems and stones), jewels, a large number of elephants, horses,
birds and other animals. These were all sent to Dvaraka.
The Vishnu Purana leaves out many details as given in
Harivamsa due to textual corruption. Kaseru is not mentioned in the
Vishnu Purana. The girls captured by Naraka, are called maidens

of gods, saints, demons and kings”.

The Bhagavat Purana, composed at a later date than the
Vishnu Purana, highlights the speech of Earth (Bhudevi) to Krishna.
The Maniparvata as spoken in the earlier texts is now called
Amaradristhana, meaning some peak of mount Sumeru, the abode
of the gods.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Answer the questions:

Q. 3: What does the Avatara theory say about
naraka?
.........................................................................................................
Q. 4: What has the Satapatha Brahmana have to say about the
legend of Naraka?
...........................................................................................
Q.5: Name the vehicle of Krishna.
...........................................................................................
Q.6: Satyabhama was the wife of ............................(fill in the
blanks)
 Naraka in the Kalika Purana

The Naraka story finds more elaboration in the Upapurana
entitled Kalika Purana. It was composed most probably in the
Brahmaputra valley itself. The work dates back to a period earlier
than 1000 A.D. as it was quoted by Nanyadeva (c. 1097-1133 A.D.),
Apararka (c. 1115-1140 A.D.) and Ballalasena (c. 1159-1179 A.D.).
This is refuted by R.C.Hazra who has shown that the Kalika Purana
cited by Nanyadeva, Aparaka and Ballalasena was an earlier work
composed somewhere during the seventh century A.D. However
the extant Kalika Purana is a later work composed in between the
tenth or the first half of the eleventh century A.D.
According to the Kalika Purana, the result of the union of the
boar (Varaha incarnation of Vishnu) and Bhudevi, was a powerful

son whose birth was delayed for the good of the world. Vishnu
advised the earth to carry the son in her womb until the end of satya
yuga. Meanwhile Janaka, the ruler of Videha, was issueless and
had started a sacrifice for the purpose of having a child. The result
was the birth of two sons and a girl. The girl (Sita) had to be dug out
as the child lay inside the earth. Under the advice of Narada, Janaka
dug the earth and the earth handed over the child to Janaka and
requested him that he should bring up her son, who was to be born
from the very ground where Sita was born. As said, so it happened,
and after the destruction of Ravana by Rama (the avatara or
incarnation of Lord Vishnu), the earth went to the very sacrificial
ground where Sita was born and gave birth to Naraka. Vishnu
blessed the child and said that he would be a ruler of a concealed
kingdom and as long as he would possess human nature he would
prosper, but once he was devoid of their nature he would bring about
his own ruin. The Earth informed Janaka, who adopted the child
and Gautama named him as Naraka as the child was found in a
skull. For sixteen years, Naraka grew up under the protection of
Janaka and nursed by earth (under the name of Katyayani). Shortly
after the completion of his sixteenth year, Vishnu took him to
Pragjyotisha city. It was situated in the middle of Kamarupa inhabited
by the Kiratas who worshipped Kamakhya as the principal deity
and also Shiva. Following the advice of Vishnu, Naraka killed the
Kirata king Ghataka and drove the Kiratas to the east beyond the
Dakkeravasnini (Dikhou river). The coronation of Naraka was
performed by Vishnu. The kingdom of Naraka extended from the
Karatoya to the eastern territory bounded by the shrine of goddess
Dikkeravasini Naraka’s kingdom was the place of residence of
Mahamaya Yogini (Kamakhya) besides Lauhitya ‘son of Brahma’ or
Brahmaputra and other principal gods and goddesses. The land
came to be known as Kamarupa wherein were settled Brahmins
who had an expertise in the Vedas, the members of the four varnas
and others by Vishnu. Meanwhile, Naraka married the princess of
Vidarbha, Maya and soon he was presented with a lance (sakti)

and was advised by Vishnu that the weapon was not to be used
against men, unless for self defence, that he should worship only
goddess Kamakhya and never bring harm upon the Brahmanas,
gods and sages lest he should invite his death.
For many years, Naraka ruled wisely and there was prosperity
in his kingdom. But soon he came under the influence of the Asura
(demon) king Bana of Sonitpur (identified as Tezpur in the district of
Sonitpur). Bana was a worshipper of Shiva and soon Naraka started
showing disrespect and dishonour towards Vishnu, Kamakhya and
the Brahmanas. It is said that once sage Vasishtha came to worship
Kamakhya but was not permitted to do so by Naraka. The angry
sage cursed Naraka that he would be killed by Vishnu in the human
form and that as long as Naraka was alive, Kamakhya would
disappear from the earth. Naraka now kept closer terms with Bana
and tried to please Brahma by standing for one hundred human
years on the bank of Lauhitya. Brahman was pleased and granted
him boons but with a caution that he was not to molest Tilottama
and other heavenly damsels, born on earth before the coming of
Naraka to his capital. Acting on the advice of Bana, Naraka soon
attacked the gods, sages and others. He was assisted in his activities
by his four sons: Bhagadatta, Mahsirsha, Madavat and Sumalin and
also by Hayagriva, Maru and other demons. Naraka stole Aditi’s
earrings and perpetrated much havoc on earth and in heaven. At
this, Vishnu took the avatar of Krishna and went to Pragjyotisha
where he killed Naraka. Naraka’s son Bhagadatta was made the
king and also received his father’s lance. Krishna returned to
Dvaraka with the earrings, the Maniparvata and Varuna’s umbrella.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q. 7: Match the following:
i) Janaka a) a sage
ii) Katyayani b) sons of Naraka
iii) Bana c) ruler of Videha
iv) Vasistha d) ruler of Sonitpur
v) Bhagadatta, Madavat e) mother of Naraka
4.4 DIFFERENT STORIES ON NARAKA AND HIS

SUCCESSORS
In the late medieval period, the Naraka legend is further embellished

by additions and alterations. Based on Kasiram Das’s Bengali Mahabharata,
which was composed about the beginning of the seventeenth century,
Bhagadatta is regarded in Assam and Bengal as the father of the wife of
Duryodhana (Bhanumati). Some other traditions place Bhagadatta as having
married the sister of Duryodhana. Even though such relationship between
Bhagadatta and Duryodhana is unknown in the Puranas, yet the people
believe that a tank in Guwahati was excavated on the solemn occasion of
the marriage between Duryodhana and Bhanumati.
Kalhana’s Rajtarangini mentions a similar tale where it mentions
that king Meghavahana of Kashmir attended the Svayamvara of
Amritaprabha, daughter of the king of Pragjyotisha. He then weds her and
receives the umbrella of Varuna. When Meghavahana returns the parasol
to Varuna, he is told that the umbrella was carried away by the father of his
father-in-law. This seems to point that Naraka’s grand daughter was
Amritaprabha.
Harshacharita mentions the name of Pushpadatta among the lists
of the ancestors of Bhaskaravarman and placed him after Bhagadatta and
Vajradatta. This is not corroborated however by any other source. Some
writers refer to Puspadatta as the son of Bhagadatta, who was killed by
Nakula in the Kurukshetra war. As against the early literary and epigraphic
traditions, the medieaval inscriptions of Assam tend to elaborate the myths

of Vajradatta. It is said that when Bhagadatta took over as the lord of
Pragjyotisha, his younger brother, Vajradatta went to the forest and started
penance to his Isvara (Siva). He was successful and he was blessed by
his god to be the lord of Uparipattana and also the future lord of Pragjyotisha.
Verse 5 of the Doobi copper plate refers to many horse sacrifices being
performed by Vajradatta. The myths of Naraka and his successor are also
highlighted in the works like Yogini Tantra, Haragaurisamvada, Ain-i-Akbari
(completed in 1595 A.D.) and Mandala Panji.
4.5 LET US SUM UP
After going through this unit, you have learn about,

 the mention of Naraka and his successors in the Mahabharata.
 a different version of the strory related to Naraka and his successor.
 the Naraka story in a more elaboratie way in the Upapurana entitled
Kalika Purana, probably it was composed in the Brahmaputra valley
itself.
 besides the stories of the epics and the Puranas related to the hist
oricity of Naraka and his successors, there were other sources too
where we can find the presence of Naraka. These were, Kasiram
Das’s Bengali Mahabharata, Kalahana’s Rajtarangini etc. he myths
of Naraka and his successor are also highlighted in the works like
Yogini Tantra, Haragaurisamvada, Ain-i-Akbari (completed in 1595
A.D.) and Mandala Panji.
4.6 FURTHER READING


PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: Krishna.
Ans to Q No 2: Kuru.
Ans to Q No 3: According to the avatar theory, Naraka was born out of the
union of Vishnu (in his boar form) and earth.
Ans to Q No 4: The Satapatha Brahmana tells about the rescuing of the
earth from the ocean by Prajapati in the form of a boar (Varaha).
Ans to Q No 5: Garuda.
Ans to Q No 6: Krishna.
Ans to Q No 7: i) -c, ii) -e, iii) -d, iv)-a, v) -b
4.8 MODEL QUESTIONS
A) Very Short Questions (Answer each and every question within 50

Words)
Q 1: Who was Bhagadutta?
Q 2: What does Harivamsa speak about the birth of Naraka?
Q 3: The Kalika Purana was composed at .........................Valley.
Q 4: Who was Naraka?
Q 1: What did the Mahabharata say about Naraka?
Q 2: What does the Rajtarangini say about Naraka?

500 words)
Q 1: Discuss the historicity of Naraka in your own words.
Q 2: Describe the Naraka story as described in the Kalika Purana.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 5: RULING DYNASTIES OF THE ANCIENT
ASSAM
UNIT STRUCTURE
5.2 Introduction
5.3 The Varmans
5.4 The Salastambhas
5.5 The Palas
5.6 Let Us Sum Up
5.7 Further Reading
5.9 Model Questions

 describe the ruling dynasties of ancient Assam,
 explain the internal and external policies of the kings,
 discuss the important events of ancient Assam.
5.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have learnt about the myths and legends
relating to Naraka and his successors which form a part of the pre-historical
period of Assam. The legends of Naraka have been related in many of the
Puranas, Epics, etc. Naraka is said to be the legendary ruler of ancient
Assam.
This unit will acquaint you with the beginning of the political history
of ancient Assam. In this unit we are going to study about the ruling dynasties
that ruled over the kingdom of ancient Assam known variously as
Pragjyotisha and Kamarupa. The internal and external policies of the rulers
of ancient Assam and the important events of that period will also be dealt
with in this unit. It is to be noted that while the rulers of ancient Assam
referred to their land as “land of Pragjyotisha”, contemporary accounts,
Unit 5 Ruling Dynasties of The Ancient Assam
including that of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, referred to their kingdom
as ‘Kamarupa’.
The three main ruling dynasties of ancient Assam were the Varmans
(c.350-650 A.D.), Salastambhas (c.655-900 A.D.) and the Palas (c.900-
1100 A.D.). The Varmans were the earliest known ruling dynasty of ancient
Assam. They started their rule when the imperial Gupta dynasty was ruling
over northern India and was the prominent ruling power in India. The Varmans
were as such the contemporary of the Guptas.
5.3 THE VARMANS

In the middle or later half of the 4th century A.D, the Varmans were
able to carve out a kingdom in the Kamarupa region of ancient Assam. The
Pushyavarman was the first known historical ruler of the Varman dynasty
that ruled for about three centuries. It is interesting to note that the chronology
of the Varman rulers of Kamarupa cannot be definitely fixed and hence
here, for the convenience of our study, we have taken a fixed period of 25
years as the ruling period of every Varman ruler till Sthiravarman.
The rule of Pushyavarman is generally assigned between the periods
350-374 A.D. He was a later contemporary of the Gupta Emperor,
Samudragupta (c.335-376 A.D.) of Magadha. It cannot be said as to when
and how Pushyavarman rose to power. His background is obscure but he
claimed decent from Naraka. We can only hold that Pushyavarman was an
adventurous chief who took advantage of the then prevailing political
Bhauma-Born of the instability in Kamarupa and made himself the ruler of the land. To justify his
earth. claim to the throne, he traced his descent from the family of Naraka-
Pratyanta Nripati- The Bhagadatta or Naraka, the Bhauma. As such, the dynasty of
ruler of a state bordering Pushyavarman is called the Naraka- Bhauma dynasty. Besides, the
on the Gupta Empire dynasty is also known as the Varman dynasty as the kings of the dynasty
had all their principal names ending in the word Varman.
Pushyavarman was regarded as a subordinate ally of the Gupta
ruler. In the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta the king of Kamarupa
is mentioned as Pratyanta Nripati. As a frontier kingdom, the name of
Kamarupa occurs along with Samatata, Davaka, Nepala and Kartipura,
Ruling Dynasties of The Ancient Assam Unit 5
whose kings owed allegiance to Samudragupta by paying all kinds of tribute,

obeying his commands and attending his court. But the name of the
Kamarupa ruler is not mentioned. Pushyavarman, who was a contemporary
of Samudragupta, might have offered submission to the latter of his own
accord.
LET US KNOW
The discovery of a stone inscription in the Duboroni area

of Golaghat district records the name of Maharajadhiraja
Vasundhara Varman indicating the presence of other rulers in upper
Assam when the Varmans were ruling in Kamarupa Pushyavarman
named his son Samudravarman and his daughter-in-law as Dattadevi.
It is believed that Pushyavarman did so in imitation of the names of his
overlord the Gupta Emperor Samudragupta and his queen Dattadevi.
Again in the seal of Bhaskaravarman attached to the Doobi Plates,

Pushyavarman is called Maharajadhiraja and the Lord of Pragjyotisha.
The assumption of the title of Maharajadhiraja indicates the independent
status of Pushyavarman. It appears that Pushyavarman was initially a vassal Maharajadhiraja- A king
ruler under the Guptas. But later he became an independent ruler and raised of kings, implying the
presence of subordinate
Kamarupa to an important position.
rulers.
LET US KNOW
Vassal: The word has two meanings

(a) in the feudal system the vassal is a man who fights
for his lord or monarch in return for lordship a piece of land.
(b) a country is controlled by and depended on another country.
Samudravarman succeeded his father Pushyavarman (c.374-398

A.D.) as the king of Kamarupa. He further consolidated the rule of the
Varmans and ruled without having any kind of trouble. He too assumed the
title of Maharajadhiraja which suggests that, like his father, he ruled as an
independent king. The next Varman ruler Balavarman-I (c. 398-422 A.D.),
son of Samudravarman was a man of remarkable abilities. He is credited

in the Doobi plates with the celebration of a number of sacrifices. The

Nidhanpur grant states that “his force and armour never broke up and his
army could easily march against the enemies”.
Balavarman was succeeded by his son Kalyanavarman (c.422-446
A.D.). It is possible that Kalyanavarman brought the Kapili Valley identified
with the kingdom of Davaka under his control and also sent a diplomatic
mission to China. The Shung-Shu (a Chinese account) refers to the sending
of an embassy to China in 428 A.D. by an Indian king called Yu-Chai, who
was the lord of the Kapili country. This king called Yu-Chai could be
Kalyanavarman as the date of the mission fits in with the chronology of the
king and the king is discovered as “moon faced”, an epithet applied to
Kalyanavarmana in source.
The successor of Kalyanavarman was Ganapativarman or (c.446-
470 A.D.). His rule has not much significance. As a ruler, he was a generous
one. Probably Ganapativarman abdicated the throne in favour of his son
Mahendravarman or Surendravarman(c.470-494 A.D.) whose reign was
quite eventful. It is possible that Mahendravarman extended his sway to
South-East Bengal. To consecrate his achievements he performed two
horse (Asvamedha) sacrifices as recorded in the Doobi seal Inscription.
He was the first amongst the rulers of his line to do so, thereby becoming a
paramount sovereign in Eastern India. By his brilliant career of conquest
and glory, he paved the way for the greatness which Kamarupa attained
under Bhaskaravarman. In the Umachal Rock Inscription he is described
as a Maharajadhiraja.
Mahendravarman was followed by his son Narayanavarman (c.494-
518 A.D.). His reign was one of comparative peace. His successor was
Bhutivarman or Mahabhutivarman(c.518-542 A.D.) who continued the policy
of expansion started by his grandfather Mahendravarman. Taking advantage
of the decline in power of the Guptas, he expanded his territories in
Pundravardhana. He probably also brought the outlying regions of Samatata,
Sylhet and Tripura under his control. The Barganga Rock Inscription credits
Bhutivarman with the performance of a horse (Asvamedha) sacrifice. He
was the first king of Kamarupa to extend the western frontier of the kingdom
beyond the river Karatoya. The Nidhanpur Copper Plates records that
Bhutivarman had a circle of feudatories. Bhutivarman donated land to

numerous Brahmanas in North Bengal which testify to his conquests in
that direction and his patronage of learning.
Chandramukhavarman (c.542-566 A.D.) succeeded Bhutivarman
as the ruler of Kamarupa. He made no further extension of the kingdom
which he inherited from his father. Rather he consolidated his father’s
conquests in south-east Bengal. It appears from the Doobi Plates that
Chandramukhavarman voluntary abdicated the throne in favour of his son
Sthira varman or Sthita varman(c. 566-590 A.D.). Sthiravarman was a man
of knowledge and well-versed in the Vedas. He was the first ruler of
Kamarupa to perform his coronation ceremony according to the Vedic rites.
The Doobi Clay Seal credits him with performance of two horse sacrifices.
Sthiravarman also built a new capital city on the banks of the “holy river”,
probably the Brahmaputra.
Sthiravarman’s son and successor Susthitavarman (c.590-595 A.D.)
was renowned as Mriganka, the title he assumed after ascending the throne.
The Doobi Plates represent Susthitavarman as a learned man who is stated
to be the master of grammar, polity, logic, etc. The Harshacharita of
Banabhatta describes him as a powerful monarch and even gives him the
imperial title of Maharajadhiraja. In the Aphsad inscription of Adityasena it is
stated that the later Gupta monarch Mahasenagupta of Malava (East Malwa)
led an expedition against Susthitavarman and defeated him on the bank of
the Brahmaputra. As a result of this defeat, Kamarupa lost her possessions
in North Bengal (Pundravardhana) and the western boundary of Kamarupa
was pushed back to the Karatoya. It seems that Susthitavarman died of
wounds in the battle.
Susthitavarman had two sons who were very young at the time of
his death. The elder one, Supratisthitavarman, ascended the throne (c.595-
600 A.D.). As per the Doobi Plates at that time the Gauda army was invading
the kingdom of Kamarupa. Probably by then Mahasenagupta had already
retreated to Malava and it was his Mahasamanta Sasanka from Gauda
who led this second invasion of Kamarupa. Supratisthitavarman along with
his younger brother Bhaskaravarman bravely fought against the invading
army. But they were finally defeated and were taken as captives to Gauda.
However soon the two brothers got back their kingdom and returned to
Kamarupa.
Shortly afterwards Susthitavarman died without leaving any issue.
So, his brother Bhaskaravarman ascended the throne of Kamarupa in c
600 A.D and ruled till c 650 A.D. for a period of fifty years. He was the most
illustrious one of all the Varman rulers. His activities were not confined to
the bounds of his kingdom. He played an important role in the political history
of northern India in the first half of the seventh century A.D. At the time of his
accession, the glory of the kingdom of Kamarupa was greatly undermined
with the defeat of Pundravardhana at the hands of Mahasenagupta and
Sasanka Bhaskaravarman could not tolerate the rise of Sasanka of Gauda
who soon made himself the master of Magadha and Kanauj.
Under such a situation, Bhaskaravarman sought the friendship of
king Harshavardhana of Thaneswar who too had enmity with king Sasanka
of Gauda. He sent an embassy to Harshavardhana for seeking the latter’s
alliance against their common enemy. Harsha too was in the need of an
ally and he heartily welcomed the offer. Hence, then was formed an offensive
and defensive alliance between the two independent monarchs of northern
and eastern India. Their combined forces probably launched an attack upon
Sasanka. From the west, Bhandi, the cousin and general of Harshavardhana
attacked Gauda, while, from the east, Bhaskaravarman fell upon him.
Unable to face the combined attack, Sasanka fled away to Orissa where
he continued to rule till 619-620 A.D. By this victory Gauda with its capital
city of Karnasuvarna came to the possession of Bhaskaravarman. To
commemorate the occasion, he issued from his victorious camp at
Karnasuvarna the famous Nidhanpur grants reconfirming the land grants
made by Bhutivarman in Pundravardhana.
LET US KNOW
To make friendship with Harshavardhana, king
Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa sent his ambassador
Hamsavega, who met Harshavardhana with rich presents like Abhoga
(umbrella of Varuna), crest jewels, pearl necklaces, silken cloth,
manuscripts aloe bark, drinking vessel, etc.

By forming an alliance with Harshavardhana, Bhaskaravarman not

only recovered the lost glory and possession of the kingdom of Kamarupa,
but also carried the political glory of Kamarupa to a point not reached ever
before. Later Bhaskaravarman too participated in the religious assembly at
Kanauj and religious convocation at Prayaga arranged by Harshavardhana.
The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang visited the kingdom of Kamarupa and
stayed at the court of king Bhaskaravarman. The Chinese pilgrim was very
much pleased with the hospitality of Bhaskaravarman and with the peace
and prosperity prevailing in the kingdom of Kamarupa. Bhaskaravarman
was a celibate and died leaving no successor to the throne and thereby
marked the end of the rule of the Varmans.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.1: Who was the founder of the Varman dynasty?

…………………………………………………………………………………….
Q.2: Who was the first Varman ruler to perform horse sacrifice?
……………………………………………………………………….
Q.3: Who first donated land to numerous Brahmanas in North Bengal?
……………………………………………………………………….
Q.4: Which kingdom was ruled by Sasanka?
……………………………………………………………………….
Q.5: With whom did Bhaskaravarman form an alliance?
……………………………………………………………………….
5.4 THE SALASTAMBHAS
With the death of Bhaskaravarman, the kingdom of Kamarupa

passed under the rule of the Mlechchhas. Actually as Bhaskaravarman died
without leaving a successor, an anarchical situation prevailed in the kingdom
of Kamarupa. Taking advantage of this anarchical situation as indicated in
the Bargaon Copper Plate of Ratnapala (a king of the Pala dynasty which Salastambha: literarily
means a pillar of the Sala
succeeded the Salastambhas), the chief of the Mlechchhas, Salastambha
tree whose wood is very
(c. 655-670 A.D) laid the foundation of the rule of a new dynasty called the
hard and strong.

Salastambhas after his name. Altogether there were 21 rulers in the

Salastambha dynasty and they ruled from c 655 A.D. to 900 A.D for a period
of almost 250 years. The Bargaon Copper Plates of Ratnapala states that
the dynasty of Salastambha had 21 kings, the last one being Tyagasimha.
But we know only about 15 rulers of the Salastambha dynasty.
Salastambha is assumed to be an aboriginal chief. However very
soon the kings of the Mlechchha dynasty claimed their descent from Naraka.
The earliest record of the Salastambha dynasty was a rock inscription and
a small fragment of the Copper Plate grants of the time of Harjaravarman.
There Salastambha is described as ‘a tiger like king” which shows that he
was a very powerful king. It is also stated there that Salastambha was
followed by Vijaya, Palaka, Kumara and Vajradeva whose rule was not of
any consequence. The Hayungthal Copper Plate of Harjaravarman (c.815-
837 A.D.) too provides a more detailed list of the successors of Salastambha
as Vijaya, Palaka, Kumara, Vajradeva, Harshavarman, Balavarman, Chakra,
Arathi and Harjaravarman, who is mentioned as the king of Pragjyotisha.
Actually very little is known about Salastambha and his successors
till the time of Harjaravarman (c.815-837 A.D.) whose Tezpur Rock Inscription
is dated 829 A.D. For about 175 years from the middle of the 7th century A.D
to the first quarter of the 9th century A.D we lack proper information about
the names and numbers of the rulers of the dynasty. Among the pre-Harjara
kings of the Salastambha dynasty, other than Salastambha it was
Harshavarman (c.725-745 A.D) whose reign formed another glorious
chapter in the history of the kingdom of Kamarupa. In the Hayungthal Copper
Plate of Harjaravarman, Harshavarman is mentioned as a king of great
prowess and piety, who protected his subjects as his own children. The
Pasupatinath Temple Inscription of king Jayadeva II of Nepal describes king
Harshadeva as Gaudradi-Kalinga-Kosala-pati (lord of Gauda, Odra, Kalinga,
Kosala and other lands) whose daughter Rajyamati, a descendant of
Bhagadatta’s race was married to king Jayadeva II of Nepal. This king
Harshadeva is identified with king Harshavarman under whom Kamrupa
rose to power for a brief period
After Harshavarman, his son Balavarman (c.745-765 A.D) became
the ruler of Kamarupa. Balavarman was followed by Chakra (c.765-790 A.D)

and Arathi (c.790-815 A.D). However, the most important ruler after
Harshavarman was Harjaravarman (c.815-837 A.D). His coronation
ceremony was performed by his feudatory chiefs, indicating their growing
importance. He was the first of the Kamarupa kings to assume high sounding
title Maharaja-dhiraja Paramesvara Paramabhattaraka. From the Hayungthal
Copper Plate, it is known that Harjaravarman had occupied a position of
distinction as he is said to have been surrounded by subordinate kings and
also had been approached by the rulers of the hilly regions for settling their
disputes. In the Tezpur Rock Inscription we find regulations regarding the
plying of boats to settle a dispute between the boats of fishermen and those
of the royal navy. This indicates that Harjaravarman had a big navy at his
command. He was a contemporary of king Devapala of Gauda and had a
conflict with the latter when he tried to invade Bengal, but his attack was
repulsed. Harjaravarman built a lofty temple for Hetuka Sulin and rows of
buildings in his capital city at Haruppeswara identified with modern Tezpur.
Hetuka Sulin-Lord Shiva
Harjaravarman was succeeded by his son Vanamalavarman (c.837-
styled as Hetuka or
855 A.D.). He was a contemporary of Vigrahapala and Narayanapala of Hetukesa.
Gauda. We have two records of his reign the Tezpur Copper Plates and
Uttarakula-The northern
Parbatiya Copper Plates where he had assumed high sounding titles. During bank of the Brahmaputra
the weak rule of Vigrahapala of Gauda, Vanamalavarman recovered the
lost possession of Kamarupa in Bengal and to signalize his victory donated
lands almost in the same area where earlier Bhutivarman had donated
lands in the middle of the 6th century A.D which is recorded in Tezpur Copper
Plate issued in his 19th regnal year. It is also stated there that the dominion
of the kingdom of Kamarupa extended over the hilly regions in the north and
east as well as over south-east Bengal. Vanamalavarman too like his father
tried to spread Aryan culture towards the east and made land grants to the
Brahmans in Uttarakula. He too encouraged trade and commerce. As
indicated by Nagaon copper Plates of Balavarman, there was regular
payment of tributes by the feudatories to king Vanamalavarman enriching
his material wealth which he spent in rebuilding the temple of Hetuka Sulin
and erecting rows of palatial buildings. He was a devout worshipper of Siva.
Vanamalavarman abdicated the throne in favour of his son Jayamala, and

fasted unto death.
Jayamala (c.855-860A.D) had a very short reign. He consolidated
the conquests of his father and did not make further extension. Being
attacked by fatal disease, Jayamala, after a short reign of only five years,
abdicated the throne in favour of his son Balavarman. He was also known
as Virabahu. Balavarman II (c.860-890 A.D.) was the last powerful ruler of
the Salastambha dynasty. He left three records of his reign namely, the
Howraghat Copper Plates, Nagaon Copper Plates and Ulubari Copper
Plates. During the rule of king Narayanapala of Gauda, he made fresh
conquests in North Bengal and made land grants in that area as stated in
the Nagaon Copper Plates. He like his predecessors assumed high sounding
titles which shows his prowess and supremacy.
After, Vigrahastambha became the ruler of Kamarupa. But nothing
can be said about his reign. Vigrahastambha was succeeded by Tyagasimha
(c.890-900 A.D.) who was the last ruler of the Salastambha dynasty. He
was the 21st member of the Salastambha line. After him the dynasty became
extinct because he died without leaving any children. In the Bargaon Copper
Plate of Ratnapala he is simply mentioned as an illustrious chief.
LET US KNOW
An image of Harihara was found at Deopani with a small

inscription in characters of about the 9th century A.D of
the reign of Maharajadhiraja Diglekhavarman. The royal title attached to
the name of Diglekhavarman indicates that he was not a petty chief. But
in the absence of further information it cannot be said whether he was
an unknown member of the Salastambha dynasty or succeeded in
gaining control over a part of their kingdom.
Another inscription on an image of Shanker Narayana at Deopani
records the name of Sri Jivera.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.6: Which source tells us that the Salastambha

dynasty had 21 kings?
………………..........………………....………………………………
Q.7: Name the two grants issued by Vanamalavarman?
…………………………………………….…………………………………..
Q.8: Who was also known as Virabahu?
…………………………………………….…………………………………...
Q.9: Name the last king of the Salastambha dynasty?
……………………………………………….………………………………...
Q.10: Arrange the following Salastambha rulers in chronological order:
(a) Salastambha
(b) Palaka
(c) Balavarman
(d) Vijaya
(e) Tyagasimha
(f) Vajradeva
5.5 THE PALAS
The death of Tyagasimha without leaving any successor brought

about a danger of anarchy in the kingdom of Kamarupa. It was decided that
someone from the race of Naraka should be appointed as the ruler of
Kamarupa. Under such a situation Brahmapala (c.900-920 A.D) was elected
as the king due to his proclaimed kinship with the Bhauma-Naraka clan. As
the descendants of Brahmapala bore the title ‘Pala’ in the end of their names,
the dynasty was called the Pala dynasty. The Pala rulers to show their
relations with the earlier Bhauma-Naraka kings added the word ‘Varman’
after Pala in their names.
It was probably in imitation of the Palas of Bengal, that Brahmapala
took the title ‘Pala’. Prior to becoming the ruler of Kamarupa, Brahmapala
was possibly a governor in the western part of the kingdom and because of
his administrative experience was elected by the officials as the king. There
were eight kings in his line in succession ruling from 900 A.D to 1100 A.D.
for a period of 200 years. No record is left of his reign. But in the inscriptions
of his son Ratnapala, Brahmapala is described as a great warrior and is
styled as Maharajadhiraja. The Bargaon Copper Plate of Ratnapala records
that Brahmapala abdicated in favour of his son, Ratnapala.
Ratnapala (c.920-960 A.D) was a powerful ruler of the Pala dynasty.
He built his capital on the bank of the Brahmaputra and sourrounded it with
a rampart and strong palisade which he named as Durjaya meaning
“Impregnable”. In his three grants namely, Caratbari Copper Plate, Bargaon
Copper Plates and Soalkuchi Copper Plates Ratnapala is described as
Paramesvara-Paramabhattaraka-Maharajadhiraja Ratnapalavarmandeva
indicating his imperial status. He suppressed rebellious chiefs within the
kingdom of Kamarupa. It is known from the Gachtal Copper Plates of his
great grand son Gopala that Ratnapala defeated king Rajyapala of Gauda.
Ratnapala’s son and Pundarapala pre-deceased him, so he was succeeded
by his grandson Indrapala.
Indrapala (c.960-990 A.D) succeed his grandfather Ratnapala to
the throne of Kamarupa and had a fairly long reign. We have the Guwahati
Copper Plates and Guakuchi Copper Plates of his reign which depict his
imperial status with the title Paramesvara-Paramabhattaraka-
Maharajadhiraja. In the Gachtal Copper Plates of Gopala it is stated that
Indrapala defeated king Kalyanachandra, son of Sri Chandra of Vanga
(Bengal) of the Chandras, who was the vanquisher of a king of Gauda. He
also strengthened his position by entering into a matrimonial alliance with
the Rashtrakutas. His Guakuchi grant testifies to his control over the North
Bengal. From the Gauhati grant it can be inferred that his reign was one of
peace and plenty.
The next Pala ruler was Gopala (c.990-1015 A.D.), son of Indrapala
born of the Rashtrakuta princess Rajyadevi. The king had personal charm,
merit and intelligence, munificence as well as success in the war as stated
in the Khonamukh Copper Plates and Subhankarapataka grant of
Dharmapala. It appears that he consolidated his father’s conquest in
Pundravardhana, which probably led to the subsequent invasion of
Jatavarman, a king of East Bengal in the reign of his son and successor
Harshapala. Harshapala (c.1015-1035 A.D.) was a man of learning. But he
was not a strong ruler. As stated earlier during his reign king Jatavarman of
East Bengal snatched away a part of Pundravardhana which belonged to
the kingdom of Kamarupa. The invasion of Kamarupa by the Chalukya king
Vikramaditya VI is also ascribed to his period of reign. But this invasion did
not result in the loss of any territory.
Harshapala’s son Dharmapala (c.1035-1060 A.D.) was the last
important ruler of the Pala dynasty. We have three inscriptions of his reign
namely, Khonamukh Copper Plates Subhankarapataka grant and
Pushpabhadra Copper Plates. He was very powerful monarch and restored
the lost glory of the kingdom of Kamarupa by making conquests in North
Bengal and probably towards the sea in the south- west of the kingdom. He
was also a great patron of religion and learning. He was himself a poet.
Towards the end of his reign, Dharmapala shifted his capital to
Kamrupanagara in north Guwahati.
Dharmapala was probably succeeded by Jayapala (c.1075-1100
A.D.). Actually no copper plate grants have so far been discovered of any
later ruler of the Pala dynasty. Regarding Jayapala it can only be said that
his name occurs in a stone-slab inscription found at Silimpur in connection
with a tulapurush gift to a Brahmana named Prahasa in Symbaka village of
Pundravardhana. This gift was probably made in the first part of his reign
when he held control over Pundravardhana. Jayapala may have been the
Kamrupa ruler defeated by king Ramapala of Gauda who occupied parts of
Kamarupa, and appointed Tingyadeva as a ruler over that area. This is
recorded in the Ramacharita by Sandhyakara Nandi and the Kamauli grant
of Vaidyadeva. Jayapala was the last ruler of the Pala dynasty. The thirteenth
century Ambari stone slab inscription found in Guwahati records the name
of Samudrapala, indicating that Pala rule continued till that period.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

a) Brahmapala was ……………. as the king.
b) Ratnapala defeated king ………………. of Gauda.
c) Gopala was born of the ………………… princess Rajyadevi.
d) ………………… too shifted his capital to Kamrupanagara.
Q.12: Write True/False:
a) Harshapala’s son Dharmapala was the last important ruler of
the Pala dynasty. (True/False)
b) Jayapala was defeated by king Rajapala of Gauda. (True/False)
5.6 LET US SUM UP
After going through this unit, you have learned about,

 the ruling dynasties of ancient Assam which included the Varmanas,
Salastambhas and the Palas.
 the political developments in Kamarupa between the fourth and the
twelfth century A.D. have been discussed in detail so that a
comprehensive account is obtained regarding the state of affairs during
this period.
 The ancient kingdom of Kamarupa was ruled by the Varman, the
Salastambha and the Pala dynasties, besides other minor kings.
5.7 FURTHER READING
1. Gait, Edward: A History of Assam

2. Barpujari, H.K (2003).: The Comprehensive History of Assam, Volume-
1, Publication Board, Assam, Guwahati
3. Barua, K.L (2008) : Early History of Kamrupa, LBS, Guwahati
4. Baruah, S.L.(1996): A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram
Manuharlal Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi


PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: Pushyavarman
Ans to Q No 2: Mahendravarman
Ans to Q No 3: Bhutivarman
Ans to Q No 4: Kingdom of Gauda, Magadha and Kanauj
Ans to Q No 5: Harshavardhana, the king of Gauda
Ans to Q No 6: The Bargaon plates of Ratnapala
Ans to Q No 7: Parbatiya Copper Plates and Tezpur Copper Plates
Ans to Q No 8: Jayamala
Ans to Q No 9: Tyagasimha
Ans to Q No 10: Salastambha, Vijaya, Palaka, Vajradeva, Balavarman,
Tyagasimha
Ans to Q No 11: a) elected, b)Rajyapala, c)Rashtrakuta d) Dharmapala
Ans. to Q.12: a)True, b)False
5.9 MODEL QUESTIONS
A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in an about 50 words)

Q 1: Who was the first known historical ruler of the Varman dynasty?
Q 2: Pushyavarman belonged to which dynasty?
Q 3: Who was the last ruler of the Pala dynasty?
Q 4: Who was the last powerful ruler of the Salastambha dynasty?
B) Short Questions (Answer each questions in an about 150 words)
Q 1: Write briefly about Bhaskarvarman.
Q 2: Write short notes on-
a) Nidhanpur Copper Plate b) Pala ruler Gopala
C) Long Questions (Answer each question in between 300-500 words)
Q 1: Discuss about the Varman dynasty of Kamarupa.
Q 2: Trace the rule of the Salastambha rule over Kamarupa.
Q 3: Describe the rule of the Pala dynasty over Kamarupa.
Q 4: Make an analytical comparison between the different ruling dynasties
that ruled over the kingdom of Kamarupa.
*** ***** ***
UNIT 6: SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND RELIGION IN
ANCIENT ASSAM
UNIT STRUCTURE
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Society
6.4 Economy
6.5 Religion
6.6 Let Us Sum Up
6.7 Further Reading
6.9 Model Questions

 describe the social conditions of ancient Assam,
 explain the economic system prevailing in ancient Assam,
 discuss the religious life and administrative system of ancient
Assam.
6.2 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier unit we had discussed about the political condition of

ancient Assam known as Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa. In this unit we will learn
about the social conditions, economic system, religious affairs and
administration prevailed in ancient Assam. The sources for the study are
mostly the primary sources in the form of epigraphical records, indigenous
literature, accounts of travelers and the remains of religious structures,
sculptures, etc.
6.3 SOCIETY
For depicting a picture of the society of ancient Assam, we have to

depend primarily on the epigraphical data. But the literary sources viz. the

Society, Economy and Religion in Ancient Assam Unit 6
Kalika Purana and Yogini Tantra also supply much information on the social
condition of ancient Assam.
Assam was inhabited by Proto-Mongoloid, Proto-Austroloid, Tibeto-
Burman and Alpine people. Aryan culture was carried by the Alpines and
later by the Brahmanas, who had already mixed up with other racial elements,
when they migrated to Assam. The mixed migration began in the later part
of the fifth century A.D. and during the time of Bhutivarman as stated in the
Nidhanpur grant. He attracted the Brahmanas of Bengal by giving rich
endowment of land and gifts. These Brahmanas may be regarded as forming
an oasis in the land. They influenced the culture of ancient Assam. The
original Brahmanas of Assam did not follow the ideal Vedic practices. The
Brahmanas studied the Samaveda and Yajurveda and Mimamsa Philosophy,
Smriti and Alamkara etc. While gradually the Brahmanical community of
Pragjyotisha was adopting itself to the ideal practices. Many other
Brahmanas migrated outside and most often got position of honour in other
states.
King Vanamalavarman donated lands in the Pundravardhana vishaya
as agrahara gift which attracted Brahmanas of Kamarupa to settle there.
Thus, an admixture of the Brahmanas of Bengal and Kamarupa started. It
provided from time to time the introduction of orthodox Brahmanical culture
in the land.
The caste system in ancient Assam was not strictly adhered to.
The society rested largely but loosely on the Varnasramadharma. Few
functional castes find mention in inscriptions. Thus, Hinduism in that valley
was tolerant towards the tribal communities which had not been completely
absorbed into its organisation. Epigraphic records of the 6th century referred
to classes like Kayasthas, Karanas, Lekhakas, Vaidyas, Kumbhakaras,
Kaivartas and Tantravayas. Gradually the distinction among the Kshatriyas
and Vaishyas were disappearing and the fourfold caste system, namely
the Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Sudras were gradually
shrinking to a threefold system. Later on the society became broadly divided
into two: the Brahmanas and Sudras, the latter embracing all non-
Brahmanas.
Unit 6 Society, Economy and Religion in Ancient Assam
Yogini Tantra though not a contemporary text also provides

information about the social conditions of Assam. The society in
Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa thus rested largely but loosely on the
Varnasramadharma. The Brahmanas occupied a position of higher prestige
in the society. They enjoyed revenue free land grants as well as high offices
in the government. They also played a crucial role in transforming the society.
They were entrusted with the duty of diffusion of learning, but also took up
other occupations. The establishment of agrahara settlement of Brahmanas
in the middle of the non-Aryan people helped in the spread of Vedic culture.
The Brahmanas also opened new areas of settlement and helped in the
growth of production by their knowledge of agriculture and animal husbandry.
The Brahmanical mission propagating Aryan culture and social values
probably had to face opposition from the non-Aryans. But they made large
scale compromise in course of time. As a result strict-observance of caste
rules had no place in the society.
The Brahmanas in Assam adopted a liberal policy in the matters of
occupation and food habit, and observance of the rules of
Varnasramadharma. The Brahmana society was based on their
Vedasakhas, Gotras and Pravaras. It determined their exogamic marriage
relations. They observed the orthodox rules and duties viz the worship,
yajnas, adhyana (study), adhyapana (teaching), dana (making gifts) and
pratigraha (accepting gifts). They also followed other injunctions relating to
snana, japa, sandhya and other sacrifices.
Family was the smallest unit of the society. Joint family was the
general practice. The epigraphs mentioned about the joint ownership of
landed property. Nevertheless, cases of nuclear families were also not rare.
The institution of marriage was considered sacred. The most
practiced form of marriage was Brahma, Prajapatya, Daiva, Arsha and
Asura. Marriage within one’s own clan was prohibited not only among the
Aryanised Vedic society but also among many tribes.
Motherhood was the outstanding aim of married life for women.
Women in upper class were provided education and were expected to be
socially accomplished. Sculptures of the ancient period reveal the figures
of women playing musical instruments and dancing which informs us that

the womenfolk did engage themselves in such creative activities. The Purdah
system was not prevalent. The Bargaon grant records that public women
even took their bath in the open. Sati was not widely prevalent in the society
and we find only a single record of a concubine of Bhaskaravarman
committing Sati. Child marriage was prevalent among the Brahmanas and
the Kayasthas. Widow re-marriage was common among the other classes
of the people. Inter-caste marriage was prevalent among the lower classes.
Polygamy was almost a universal practice. The women enjoyed greater
freedom from male domination among certain section of people who were
less under the Aryan influence or were the non-Aryans.
The epigraphs also depict the life of the city damsel’s, courtesans
and devadasis or temple girls. The Tezpur grant mentioned about the vesyas
(prostitutes). Similarly the Copper Plate grant of Vanamala refers to the
reconstruction of the temple of Hatakasulin where the public women or the
vesyas lived. The Bargaon grant of Ratnapala records that they occupied
that they occupied the best place in his capital city Durjjaya.
Rice was the staple food of the people of Assam. Milk, curd, ghee
and various kinds of sweets were highly prized. Delicious preparations were
made from various kinds of vegetables, fish, meat, pulses, spice etc. Rice
Pudding called Payasa or Paramanna has been the favourite dish of the
Assamese people. Drinking wine was common amongst the people of the
upper class, while the common people drank Lao pani or rice beer. Chewing
of raw areca nut with betel leaf and lime was very much popular among the
people.
Epigraphs, literature and sculpture provide us information on the
types of dress and ornaments used by the people of ancient Assam. The
male dress consisted of dhoti and an upper garment called uttariya,
especially used by the higher classes. Men of distinction also wore a head-
dress. Women used to wear two garments in the upper and lower part of
the body. Married women of upper classes took particular care of hair
dressing. In general Assam was famous for silk cloth of endi, muga and pat
variety. The rich people used ornaments studied with various kinds of jewels.
They also used sandal, camphor, musk, etc. The women used the
ornaments like kasturi, kinkini, necklace of beads, etc. They used kundalas
and nupuras. Women also used mani darppana (jeweled mirrors) as referred
in the Bargaon grant.
The people of ancient Assam knew about the art of dyeing both yarn
and cloth. They also recognized the four colours white, red, yellow and
black or blue. The Kalika Purana mentions the use of garments of blue and
red for religious purpose. The dyeing of cloth was very much common
even among the hill tribes of Assam. Embroidered cloth was also
manufactured and the gifts of such cloths to Gods and Goddesses were
considered meritorious.
The Kalika Purana mentioned that playing with doll was popular
among children. Among the general indoor games was the dice. Hunting
and fishing were very much popular. Dancing and music were popular
amusement.
Convenient means of communication consisted of the bullock carts,
carriage, drawn by elephants, horses and also by boats. Boats of various
types were used. Besides, horses and bullocks, elephants were also used
for traveling.
The customs of inheritance and funeral rites varied according to
the tribes and religion of the people. There were two types of inheritance
system: the mitakshara and the dayabhaga. According to the mitakshara
system, a child inherited the ancestral property at the time of its birth, while
in the dayabhaga system the son could claim the property after the death
of his father. The mitakshara rules bestowed the right upon the rest of the
family members to ask for their share of the ancestral property. In the
dayabhaga system, the father could disinherit his son from the property,
however the son’s right to the property could never be prejudiced after his
fathers’ death. As for the burial practices, the dead body was buried but
after the influence of Vedic Hinduism, cremation of the body was practiced.
This ritual differed among the different tribes of the region.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

(a) Aryan culture was carried by the ………………
and later by the……………….
(b) Assam was famous for silk cloth of …………., …………..
and ……………….. variety.
(c) In the ……………… system the son could claim the property
after the death of his father.
(a) The people of ancient Assam knew about the art of dyeing
both yarn and cloth. (True/False)
(b) Dancing and music were not popular amusement. (True/
False)
6.4 ECONOMY
The economic life of a country is generally controlled by three factors,

the geography of the landscape, the climate and general habit of the people
inhabiting it. Inhabited by men of diverse ethnic origin in this topographical
set up, the economic pattern of land assumed diverse characters.
Land was the backbone of economic life of Assam. Land was divided
into janapada (country side), pura or nagara (city, town) and vana (forest
land). Janapada was again divided into gramas or villages, which were
again subdivided into kshetra (arable land), khila (waste land), go-pra-
carabhumi (land for cattle grazing) and vastubhumi (building sites). As the
all lands were granted by the King, the owner of the soil was the king himself.
The forest, mines etc belongs the state. The Tezpur and Bargaon grants
mention the individual donors receiving land with houses, paddy fields,
pasture ground etc. from the state. The Nidhanpur grant mentioned that
while land was given individually, pasture ground, water etc were to be used
jointly. The king’s duty was to protect the agricultural fields, forests, irrigation
works, and mines. The boundaries of denoted lands were fixed and hills,
mounds, ponds, tanks, river, beds and such other natural boundaries served
the purpose of demarcating the land. Sometimes artificial boundaries were

also created.
Land formed an important source of revenue of the state as well as
to the donee. We have no definite information regarding the method of
cultivation. Hired labours were probably employed for this purpose.
Cultivation was carried on by the jhuming method since very early period.
The process of replacing this method by ploughing was very slow. Most of
the tribes of the hill areas still follow the jhuming method. The stage by
which Assamese people passed on gradually from jhuming to ploughing
and the extent of cultivation by the latter method at any of the stages is not
definitely known. But our sources indicate that in our period of study Assam
was a very fertile land and fit for cultivation of various crops.
Along with paddy of different varieties, people also cultivated other
crops like pulses, mustard, sugarcane, and various kinds of fruits and
vegetables. The different records mentioned about the plantation of different
fruit trees. Apart from cereals and vegetables, the records also mentioned
about the betel nut and betel leaves growing in abundance. The Kalika
Purana mentioned about a large number of precious trees including Pine,
Sal, Sandalwood, Agaru, etc. According to Mahabharata during the time of
Rajasuya ceremony of Yuddhisthira the King of Pragjyotisha sent presents
which included precious jewels, skin, gold, sandal and aloe wood and heaps
of aromatics. Besides, there was fish. A class of people called Kaivartas
was engaged with the fishing profession.
In ancient Assam the important cities, like Haruppeswara, Durjaya,
Kamrupanagara and Pragjyotishpura were decorated with wide roads,
through which kings, as well as feudatories used to come on the back of
elephants. The Tezpur grant mentioned the existence of broad highways
through which articles of trade were often brought into the big cities. This
naturally helped in the establishment of different types of shops where
jewellery works and articles of gold were exhibited attracting the notice of
the people. The cities were the centres of the foreign trade. The cities made
contributions in the economic field by acting as centres of inter-state and
international trade.
The rivers were also used for transportation and commercial

purposes. The trade with neighbouring states was mainly carried on by the
river transport through the Brahmaputra and the Ganga. Mainly the trade
relation of ancient Assam was with the neighbouring states and foreign
countries like Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), China and Tibet. The chief
articles of trade were silk, silk cloth, lac, aloe wood, musk, gold, ivory, etc.
All the business transaction was carried on by barter. There are references
to gold coins, but not a single of them belonging to the ancient period has
yet been discovered. The earliest reference to the use of cowries is found
in the Banabhatta’s Harshacharita of the 7th century A.D. The Tezpur Rock
Inscription of Harjaravarman indicates that cowrie shells were used for
payment of fines and other petty transactions.
Gold washing and jewellery making seems to be important
occupations of the period, Gold was found in abundance in many rivers of
Assam. The Tezpur grant mentioned that Lauhitya-Sindhu carried gold dust
from the huge golden blocks of Kailasa Mountains. The king was in the
habit of making gifts of Gold and Silver on different occasions. The Bargaon
grant mentioned about the jewellery shops in Durjjaya. Raghuvamsam
mentioned that Kamarupa produced jewels in large quantities. The Silimpur
grant mentioned that King Jayapala made a tulapurush gift of 900 gold coins
to a learned Brahmana.
The Tabaquat-i-Nasiri mentioned about numerous images of gold
and silver and of a huge image of beaten gold. The Bargaon Rock Inscription
of Ratnapala mentioned about existence of copper mine within his kingdom
which yielded him considerable income. The abundance of sculptural and
architectural remains indicates the presence of stone masons and stone
carvers. Thus a large number of people lived on metal working in ivory
engraving and stone carving.
Various minor craft such as the brick making, carpentry, working in
ivory, bell metal, and cane were the other occupations of the people. The
carpenters of ancient Assam were skilful workers. The ivory and bell metal
products of Assam had a great demand both inside and outside the kingdom
of Kamarupa. Another important product was bamboo. The epigraphs
mentioned about the bamboo forests as marking the boundary line of denoted
lands. Epigraphs mentioned that pottery was an important craft in the
villages. The Harshacharita refers to leather workers and distillers of wine.
The forests of Assam supplied resins, aromatic woods etc to the rest of
India and abroad. Pragjyotisha also produced Red Sandal. Agaru was found
abundantly in Assam. Musk was produced in Assam.
The people of ancient Assam also knew about the art of dyeing
which was made of lac, indigo and other products. The lac culture was a
specialty of ancient Assamese people. The epigraphs also mentioned clans
of professional weavers called Tantavayas who were expert in weaving.
The art of rearing cocoons for manufacture of various silk cloths was also
known to the people of Assam. The Harshacharita refers to three different
types of silken cloth.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

a) The arable lands in ancient Assam were known
as…………………….
b) The ……………….. class depended on fish for their livelihood.
Q.4: Name the author of Harshacharita.
.........................………………………………………………………
Q.5: What was found in abundance in many rivers of Assam?
.........................………………………………………………………
Q.6: Name the foreign countries with which ancient Assam had trade
relationship?
.........................………………………………………………………
6.5 RELIGION
Prior to the Aryanisation of Pragjyotisha and the religious influence

of the Brahmanical cult and Vedic rituals and culture, the ancient people
followed the cult of ancestor worship, fertility cult, etc. The megalithic remains
bear testimony to this fact. Pragjyotisha came into contact with Vedic culture
with its rulers establishing the Brahmanas in different parts of the country.
It led to the rapid expansion of a new culture and conversion of the non-
Aryans to Hinduism. The Vedic culture therefore, flourished with the addition
of new deities to its pantheon together with the assimilation of religious
myths and cults of the non Aryans. Fetishism, animism, cult of fertility, human
sacrifices, ancestor worship, etc of the non-Aryan people of Assam became
a part of the Brahmanical religion.
 Brahmanical Religion: The religion propagated by the Brahmanas was
called the Brahmanical religion. The kings of Assam used to issue Copper
plates for granting revenue free lands to Brahmanas thus attracting the
Brahmanas to come and settle in Assam. These Brahmanas belonged to
different gotras. The Brahmanas studied various Vedas, performed rituals
and worshipped diverse Pauranic deities. Brahmanical Hinduism found a
fertile ground in ancient Assam as early as the beginning of the fifth century
A.D. The extent of royal patronage to Brahmans is indicated by the fact that
Harjaravarman had an officer exclusively for looking after the welfare of the
Brahmanas. The Brahmanas hailing from Pragjyotisha received honour
like gifts from rulers of Kalinga and Malwa. The Doobi grant of
Bhaskaravarman provides a clear idea of the nature and scope of the
Brahmanical religion followed in ancient Assam.
The vrata (fasting), danas (donation) were the important aspect of
the Brahmanical religion. The kings donated lands to various Brahmans,
which were treated as religious deeds. Thus, the gifts were made on
auspicious days. The kings made the gifts for earning religions merits not
only for themselves but also for their parents. Brahmanas also performed
the coronation ceremony of the rulers.
As a result of the impact of the impact of the non-Aryan culture,
some important developments took place in Brahmanical religion. The
worship of innumerable gods and goddesses came to occupy important
position in the religious system giving rise to special cults and sectarian
rites and beliefs. There soon arose various religious myths revolving round
these sectarian deities. The extent of Brahmanical religion may be gauged
from the extent sectarian cults like those connected with Shiva, Shakti,
Vishnu and Surya were practised.
 Saivism – The earliest Hindu religion that prevailed in ancient Kamarupa

was Saivism. It was the dominant religion of the ruling dynasties. Saivism
also incorporated some of characteristics of vamacara (left hand procedure)
rites of Saktism. Bhairava Siva invariably came to be associated with his
female energy. Thus, the sharp distinction between the two sects
considerably narrowed down. The Kalika Purana mentioned sects of Saivas
in Assam, viz, the Kalikas and Pasupatas. The former used to perform
gruesome rites. The Yogini-Tantra of 16th century tells about the other two
sub sects of Saivism namely, the Kaulas and Avadhutas dual worship of
Siva and Shakti. The Yogini Tantra and Kalika Purana mentioned that there
two sub-sects of Saivism followed the extreme forms of left hand rituals.
Siva was also worshipped in various forms which were mentioned in
scriptures. He was a very popular deity amongst both the aborigines and
Aryanised people. Epigraphs also mentioned the creation of Siva temples
by the rulers. King Vanamalavarman repaired the lofty temple of Hetuka
Sulin (Saiva). In the Gachtal inscription, king Indrapala is mentioned as
constructing a series of white washed temples dedicated to Shiva. During
his visit Hiuen-Tsang noticed hundreds of Deva temples.
Besides the notable temples there were many other minor Siva temples
and religions than of Siva. The tradition of Devadasis was one of the special
features of Saiva cult that prevailed in ancient Assam.
 Saktism: Saktism is the cult of worshipping female goddess as the
supreme deity. This deity is variously called. Devi Durga, Kali, Kalika,
Kamakhya, Tara etc. Different names imply diverse manifestations of the
same goddess. Thus, Sakti may take to the common name for all the various
forms of his female deity. The goddess has been conceived as the Sakti or
energy Siva, the supreme godhead. The Saktas or the worshippers of this
deity claimed that the goddess is superior to even the supreme godhead.
The Goddess is worshipped in various iconic representations or in
the form of a Yoni symbolizing the creative principle. The Tantras describe
the procedure of worshipping the Goddess. It mentioned broadly two
procedures Vamacara and Samyacara. The Tantras played a great part in
the Sakti worship. Tantricism soon became almost a synonym for Saktism.
Ancient Assam was a very important seat of Saktism. Traditionally Kamarupa

has been recognized as the principle centre of the Sakta cult with its chief
temple at Kamakhya. Kamakhya is distinctly the residence of the goddess.
Kamakhya was probably a tribal mother goddess who was assimilated into
the Brahmanical fold as Siva’s consort.
The Kalika Purana refers to many other seats of Devi worship and
among them the most important was the temple of Tamreswari at Sadiya,
where the goddess in her Kesaikhaiti (eater of raw flesh) form was
propitiated with human and animal sacrifice. This goddess is known as
Dikkarvasini in the Tantras and Puranas.
Kameshwara Maha Gauri was the tutelary deity of the Pala Kings of
Kamarupa. The Salastambhas constructed the second Kamakhya temple
on the Kamakuta hill near Silghat. The extensive ruins of Devi temples and
numerous icons of the goddess in her various forms proved the wide spread
prevalence of Saktism. The God Siva is also invariably named along with
the Goddess. There is hardly any reference to the Sakta cult in the later
epigraph of ancient Assam. During the period, the cult of Vishnu largely
regained popularity and royal patronage.
The worship of Surya or the Sun God was also prevalent in ancient
Assam. This is referred in the Markandeya Purana where the king
Rajyavardhana retired to the forest due to old age and the Brahmanas of
the kingdom offered prayers to the sun god to restore his youth. Among the
other Brahmanical deities worship of Surya occupied a very prominent
position. Taranatha’s account also gives evidence of sun worship.
The Kalika Purana gives evidences of the worship of the Sun God
as it refers to the Raviksetra on the Tattva hill which is now identified as Sri
Surya Pahar and Citrasala called Prakparvata latter identified as the
Navagraha. Though the present temple was constructed by Ahom King
Rajeswar Singha in (1752) but Kalika Purana mentions that tradition of the
Navagraha worship may be traced back to the 9th or 10th.
Pragjyotisha was the centre of sun worship as is mentioned in the
Griha Sutras. According to Taranath, before the introduction of Buddhism,
the people of Kamarupa were sun worshippers. The icons of this deity are
found throughout the state.
 Vaishnavism: Vaishnavism is the cult of worshipping Vishnu as the

Supreme deity any one of his several forms. It existed in Assam from very
early times. Many of the rulers of Kamarupa trace their lineage to Vishnu.
Pragjyotisha had long been associated with Vishnu worship. Naraka is said
to have traced his descent from the Boar incarnation of Vishnu. The
Barganga epigraphs mentioned king Bhutivarman as Parama-Daivata-
Paramabhagavata. All the records of the period refer to the Boar incarnation
of Vishnu and mentioned some of his popular names. In Hayagriva Madhava
temple at Hajo the god Vishnu is still worshipped. Archaeological remain
and icons of the deity indicate that Vaishnavism prospered fairly well from
the 5th century onwards. The Kalika Purana mentioned about the procedure
of the worship of Vishnu.
 Buddhism: Buddhism was prevalent in ancient Assam before the visit
of Hiuen Tsang to the land. According to Taranath it was Dhitika who
propagated Buddhism in Kamrupa. Asvabhava spread the Mahayana cult
in this land. The tradition that was in prevalence in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan and
Assam mentioned that Buddha died in Kamrupa near Hayagriva Madhava
temple at Hajo, which in still visited by pilgrims from Bhutan and Tibet. This
proves that by the first century A.D, Buddhism entered into Kamrupa.
In the Rajtarangini, Kalhana mentioned that the Kamarupa queen of
Meghavahana of Kashmir brought with her a Tibetan Buddhist monk residing
in her father’s court, which proved the prevalence of the faith about this
time. Bhaskaravarman though a Saivite was interested in the faith. He
assured Hiuen Tsang to build one hundred monasteries in case the latter
agreed to stay in his Kingdom. It indicates Bhaskaravarman’s leaning
towards Buddhism. Kamarupa is also associated with number of Buddhist
scholars and Siddhas.
Besides these major cults, there were other minor religions such
as the worship of Ganesha, Kartikeya, Indra, Agni, Kubera and Manasa.
We have no definite knowledge of these cults. Perhaps their adherents
were very few, although sculptures and icons of these deities have been
discovered.

During this period, there was no evidence of major conflicts between

the civil authority and adherents of various cults in Ancient Assam. The
rulers patronised the Vedic religion and culture. There was no possibility on
internecine strife between these sects. There was no warring sect in Ancient
Assam. The evidence indicates that there was peaceful co-existence of
various cults in Ancient Assam. The rulers patronized all the sects equally.
A case in the point is Sri Surya Pahar in Goalpara district where Buddhist
Stupas, Jain and Brahmanical Hindu deities still stand today.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.7: Which cult was followed by the people of

ancient Assam?
.............................……………………………………………………
Q.8: Name two important aspects of the Brahmanical religion.
.............................……………………………………………………
Q.9: Name the ruler of ancient Assam who repaired the temple of Hetuka
Sulin?
.............................……………………………………………………
Q.10: Kesaikhaiti refers to which cult of religious worship?
.............................……………………………………………………
a. Kalhana 1. Kashmir
b. Meghavahana 2. Chinese Pilgrim
c. Hiuen Tsang 3. Rajtarangini
6.6 LET US SUM UP
After going through this unit you have learnt about

 the social condition that was in vogue in ancient Kamarupa, the caste
system, the different types of social rituals regarding marriage,
inheritance, the varna jati system, etc.

 economically, barter system was prevalent in ancient Assam but there

are also evidences of the use of gold coins and cowries. Trade formed
an important aspect of transaction with the contemporary neighboring
countries.
 In the field of religion, the primitive religion came under the influence
of Hinduism and henceforth the Brahmanas were responsible for
bringing a new trend in religion. Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti was worshipped.
There are evidences of the sun god being worshipped.
 There are doubts as regard the spread of Buddhism in ancient
Kamarupa, but the prevalence of Buddhism in ancient Assam is
provided by the literary sources. The Aryanisation process in ancient
Assam had its impact on the fabric of the society, be it economy or
religion.
6.7 FURTHER READING
1. Barpujari, H.K. ( 2003): The Comprehensive History of Assam, Volume-

2. Barua, S.L.(1996): A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram
Manuharlal Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: a) Alpines, Brahmanas b) Endi, Muga, Pat c) Dayabhaga

Ans to Q No 2: a) True, b) False
Ans to Q No 3: a) Kshetra, b) Kaivartas
Ans to Q No 4: Banabhatta
Ans to Q No 5: Gold
Ans to Q No 6: Sri Lanka, Myanmar, China and Tibet.
Ans to Q No 7: The Cult of ancestor worship and fertility cult was followed
by the people of ancient Assam.
Ans to Q No 8: Dana or charity and vrata or fasting.

Ans to Q No 9: Vanamalavarman
Ans to Q No 10: Saktism
Ans to Q No 11: (a) 3, b) 1, c) 2
6.9 MODEL QUESTIONS
A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question within 50 words)

Q 1: Who was the tutelary deity of the Pala Kings of Kamarupa?
Q 2: What were the most practised forms of marriage in ancient Assam ?
Q 3: Mention two important occupations of the ancient Assam.
Q 4: .....................................was found in abundance in many rivers of
Assam. (fill in the blank)
B) Short Questions (Answer each question within 150 words)

Q 1: Write a short note on:
a) Status of women in ancient Assam
b) Caste system
c) Saktism
d) Vaishnavism
Q 2: Briefly discuss the economy of the ancient Assam.

Q 1: Discuss the social conditions in ancient Assam.
Q 2: Describe the economic condition of ancient Assam.
Q 3: Write a critical note on the religious condition of ancient Assam.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 7: ADMINISTRATION IN ANCIENT ASSAM
UNIT STRUCTURE
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Central and Local Administration
7.4 Judicial Administration
7.5 Revenue Administration
7.6 Defense Administration
7.7 Let Us Sum Up
7.8 Further Reading
7.10 Model Questions

 discuss the central as well as local administration,
 know the judicial administration,
 describe the revenue administration of ancient Assam,
 discuss the defense administration of ancient Assam.
7.2 INTRODUCTION
The polity and administration of a state are inter-related. Polity is in

fact the guideline depending upon which the type of administrative machinery
of a state is determined in order to preserve the integrity of the state and to
look after the welfare of the subjects. The nature or form of the government
whether absolutely monarchical or limitedly monarchical varied and
depended upon the will of the people which was considered as supreme.
In Assam it is not possible to say when an organized state was
established. Due to dearth of source material it is very much difficult to
give a clear and precise account of the administration in ancient Assam.
Our primary sources of information are the epigraphic references and the
Kalika Purana, where there is a chapter on Rajaniti, which too is only on the
Administration in Ancient Assam Unit 7
duties of the king and the ministers. But from these sources, it can be said
that ancient Assam followed the general pattern of administration that existed
in contemporary India.
LET US KNOW
According to the Bargaon Copper Plates of Ratnapala

and Kamauli grant of Vaidyadeva, the state was
conceptualized as being constituted of seven component parts called
Saptanga viz, the king (svamin), minister (amatya), territory (janapada),
fort (durga), treasury (kosa), army (danda), and ally (mitra). The Kalika
Purana also lays importance on these elements and calls them
Rajyangam.
 GENERAL ADMINISTRATION OF ANCIENT ASSAM

Monarchy was the general form of government in ancient Assam.
The king being the head of the administration occupied the commanding
position in the State. The chief title of the king was Maharajadhiraja. Most
of the kings bore high sounding honorifics as Paramesvara
Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja (the great God, supreme sovereign,
Maharajadhiraja- A king
king of kings). The kings were consecrated according to Vedic rites and
of kings, implying the
rituals which formed the pattern of the ruler’s life and their achievements.
presence of subordinate
Thus, they performed Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) despite the limited extent rulers.
of their Kingdom as such a sacrifice showed the strength of the king. The
symbol of royalty of Kamarupa kings appears to be the royal umbrella of
moon like whiteness together with the Chowries. It was known as Abhoga.
In general, monarchy was hereditary. The reigning king himself,
nominated his son as successor in the presence of the people. It was done
by Chandramukhavarman for his son Sthitivarman when the latter had
completed his education. But under exceptional circumstances, like the
absence of legitimate male issue, kings were also elected by the ministers
and officials. For instance Brahmapala, the founder of the Pala dynasty
was chosen by the ministers and officials.
There had to be certain princely qualities in the ruler that included

Unit 7 Administration in Ancient Assam
soundness of health, personal attainments and knowledge of the

Dharmasastras (law books). In case of absence of princely qualities, the
law of primogeniture was set aside and another prince having the princely
qualities and considered qualified was made the king. At the death of
Balavarman, his two sons Chakra and Arathi were not allowed to rule and
the throne was offered to Harjaravarman, son of Arathi. Sometimes there
was voluntary abdication of throne by the rulers. The rulers were conscious
of their physical limitations. When they failed to look after the interests of
their subjects they preferred to step down in favour of an energetic and
younger successor. Vanamalavarman, Jayamala and Brahmapala abdicated
the throne in favour of their respective sons.
The rulers of ancient Assam associated themselves with the concept
of divinity. They traced their descent from Varaha or the boar incarnation of
Vishnu (the Vedic God). They were sometimes identified or compared with
Gods. This divinity attached to the personality of the ruler had two objectives
– First, to enjoin the head of the state to function in a paternal spirit providing
protection to his subjects and looking after their welfare. Secondly, to demand
total allegiance and devotion from the subjects.
7.3 CENTRAL AND LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
 Central Administration
The king as the head of the state looked after the smooth functioning
of the administrative machinery ensuring prompt action and maintaining
the rule of law. The early inscriptions mention the ruler’s easy accessibility
to his subjects for the redress of their grievances. The rulers also made
personal efforts to protect the established socio-religious order. The issue
of edicts (sasana) by the ruler signified his highest authority which was
exercised even in trivial matters like impositions of fines, etc. The rulers
gifted away lands and bestowed grants on the learned Brahmans in
recognition of their academic talents and to others for rendering service.
The Nidhanpur Copper Plates mention that the rulers of ancient
Assam also maintained and protected the Varnasramadharma and
established the Brahmanas in different parts of the kingdom, usually amongst

the Non-Aryan people. The kings also patronized learning and education
and promoted different arts and crafts. Most of the kings of Pragjyotisha
were themselves men of learning.
In the affairs of administration, the king used to be assisted by a
Council of Ministers. But the actual strength of the Council is not known.
The existing sources imply that the ministership was mostly the monopoly
of the Brahmanas. The Kalika Purana states that a king should appoint
learned and wise Brahmanas as ministers and the Kamauli grant shows
that these posts were generally held by the Brahmanas and were often
hereditary. The ministers are referred to in the inscriptions as Mantrins,
Amatyas and Sachivas. The eldest son of the king used to be the Crown-
Prince who and he often helped the king in the administration of the land.
The Crown-Prince was sometimes appointed as the governor of a province
or Bhukti.
A set of officials used to help the king in discharging the duties which
included the Rajaguru (royal priest), Bhisaja (physician), Mahadvaradhipati
(chief warden of the passes), Mahapratihara (head chamberlain), etc. The
Hayungthal Copper Plate of Harjaravarman mentions Jayadeva as
Mahadvaradhipati and Janardana as the Mahapratihara. The Nagaon
Copper Plates of Balavarman mentions one Mahallakapraudhika, an old
lady, who was probably in charge of the royal harem. There were various
classes of messengers called Dutaka who performed the duties of couriers
and served as peace time messengers and escorts. The Lekhaka were
the scribes who recorded administrative matters and functions as clerks.
 Local Administration
The detailed working of the local administration in ancient Assam is
not definitely known. The local units did not enjoy much autonomy and the
rulers tried their utmost to extent their influence upon them by insuring
sasanas, the infringement of which was properly dealt with. The kingdom
was divided into several administrative units namely, the Bhukti, Mandala,
Vishaya, Pura and Agrahara. Some inscriptions mentioned about the two
main division of the Kingdom the land on the North bank of the Brahmaputra
was called Uttarakuladesa and the land in the South bank known as
Dakhinakuladesa.
The Bhukti was the biggest administrative division used to denote a

province. It was under the administrative charge of the Princes of the royal
blood who had his organisation in that area with its headquarters at a
convenient place. Another administrative division was the Mandala.
Corresponding to a modern district, there were many Vishayas. The head
of the Vishayas was called Vishayapati who had his Adhikarana (office) at
the Adhisthana (headquarter) and was helped by several officers like
Vishayamatyas (district officer) Nyayakaranika (judicial officer),
Vyavaharika (a clerk) and Kayastha (a scribe). Below it was the Pura which
was the city. Then was the Agrahara which was a unit made up of many
villages or gramas.
It is difficult to say anything about the municipal administration in
ancient Assam as the sources are very meagre. On the basis of the
epigraphic and literary sources it can be said that the capital cities were
situated on the banks of the river Brahmaputra. They were well fortified and
provided with good amenities like a network of roads water-supply, places
of amusements and beautiful groves. Haruppeswara and Durjaya had well
decorated and extensive buildings, beautiful palaces and white washed
temples. The cities and towns were inhabited by learned men and others.
But the records did not mention any thing about the offices and officials in
charge of urban administration. Same is the case about village administration
in ancient Assam. Each village had a village headman who was perhaps
helped in the administration of the village by an advisory body or the council
of elders. The village officials had to discharge civil, revenue and other duties
and were responsible for the internal safety of the village under their
jurisdiction.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

a) The Kalika Purana has a chapter on ……………
b) The chief title of the king was the ……………………
c) The ………….. was the biggest administrative division.
d) ……………. was a unit made up of many villages.

Q.2: Write True/ False:

a) Monarchy was the general form of government in ancient
Assam. ( True/ False)
b) Chandramukhavarman nominated his son Susthitavarman as
the king of Kamarupa. (True/ False)
c) Bhisaja used to be the royal priest. (True/ False)
d) Haruppeswara and Durjaya had well decorated and extensive
buildings, beautiful palaces and white washed temples. (True/
False)
7.4 JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION
The inscriptions of ancient Assam indicate that justice was

administered according to Hindu law books. The rulers were the abode of
justice. The land grants contain sasanas promulgated by the rulers which
were binding on the officers and subjects concerned and violation of these
was a punishable offence. These sasanas had the force of Law. The Kamauli
grant of Vaidyadeva mentions about one Govinda Govardana, who was
probably a judge through whom Vaidyadeva communicated the royal orders.
There were probably courts of justice at the capital and local
administrative units. Some officers are mentioned in the inscription namely,
Nyayakaranika, Vyavaharika, Kayastha, Dandika, Dandapasika, etc who
used to perform the judicial functions. The Nidhanpur Copper Plates of
Bhaskaravarman mentioned that Nyayakaranika Janardana Swami not only
dealt with justice but also acted as an adjudicator who after proper inspection
demarcated the boundaries of land and settled all cases of land disputes.
Vyavaharika was perhaps a judicial administrator or lawyer. Kayastha was
a clerk. Dandika was probably a magistrate who gave verdict in the court
with the actual orders being carried out by the Dandapasika who inflicted
the punishment.
In the epigraphs we also found the name of two types of police
officers namely, Chauroddharanika and Chata-bhata. The former was a
junior police officer with the charge of apprehending the thieves and
recovering stolen property. The duties of latter had not been well defined.
Probably they had the duty of apprehension of criminals mainly in the country
side.
We do not know about the procedure of trials. The witnesses were
summoned for trial. Oaths and ordeals might also have been used. Nothing
could be said about the nature of punishment given to the criminals, except
that fines were imposed.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.3: Who were abodes of justice?

..........……………………………………………………
Q.4: Name two officers who used to perform judicial functions?
.........................………………………………………………………
Q.5: Who was the junior police officer?
.........................………………………………………………………
7.5 REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
The rulers of ancient Assam had an effective revenue administration.

The principle sources of revenue were regular taxes, occasional taxes,
commercial levies, fines, income from state properties and tribute from
feudatories. The principal source of revenue was however the land revenue
known as Kara and Upakara or Upaskara levied on the cultivators. The share
of Kara and Upakara cannot be ascertained, but it could be paid in cash or in
kind.
LET US KNOW
Land was of different categories such as Kshetra (arable

land), Khila (waste land), Vastu (building sites) and
Apakristabhumi (inferior land). These classifications were specifically
made for the purpose of proper assessment of taxes.
Apart from the Kara and Upakara collected in the form of regular
tax, some occasional taxes were also levied from the cultivators on special
occasions in the form of Uparikara and Utkhetana. Besides, there was

Chata-bhata-pravesan collected at the time of the arrival of regular and

irregular military and police forces. The commercial taxes included the
custom duties and tolls or Sulka.
For the assessment of land revenue, the villages were grouped in
units of twelve or less than twelve. We find reference to various types of
land officials connected with the realization of revenue, settlement and
alienation of land in the records of ancient Assam. Officers associated with
revenue administration included Dattakarapurna (tax collector), Uparika
(officer in charge of recovery of the Uparikara tax), Utkhetika (officer in
charge of collecting Utkhetana tax), etc. Land revenues were also collected
through the heads of the local administrative units. There were also clerks,
accountants and scribes attached to the revenue department.
Both collective and individual land tenure were prevalent in ancient
Assam. A single donee could hold along with arable land, pastures and
water reservoirs. All the land grants were to be registered. All the documents
of the land grants were kept in the custody of the Karanika (registrar of
documents) in the record office called Adhikarana. Lands granted to the
Brahmanas were called Brahmadaya land-grants which were revenue free
and immune from all harassments. Land endowments were also made to
temples and other religious institutions known as Dharmottara and
Devottara land grants in later times. With hills, mounds, tanks, trees river
beds, etc as landmarks, the boundaries of the donated lands were clearly
demarcated by an officer called Simapradatta.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

a) The land revenue was known as ……………..
b) Dattakarapurna was a ……………………….
c) The record office is called ………………..
d) Lands granted to the ……………… were called Brahmadaya
land-grants.

7.6 DEFENSE ORGANISATION
The geographical position of the kingdom of Pragjyotisha demanded

a strong defensive system with an organized standing army to meet any
external threat or internal trouble. The stakes were rather high for preserving
the integrity of the state. The warlike qualities of the rulers and their deeds
of heroism distinguished them not only as good kings, but also as great
heroes. From the epigraphic records it can be said that most of the rulers
were themshelves expert warriors and fought bravely in the battle field.
The rulers of Pragjyotisha were not solely dependent on the
Mahasamamantas and Samantas (tributary chiefs) who provided forces
to render military service, but also had their own organized military as well.
In organising the army, the king was probably assisted by the war minister.
Under him there was a Mahasenapati (commander-in-chief). Then under
the Mahasenapati there were other officers called Senadhyaksha,
Baladhyaksha, etc. In times of war, the king was also assisted by the
tributary chiefs, who commanded their own detachments.
The division of the army was traditionally a fourfold one consisting
of different wings namely, infantry, cavalry, elephants and ships mainly for
carrying troops across the rivers. The Nidhanpur grant mentions that
Bhaskaravarman’s camp at Karnasuvarna consisted of splendid ships,
elephants, horses and infantry. The soldiers were recruited from all classes
of people including the Brahmanas. The Tezpur grant of Vanamalavarman
states that the foot soldiers along with other units of the army were stationed
in the city of Haruppeswara. Elephant formed an integral part of the
Pragjyotisha army as there were elephants in abundance in the forests of
Assam as referred in the epigraphic and literary evidences. Hiuen Tsang
states that Bhaskaravarman went to meet Harshavardhana with 20,000
elephants. But cavalry had a less important position because of want of
good horses. Horses in large numbers were imported into Bengal and
Kamarupa from Tibet as mentioned in the Tabaquat-i-Nasiri. The
development of the art of shipping was promoted by the state. Epigraphic
evidences contain references to the royal navy and naval victory of the

rulers of ancient Assam over their enemies. Hwui li further states that
Bhaskaravarman went to meet Harshavardhana up the Ganges with a flotilla
of 30,000 ships.
The soldiers were well trained and were capable of handling all types
of weapons. The chief weapons of war were Asi (sword), Parasu (axe),
Khatvanga (spear) and Gada (mace) along with bow and arrow. Then people
of Assam were expert archers. The Doobi grant mentions Chakra (wheel),
Discus, Javelin, etc. Kavacha (armour) used by the soldiers to protect
themshelves while fighting in the battle field. Nothing much can be said
about the different kinds of warfare. The rulers and his soldiers adhered to
the ethics of warfare. The defeated rulers were accorded proper place and
shown due respect. The Hayungthal and Guwahati grants, mentioned that
such defeated rulers were present in the hall of audience of the ruling
monarch and at the time of coronation.
The architectural remains and literary references indicate the
existence of numerous forts in different parts of ancient Assam. These
forts were triangular, semi-circular, circular or square. The cities of
Pragjyotishpur, Haruppeswara, Durjaya and Kamrupanagara were well
fortified by natural barriers and forts. Actual remains of forts and
embankments of the ancient period are found at places like Guwahati,
Dimapur, Biswanath, Numaligarh, Tezpur and Sadiya.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
a) The rulers of Pragjyotisha were not depended

on the Mahasamamantas and Samantas. (True/False)
(b) The division of the army was traditionally a fourfold one. (True/
False)
(c) The soldiers were not capable of handling all types of
weapons. (True/False)

7.7 LET US SUM UP
After going through this unit you have learnt about

 There was a strong central government along with local administrative
units.
 The judicial, revenue and military administration have also being
discussed in this unit.
7.8 FURTHER READING
1. Barpujari, H.K. ( 2003): The Comprehensive History of Assam, Volume-


PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: a) Rajaniti, b) Maharajadhiraja, c) Bhukti, d) Agrahara

Ans to Q No 2: a) True, b) False, c) False, d) True
Ans to Q No 3: The rulers were dispensers of justice.
Ans to Q No 4: Nyayakaranika, Dandika.
Ans to Q No 5: Chauroddharanika.
Ans to Q No 6: a) Kara, b) Tax collector, c) Adhikarana, d) Brahmanas
Ans to Q No 7: a) True, b)True, c)False
7.7 MODEL QUESTIONS
A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question within 50 words)

Q 1: Who was Mahasenapati?
Q 2: Who was the head of the administration in ancient Assam?

Q 3: Who was Dandika?

Q 4: Who was Simapradatta?
B) Short Questions (Answer each question within 150 words)

Q 1: Write briefly about the military administration of ancient Assam.
Q 2: What do you know about the revenue administration of ancient
Assam?

Q 1: Discuss the central and local administration of ancient Assam.
Q 2: Describe the revenue administration of ancient Assam.
*** ***** ***

REFERENCES (For All Units of the Course)
1. Barpujari, H. K. (2003): The Comprehenhive History of Assam, Vol-

ume-I, Publication Board, Assam, Guwahati
5. Gait, Edward: A History of Assam

FOUR YEAR UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMME
(CBCS and Accordance with NEP 2020)
HISTORY OF ASSAM UPTO THE 16TH CENTURY C.E
Block-2
(Discipline Specific Core Course/Discipline Specific Minor

Course)
SEMESTER-IV
Surya Kumar Bhuyan School of Social Sciences

KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY
Subject Experts
1. Prof. Paromita Das, Gauhati University

2. Prof. Rajiv Handique, Gauhati University
3. Dr. Bornali Sarmah, Cotton University
Course Coordinator : Dr. Priti Salila Rajkhowa, Asst. Prof. (KKHSOU)

SLM Preparation Team
UNITS CONTRIBUTORS
8 Muktar Rahman Saikia, St. John College Dimapur, Nagaland

9 Dr. Sukmaya Lama, KKHSOU
10,14, 15 Dr. Sanghamitra Sarma, Tihu College
12, 13 Dr. Mridutpal Goswami, Dudhnoi College
Dr. Priti Salila Rajkhowa, KKHSOU
Editorial Team
Content (English Version) : Prof. Paromita Das, Deptt. of History, GU
Language (English Version) : Rabin Goswami, Retd. Professor, Deptt. of English,
Cotton College
Structure, Format & Graphics : Dr. Priti Salila Rajkhowa, KKHSOU
March, 2023
© Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University

This Self Learning Material (SLM) of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State University
is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0
License (International) : http.//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Printed and published by Registrar on behalf of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open
University.
Head Office : Patgaon, Rani Gate, Guwahati-781017; Web : www.kkhsou.in

City Campus: Housefed Complex, Dispur, Guwahati-781006
The University acknowledges with thanks the financial support provided by the
Distance Education Bureau, UGC for preparation of this study material.

UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMME
HISTORY OF ASSAM UPTO THE 16TH CENTURY AD
DETAILED SYLLABUS
BLOCK - 2
CONTENTS Pages
UNIT 8 : Sources of Medieval Assam 91-104

Literary and Archeological administration
UNIT 9 : Early Muslim Invasion of Assam 105-116

Turko-Afghan, Muhammad Bin- Tughlaq, Ghiyassuddin Azam
of Bengal
UNIT 10: State Formation in Medieval Assam 117-129

State formation of the Ahoms, State formation of the Chutiyas,
State formation of the Bhuyans
UNIT 11: Expansion and Consolidation of the Ahom Empire 130-148

Ahom Expansionist Policies, Westward Expansion
UNIT 12: Society, Economy and Religion During the Ahom Period 149-166
Society, Economy, Religion
UNIT 13: The Koches 167-174

Origin of the Koches, Viswa Simha, Naranarayana,
Partition of the Koch Kingdom
UNIT 14: Cultural and Architectural Developments in the Medieval Period 175-186
Palaces, Temples and other monuments, Literature, Cultural
developments
UNIT 15: Women in the Medieval Assam 187-197

Social condition, Political condition of women in the medieval
Assam
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
This is the Second block of the course History of Assam up to the 16th century AD and
it consists of eight Units. The Block will highlight the history of medieval Assam in detail.
The eight unit is the Sources of Medieval Assam. The unit discusses different sources of
medieval Assam.
The ninth unit Early Muslim Invasion of Assam discusses the Turko-Afhgan invasion, invasion of
Muhammad- Bin- Tughlaq, Ghiyasuddin Azam and Hussain Sahis of Bengal.
The tenth unit State Formation in Medieval Assam discusses the state formation process of the
Ahoms, The Chutiyas and the Bhuyans.
The eleventh unit Expansion and Consolidation of the Ahom Empire throws light on the
expansionist policies of the Ahoms and consolidation of the Ahom empire in detail.
The twelfth unit Society, Economy and Religion During the Ahom Period. The unit discusess the
society, economic condition and religion during the Ahom rule.
The thirteenth unit The Koches. The unit discusses the origin of the Koches, role of Viswa
Simha and Naranaryana in the establishment of the Koch kingdom.
The fourteenth unit Cultural and Architectural Developments in the Medieval Period. The unit
deals with the literary developments, cultural developments and the origin of the Vaishnavite movements
in medieval Assam.
The Fifteenth unit is Women in Medieval Assam. This unit discusses the political, social and
economic condition of the women in the medieval Assam.
While going through this paper, you will notice that some boxes are put in the left hand or right
hand side of the text. These boxes are meant to serve the purpose of in-text glossary for you. Again, you
may find some boxes marked with: “LET US KNOW”. These boxes will provide you with some additional
interesting and relevant information. The boxes marked with “ACTIVITY” will help you in making your
learning more active and efficient. And, at the end of each section, you will get “CHECK YOUR PROGRESS”
questions. These have been designed to self-check your progress of study. It will be better if you solve
the problems put in these boxes immediately after you go through the sections of the units and then
match your answers with “ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS” given at the end of each unit.

UNIT 8: SOURCES OF MEDIEVAL ASSAM
UNIT STRUCTURE
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Sources of Medieval Assam
8.3.2 Archeological Sources
8.4 Let Us Sum Up
8.5 Further Reading
8.7 Model Questions

 identify various literary sources of medieval Assam,
 discuss the archeological sources of medieval Assam.
8.2 INTRODUCTION
Sources are the backbone of any historical study. Like the ancient
period of Assam history, there are various materials to study the medieval
period of Assam history. Now in this unit, we shall discuss the sources of
medieval history of Assam.
8.3 SOURCES OF MEDIEVAL ASSAM
For the reconstruction of the past, literary sources are very

important. We can further sub-divide the Literary Sources into
Indigenous and Foreign Literature. Now we are going to discuss
both the Indigenous and Foreign literary sources.
 Indigenous Literature : Among the indigenous literature of the
medieval period, the Buranjis were the foremost one. The Ahoms

Unit 8 Sources of Medieval Assam
started a procedure of keeping records of all events of the time in a

set of documents called Buranjis. Buranji is an Ahom word meaning
“a store house of knowledge that enlightens the ignorant”. Basically,
it is a chronicle dealing with the political events of the period. Some
of the Buranjis are much bigger in volume covering all the topics
related to political history and are called Lai-Lik-Buranji in Tai Ahom
language. Other Buranjis are small, narrating a single event only
and are called Lit Buranji in Tai Ahom language. In Assamese the
Lai-Lik-Buranji is called Barpahi Buranji and the Lit Buranji is known
as Katha. The earlier Buranjis were written in the Tai-Ahom language.
However, from the time of Suhungmung (1497-1539), the Buranjis
were also written in the Assamese language. An officer called
Gandhia Phukan was in charge of the Buranjis in the royal
possession. Buranjis were made up-to-date with fresh information
and later additions.
LET US KNOW
The reports of the frontier officers, reports of the

ambassadors, architectural plan, accounts of the
Satras, etc were also termed as Buranjis with
different appellations like Datiyalia Buranji, Kataki Buranji, Chang-
rung Phukanar Buranji and Satria Buranji.
The Ahom Buranji from Khunlung and Khunlai covers the

period from the reign of the Ahom rulers from Khunlung and Khunlai
to Rudra Singha. It gives a systematic and most complete
indigenous history of Ahom-Mughal relations. But it is silent on Koch
Bihar and Kamrup affairs. Then there is an almost complete and
comprehensive Ahom Buranji from the earliest time down to the
reign of Purandar Singha (1832-1838) in Tai-Ahom language. It is
divided into two parts namely Deo-Buranji, consisting of the mythical
and heavenly history upto descent of Khunlung and Khunlai and
Din-Buranji, history of the rise and fall of the Ahom power in Assam
involving actual historical figures.
Sources of Medieval Assam Unit 8
The Purani Asam Buranji covers the period from Sukapha

to Gadadhar Singha. It provides us a full record of the Muhammadan
wars in Assamese. The Satsari Asam Buranji is a collection of seven
old Assamese Buranjis. The Deodhai Asam Buranji is a collection
of some old chronicles in Assamese describing the earlier period of
Ahom history. It includes the relations of the Ahom with the
neighboring tribes namely, the Koches, Jayantias, Kacharis, Mikirs,
Chutias, Naras and Mantaras, the Ahom-Mughal relation, social
customs, administration of the Ahoms, etc.
Assam Buranji Puthi is a history of the Ahom rulers from the
earliest times to the British occupation of Assam. It is apparently based
on older Buranjis. It was completed by Kashinath Tamuli Phukan and
revised by Radhanath Barua. Asamar Padya Buranji has two metrical
chronicles, Kalibharat Buranji and Belimar Buranji, covering the period
from 1679 to 1858. It provides the history of internal dissensions and
foreign invasions at the close of the Ahom rule along with the early
days of the East India Company’s rule in Assam. The Tungkhungia
Buranji was written towards the close of the Ahom rule by a member
of the Ahom cabinet, Srinath Duara Barbarua, and deals with the rule
of the Tungkhungia clan of the Ahom kings from Gadadhar Singha to
Kamaleswar Singha (1681-1810 A.D.).
There are some Buranjis on the tribes of Assam. There is
the Chutia Buranji found in the year 1850 by Robinson who published
it in the Orunodoi, the first Assamese newspaper. It describes the
history of the Chutiyas from 1189 to the dismemberment of their
kingdom in the 16 th century. The names of the kings are
chronologically arranged and the dates are mentioned in the Saka
Era. The Kachari Buranji was written in the early part of the 18th
century and deals with Ahom-Kachari relations from the end of the
14th century to the beginning of the 18th century. It provides glimpses
of the earliest settlements of the Kacharis and the different centres
of their government till a powerful section of them established a
new capital at Dimapur and then at Maibong and Khaspur. This
transfer of the capital was due to the pressure upon the Kachari
monarchs by their powerful neighbour and rival- the Ahoms. The
Jayantia Buranji and the Tripura Buranji deal with the diplomatic
relations of the Ahom with the kingdom of Jayantia and Tripura
respectively.
The Padshah Buranji acquainted the people of Assam with
the history of the rise and growth of the Muslim Power in India and
the manners and customs of the invaders. This Buranji dealt with
the Badshahs of Delhi, from the establishment of Muslim supremacy
in India, upto the second half of the 17th century. The Kamarupar
Buranji compiled towards the end of the 17th century deals with the
war of Assam (including Koch Bihar) with the Mughals. The
Muhammedan wars during the reign of the Ahom kings Pratap
Singha, Jayadhvaj Singha, Chakradhvaj Singha and Gadadhar
Singha are narrated in detail. An Asam Buranji obtained from the
family of Sukumar Mahanta provides us information on the Ahom
ancestors and on their ancestral kingdom. It also deals with the
history of Assam from the commencement of Ahom rule till the
accession of Gadadhar Singha in 1681 A.D. in a very lucid manner.
The Assamese noble families used to keep a Vamsavali,
which was the genealogical account of the family. This represents
the life and career of the family ancestors. Some of the royal families
like Koch Rajas of Darrang and the Chiefs of the tributary states like
Rani and Dimarua maintained their own Vamsavalis. These
Vamsavalis along with furnishing an account of their respective
families throw light on their relations with the Ahom kings and socio-
political conditions of the period. The Darrang Raj Vamsavali was
the most comprehensive one providing an account of the Koch kings
from their rise to power till the death of Parikshit. The Bhuyans had
their genealogy and history maintained in a class of Vamsavali called
Bhuyar Puthi. There are also Satriya Vamsavalis providing
information on the history of the foundation of Satras, life and career
of their religious head and their relation with the ruling power. Most
important of them are Mayamara Satrar Vamsavali and the Dihing

Satrar Vamsavali.
The Koch chronicle, the Rajopakhyan written by Jadu Nath
Ghose, a Koch Bihar official under king Harendra Narayan in the
first quarter of the 19th century provides us a coherent account of
the entire Koch rule. There is the Tai-Ahom chronicle Weissalisa
providing us information on the Burmese invasions of Assam.
Besides the Buranjis, there are vast Vaishnava literatures
providing information on the socio-economic history of medieval
Assam. The central theme of the Vaishnava literature centred round
religion and dealt mainly with the lives and works of the Vaishnava
religious heads. These works are known as Charit Puthis or
hagiographies (biographies of saints) like the Kathagurucharita.
They also provided information on the socio-economic life of the
people, not found in the Buranjis. Assamese literature has a large
stock of a variety of folk-songs, wedding songs, nursery songs,
ballads, etc. Besides, there were the mantras or incarnations. All of
these offer a glimpse into the religious and socio-cultural as well as
economic life of Assam.
 Foreign Literature The indigenous sources on medieval Assam
are occasionally supplemented by accounts of contemporary foreign
travellers and adventurers from about the end of the 16th century.
The Tabaquat-i-Nasiri written by Minhaj-ul-Siraj gives a
detailed account of the first three Muslim invasions of Assam. Tarikh-
i-Firoz-Shahi by Ziau-din-Barani contains rare materials regarding
the history of Kamatapur. The Akbarnamah and Ain-i-Akbari by
Shaikh Abul Fazl throws light on the beginning of the aggressive
Mughal North-East frontier policy and the subsequent Koch-Mughal
relation. Muntakhab- ut- Tawarikh of Abdul Qadir or Badauni throws
light on a descriptive manner upon the contact between Assam and
the Mughals. Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, the autobiography of Emperor
Jahangir refers to the hostility between Lakshmi Narayan, king of
Koch Bihar and Parikshit Narayan, king of Kamrup (Koch Hajo),
leading to the Ahom-Mughal conflict during the last quarter of 16th

century and the conquest of Koch Hajo by the Mughals. Baharistan-
i-Ghaibi by Mirza Nathan, primarily a memoir also provides
information on the history of the Mughal conflict with the Koches
and the Ahoms in the early part of the 17th century. Padshahnamah
by Abdul Hamid Lahori, the official history of the first two decades of
Shah Jahan’s reign also throws light on the domestic conflict between
Lakshmi Narayan of Koch Bihar and Parikshit Narayan of Koch Hajo.
Alamgirnamah by Mirza Muhammad Kazim is the official
history of the first decade of the reign of Aurangzeb. It gives
information on the Ahom-Mughal conflict of that period. It includes
Mir Jumla’s aggressive imperialism in Koch Bihar and Assam.
Fathiyyah-i-Ibriyyah written by Shihabuddin Talish is the history of
Mir Jumla’s conquest of Koch Bihar and of Assam till his death in
March, 1663 and the return of the victorious army. Besides, the
Farmans of Emperor Aurangzeb to Raja Ram Singh form another
important source for the Assam-Mughal conflict of 1667-1671.
There are also the accounts of the foreign travellers and
adventurers from about the end of the 16th century. The English
traveller, Ralph Fitch visited Koch Bihar from Bengal and left a vivid
account of it. Father Stephen Cacella and Father John Cabral visited
Koch Bihar and Kamrup up to Pandu in the first half of the 17th
century. Their account throws light on the Koch-Mughal and Mughal-
Kamrup relation towards the end of Jahangir’s reign, on the problems
of the reign of Lakshmi Narayan, on the Mughal commander Raja
Satrajit, economic condition of Koch Bihar and her commercial
relation with Bihar and Bengal. We have several foreign travellers’
account of the invasion of Mir Jumla.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
AUTHORS BOOKS
a) Abdul Qadir 1. Tarikh-i-Firoz-Shahi
b) Abdul Hamid Lahori 2. Tabaquat-i-Nasiri
c) Minhaj-ul-Siraj 3. Muntakhab- ut- Tawarikh
d) Ziau-din-Barani 4. Padshahnamah
Q.2: Who wrote the Fathiyyah-i-Ibriyyah?
..............................………………………………………......
Q.3: Which English traveller has left an account of Koch Bihar?
..............................………………………………………......
The Archaeological Source materials are very useful for the

reconstructing the history of medieval Assam. They can be classified
as:
1. Inscriptions or Epigraphical Sources
2. Coins or Numismatic Sources
3. Material Remains
 Inscriptions: Inscriptions are valuable, contemporary and
authentic source materials for reconstructing a particular period of
history. They supply genuine information regarding chronological,
political, military, religious, economic and social aspects of a period
of time. There are several inscriptions, dealing with the matters of
Koch Bihar, Kamrup and Assam. From dynastic point of view, the
inscriptions may be classified as Koch, Ahom, the Bengal Sultanate
and the Mughals. The scripts used in the first two classes of
inscription were mostly Sanskrit and Assamese, while Persian was
used in the inscriptions of the last two categories. The inscriptions
are found engraved on walls of temples, rocks, stone pillars, mosque
and cannons. Their contents vary with some being detailed ones,
while some are brief.
There were only two Koch inscriptions during the second

half of the 16th century. The first one, dated 1487 Saka or 1565 A.D.,
is on the Kamakhya temple issued by Sukhladhvaj. The second
one dated 1505 Saka or 1583 A.D. refers to the rebuilding of the
Hayagriva Madhava temple on Mani hillock at Hajo by Raghu Deb,
king of Koch-Hajo. In the 17th century Pran Narayan’s Lolarkakunda
inscription gives his genealogy from Lakshmi Narayan. The Darrang
Rajavamsavalis refers to a Copper Plate Sasana issued by
Naranarayan dedicating the services different categories of Paiks
(servitors) for the service of the Kamakhya temple which he rebuilt.
The earliest inscription of the Ahom period is the Gachtal
Rock Inscription issued in the year 1362 A.D. It is engraved in
Sanskrit on a Rock at Gachtal, two miles west of Doboka in Nagaon
district. It records Sultan Sikandar Shah’s invasion of Assam in 1284
Saka i.e., 1362 A.D. The Snake Pillar Inscription of the 16th century
A.D of Sadiya is a royal proclamation. The Samdhara Rampart
Rock Inscription of 1616 refers to the victory of the Ahom king, Pratap
Singha builder of the fort as Visama- Samara Vijayinah (i.e. victor
in grim battle) without mentioning the defeated enemy. Two Kanai
Barasi Rock Inscriptions in Assamese both dated 1589 saka or
1667 A.D. during the time of Chakradhvaj, are on two sides of the
rock near the Manikarneshvar hill on the North bank of Brahmaputra.
The one on the West side of the hill is 3.25 meters high from
the ground level and is more detailed. It refers to the construction of
an Ahom fort there in the month of December after the defeat and
death of Sayyid Sana and Sayyid Firuz by Lachit and records the
names of different Ahom officials. The Phatasil Rock Inscription of
1667 in Sanskrit briefly records the defeat of the Mughals by Lachit
Barphukan in 1589 Saka or 1667 A.D.
There are two Kachari inscriptions, one on a rock cut temple
at the Kachari capital Maibong, stating that it was excavated during
the reign of Harish Chandra Narayan, Lord of Hidimba in 1643 saka
or1721 A.D. Another inscription records of the construction of a
palace at Khaspur in 1771.
The inscriptions on cannon are extremely interesting and

valuable. Some of them belonged to the Koch rulers, some to the
Ahom kings and some to the Mughals. Usually the writings are in
Sanskrit or in Persian. Mughal cannon-pieces captured by the Ahoms
have been found scattered at various places in Assam like Tinsukia,
Lakhimpur, Dibrugarh, Guwahati and Silghat. Some of the pieces
have been reinscribed by the Ahom rulers. A Mughal cannon,
manufactured by Md. Zaman during the reign of Jahangir, has two
inscriptions. The Persian text is brief, stating that it was placed under
Sayyid Ahmad Darogha. The Sanskrit version refers to Gadadhar
Singha’s victory over the Mughals and capture of some cannon.
However, the oldest cannon piece so far discovered in Assam
belonged to the Koches and was of the end of the 16th century. It was
owned by the Raja of Gauripur and recorded that it was manufactured
by the Koch king Raghu Deb in 1519 Saka or 1597 A.D. There were
six cannons of various sizes within the Koch Bihar palace, three
having illegible Arabic writings. The Assam State Museum has only
one Koch cannon of Parikshit Narayan dated 1632 A.D.
Inscriptions on religious buildings like dargahs and mosques
provide information on the Muslim advance into the area. The Munger
Shah Nafah Inscription in Persian on the Eastern wall of the dargah
of Shah Nafah refers to the Assam campaign of Alauddin Hussain
Shah (1498). The Persian inscriptions on the Hajo mosque built by
Mir Lutfulla Shirazi, Mughal Faujdar of Guwahati shows that it was
built to propagate Islam in Kamrup. Another Persian inscription is
on the Mankachar hill mosque built in 1689 in Goalpara district.
 Coins: Coins help a lot in the reconstruction of the history. They
indicate the status and chronology of rulers by providing their names,
titles, dates and some idea of the extent of the dominion. The purity
of the metal and the weight of the coins throw light on economic
condition of the kingdom. The legends and images on the coins
indicate the language and the script and the religion patronised by
the rulers.
The earliest known Ahom coins belong to Jayadhvaj

Singha (1648-63 A.D.). Subsequently, smaller coins of lower weight
and value were issued. A standard Ahom coin called Takka, weighted
a tola or 176 gram. Gold coins (Mohar) were issued by Chakradhwaj
Singha and Udayaditya Singha and regularly by Siva Singha. The
Ahom coins were octagonal in shape and is said to have represented
eight sides of the country according to the Yogini Tantra. Three
scripts, Ahom, Devanagari and Assamese were used in the Ahom
coins. The coins of the early part of their rule were in Ahom script,
those of the middle part in Devanagari and those of the latter part in
Assamese. However the legends were in Ahom language, Sanskrit
and Persian. Siva Singha in 1729 struck square coins with Persian
legends.
The chronology of the earlier Koch kings, Naranarayan and
Lakshminarayan and their contemporaries in Kamrup, Raghu Deb
and Parikshitnarayan, can be determined only with the help of their
coins. The inter-relation between the Koch, Kamrup and Mughal
rulers were also very complicated. As coins are symbols of
sovereignty these help in resolving a ruler’s status. The Koch king
Naranarayan used to issue coins on a regular basis. These coins
were cast in various metals like gold, silver, copper and brass. But
only silver ones are available. These were di-struck and round
weighting 172 grains or 11.15 grams like the tanka of the Bengal
Sultan, but thinner and larger in size. Again, these had legends and
epithets on the obverse and the name of the king and dates in the
Saka Era on the reverse in Sanskrit and Bengali script. The epithets
indicate the deities worshiped namely Siva-charana-Kamala-
madhukar (for coins of Naranarayan, 1477 Saka) or Hara-Gauri
Kamala-Madhukar (for these of Lakshminarayan, 1509, 1549, 1559
Saka), Hara-Gauricharana (for these of Raghudeb Saka 1510 and
Parikshit, 1525).
The Koch ruler lost the right of minting full tankas after the
acceptance of the Mughal alliance. The existence of full as well as
half tankas of Lakshmi Narayan’s grandson Pran Narayan has been

found. The successor of Pran Narayan had only half tankas. In the
Eastern Koch Kingdom of Kamrup, Raghudeb and Parikshit minted
full tankas resembling those of Naranarayan. The Koch coins were
known as Narayani, from the ending of the names of the rulers.
E.A.Gait also refers to Jayantia coins with dates in the Saka
Era. Gold coins of the Kachari Raja Bhimdarpa Narayan (1630 A.D.)
and Harishchandra Narayan (1720 A.D.) have also been found.
Coins of the Sultans of Bengal from 13th to 16th century who
had invaded or conquered Kamrup or portions of Assam have been
discovered in different parts of Assam, probably indicating the extent
of their advance. In the Guwahati hoard of coins found in November,
1880 there were three coins of Sultan Malik Ikhtiyaruddin Tughril
Khan minted at Lakhnauti in 1257 A.D. Not many coins of the Mughal
Emperors have been found in Koch Bihar, Kamrup and Assam.
 Material Remains : The Koch and Ahom rules have to their
credit numerous public works: tanks, embankments, roads, forts
and roads. The historical value of the surviving ones is that apart
from supplying corroborative evidence in general they help us in
solving problems of chronology and throw light on the state of religion
and culture.
The most important of the Koch monuments are in the form
of temples Saiva, Sakta and Vaishnava. Visvasimha (c.1515-40 A.D)
the founder of the undivided kingdom of Koch Bihar is said to have
revived the worship of Kamakhya and his sons rebuilt the temple on
Nilachal hill in Guwahati. The inscription in the temple states that it
was built by Sukladhwaj (son of Visvasimha) during the reign of his
elder brother Naranarayan (1540-48) in 1487 Saka (A.D. 1565).
Raghudeb (son of Sukladhwaj), king of Koch Hajo( 1581-1603) had
the Vishnu (or Hayagriva Madhava) temple on Mani Hillock (Manikut)
at Hajo, built by the skilled and efficient artisan Sridhar in 1505 Saka
or (A.D. 1583) as is known from an inscription inside the temple.
Ahom rulers distinguished themselves by constructing
numerous public works. Rudra Singha built a brick city at Rangpur,

while Pramatta Singha built new buildings and masonry gateways
at Garhgaon and an amphitheatre (Rang-ghar) at Rangpur. He also
built the Rudresvar and Sukresvar temples of Guwahati. Numerous
temples were built in the days of later Ahom rulers testifying to their
patronage of Hinduism. Pratap Singha is credited with the
construction of the Siva temples of Dergaon and Biswanath,
Gadadhar Singha built the temple of Umananda on Peacock Island
opposite to Guwahati and Rudra Singha built temples at Guwahati,
Jaisagar and Ranganath. Siva Singha built several temples at
Gaurisagar, Sibsagar and Kalugaon. Besides, these rulers excavated
many tanks and constructed innumerable roads, embankments,
masonry bridges and mausoleums (maidams).
The conquering Sultans of Bengal also left a few
archaeological remains in the form of buildings, which are mostly
mosques. Most reputed of these was the Poa Mecca near Hajo
built to perpetuate the memory of a Muslim divine, Sultan Ghiyasuddin
Aulia. Of the Mughal monuments there was the mosque at Hajo
built by Mir Lutfulla Shirazi, Mughal Faujdar of Guwahati. Another
mosque was built at Mankachar hill in 1689 in Goalpara district. The
Gurudvara at Damdoma was constructed after the visit of the Sikh
Guru Teg Bahadur, who had accompanied Ram Singh’s invasion of
Assam, to ward off the ill effects of Sorcery in Assam.
ACTIVITY – 8.1
Visit a nearby temple of the medieval period of

Assam and write a note on its history.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

a) Pran Narayan’s……………… inscription
gives his genealogy from Lakshmi Narayan.

b) The earliest known ………….. coins belong to Jayadhvaj

Singha.
c) Rudra Singha built a brick city at ………………
Q.5: Write True / False:
a) The earliest inscription of the Ahom period is the Gachtal
Rock Inscription. (True / False)
b) The Koch coins were known as Narayani, from the ending
of the names of the rulers. (True / False)
c) The mosque at Hajo was built by Mir Lutfulla Shirazi,
Mughal Faujdar of Guwahati. (True / False)
8.4 LET US SUM UP
After going through this unit, you have learnt,

 different sources of medieval Assam history,
 the importance of Buranjis in reconstructing the history medieval
Assam,
 besides Buranjis, the Vaishnava literatures and also foreign literatures
are of immense imporatance to reconstruct the history of medieval
Assam.
 there are various archaeological sources such as coins, material
remains and inscripmtions, which provided valuable informations
about the medieval history of Assam.
8.5 FURTHER READING



PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: a) 3, b) 4, c) 2, d) 1
Ans to Q No 2: Shihabuddin Talish
Ans to Q No 3: Ralph Fitch
Ans to Q No 4: a) Lolarkakunda, b) Ahom, c) Rangpur
Ans to Q No 5: a) True b) True
8.7 MODEL QUESTIONS
A) Very Short Questions (Answer each and every question within 50 Words)
Q 1: Mention two indigenious literary sources of medieval Assam.
Q 2: Who composed Fathiyyah-i-Ibriyyah?
Q 3: Which languages were used in the inscriptions of medieval Assam?
Q 4: .....................was the standard Ahom coin.
Q 1: Write briefly about Buranjis of medieval Assam.
Q 2: What do you know about Naraka?
Q 3: Write short notes on the following:
a) Indigenous literature
b) Inscriptions
c) Coins

500 words)
Q 1: Discuss the literary sources for reconstructing the history of medieval
Assam.
Q 2: What are the different archaeological sources to study the history of
medieval Assam? Discuss the importance of archaeological sources
in reconstrucing the history of medieval Assam.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 9: EARLY MUSLIM INVASION OF ASSAM
UNIT STRUCTURE
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Turko-Afghan Invasions
9.4 Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq
9.5 Ghiasuddin Azam of Bengal
9.6 Hussain Sahis of Bengal
9.7 Let Us Sum Up
9.8 Further Reading

 describe the Turko-Afghan invasion of Assam,
 discuss the invasion of Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq,
 also discuss the invasions of Ghiassuddin Azam of Bengal and
Hussain Sahis of Bengal.
9.2 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will have a discussion on the early Muslim invasions

of Assam which included the invasion of Turko-Afghans, Muhammad-Bin-
Tughlaq,Ghiassuddin Azam of Bengal and Hussain Sahis of Bengal. Ancient
Kamarupa shared a common frontier with Bengal, and acted as a gate to
enter Assam. After the fall of the Palas in the mid-twelfth century, the
Brahmaputra valley was divided into numerous but independent
principalities.By the beginning of 13th century when the Turks occupied
Bengal,the kingdom of Kamarupa extended from Karatoya in the west to
modern Darrang and Nagaon districts in Assam and opened the path of
natural expansion of Bengal on the east and the north. Thus in the 13th

Unit 9 Early Muslim Invasion of Assam
century there was no strong political authority in Assam to check the borders
and it gave a golden opportunity to the invaders.
9.3 TURKO-AFGHAN INVASIONS

The Turko-Afghans conquered North India in the early years of the
13th century A.D. and spread eastward. Bengal came under the rule of the
Delhi Sultanate in 1205 A.D. Then the invaders turned towards Kamrup.
The first Turko-Afghan invader of Kamrup was Ikhtiyar-ud-din Muhammad
Bakhtyar Khalji. He invaded Kamrup in 1205 A.D. which was also the first
Muhammadan invasion of the land. After overpowering Lakshmansena, the
last Sena king of Bengal, Bakhtyar with a grand army of 10,000 as well as
a well equipped cavalry led an expedition to Tibet. During the expedition he
reached the North-Western boundary of the kingdom of Kamrup.
Kamrup was then ruled by a powerful kingdom, the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri
of Minhajuddin Siraj calls him the ‘Rai of Kamrud’ or Raja (King). The king
asked Bakhtyar to give up his risky expedition as the season was unsuitable.
But Bakhtyar paid no attention to his advice and entered Kamrup. Initially
Bakhtyar made rapid inroad into the territory of Kamrup. However, after
they crossed the Barnadi, a channel of the Brahmaputra over a stone bridge,
the Raja of Kamrup and his men launched a surprise attack at night. When
the invaders tried to escape they found that the stone bridge had been
dismantled. It was a rout, as the invaders found themshelves trapped
between the river and their attackers.
The victory of the king of Kamrup is commemorated in the Kanai
Barasi Bowa Rock Inscription at North Guwahati. It records that the Turks
who had entered Kamrup on the 13th day of the month of Chaitra in the
Saka year 1127 (1205 A.D.) were totally destroyed. The Tabaqat-i-Nasiri
written by Minhajuddin Siraj gives graphic details of the total defeat and
subsequent retreat of this first Muhammedan invasion of Kamrup. His retreat
was a very disastrous one. His army was almost completely destroyed. It
was only with a few hundred soldiers that Bakhtyar could go back to Gauda
(Bengal) where he soon died grief stricken. The disastrous invasion of
Bakhtyar touched only the Western part of Kamrup. However, it marked the
beginning of the settlements of Muslims in Assam.
Early Muslim Invasion of Assam Unit 9
After Bakhtyar Khalji, Sultan Ghiyasuddin Iwaz-i- Hussain Khalji

(c.1213-1227 A.D.) of Gauda invaded Kamrup in 1226-1227 A.D. Sultan
Ghiyasuddin was a contemporary of Sultan Iltutmish of Delhi (c.1211-1236
A.D.) who subdued him in the year 1225. It is said that from the Mymensingh
side he advanced along the Brahmaputra up to Sadiya, but this does not
appear to be borne out by any source. He too was repulsed. As per the
numismatic evidence Sultan Ghiyasuddin came up to Guwahati and Nagaon
which is also supported by the Gachtal inscription found at Nagaon. It is
stated there that the Muhammedans advanced to Nagaon, but were defeated.
In the meantime, Lakhnauti, the capital of Sultan Ghiyasuddin’s
kingdom of Gauda was captured by Nasiruddin Mahmud, eldest son of
Sultan Iltutmish of Delhi. As such, Sultan Ghiyasuddin hurriedly returned to
his kingdom where he was imprisoned and killed by Nasiruddin Mahmud.
Then for a short time Nasiruddin Mahmud ruled over Bengal as the viceroy
of his father, Sultan Iltutmish of Delhi. He attempted to annex the
neighbouring kingdom and through Jalpaiguri advanced into Kamrup in 1228
A.D. The king of Kamrup, probably Prithu, tried to defend his advance, but
was worsted and killed. Nasiruddin Mahmud appointed a tributary king on
the throne.
Nasiruddin Mahmud died in the year 1229 A.D. after which there
prevailed political instability in Bengal for over two decades. During this
period seven governors ruled over Bengal. Finally in 1255 A.D. Malik
Ikhtyaruddin Yuzbak Tughril Khan established his sovereignty over Bengal
as Sultan Mughis al duniya wa al din Abul Muzaffar Yuzbak al Sultan. In the
meantime a king named Sandhya (c. 1250-1270 A.D.) established his rule
over the kingdom of Kamrup with its capital at Kamrupanagar in North
Guwahati. With Lakhnauti, Bihar and Oudh under his control, Sultan Malik
Ikhtyaruddin decided to bring Kamrup also under his control.
On the plea that the ruler of Kamrup did not pay tribute to him, Sultan
Malik Ikhtyaruddin in 1257 A.D. led an expedition to Assam. Without offering
any resistance king Sandhya fled away and the Sultan easily occupied his
kingdom and in the capital city Kamrupanagar he established a Mosque to
spread Islam as he wanted to establish permanent rule over the rich and
prosperous kingdom. From his hideout king Sandhya tried to make a

settlement by offering to pay annual tribute in gold and elephant as well as
subservience as a vassal. But this was rejected by Sultan Malik Ikhtyaruddin.
But with the beginning of the rainy season when the entire kingdom was
flooded, king Sandhya came out from his hill refuge and launched an attack
upon the invaders with the local guerilla techniques forcing them to retreat.
With a handful of soldiers, Sultan Malik Ikhtyaruddin managed to escape to
Bengal after being wounded by an arrow.
The next invasion was led by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Bahadur Shah
who attacked Kamrup during 1321-1322 A.D. Due to increasing danger
from both the East and the West, the kingdom of Kamrup was reorganized
as a new kingdom of Kamata by its king Sandhya with the capital being
shifted to Kamatapur. After Sandhya, Sindhu, Rupa and Simhadhwaj ruled
over the kingdom of Kamrup or Kamata. Simhadhwaj was killed by his
minister Pratapdhwaj who usurped the throne and ruled in between 1305-
1325 A.D. It was Pratapdhwaj who ruled over the Kamrupa-Kamata when
Sultan Ghiyasuddin attacked it and he failed to resist his advance. With his
plundering raids Sultan Ghiyasuddin advanced up to Nagaon where the
Kacharis were then ruling. The Kacharis repulsed Sultan Ghiyasuddin’s
attack and he had to suffer heavy losses. Sultan Ghiyasuddin was killed six
years later by Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq of Delhi who annexed Bengal in
1327-1328 A.D. Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq also attacked Kamata-Kamrup
about which we will discuss in the sub-section 8.6 of this unit.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

a) Ikhtiyar-ud-din Muhammad Bakhtyar Khalji
invaded Kamrup in 1208 A.D. (True/False)
b) Lakshmansena was the last Sena king of Bengal. (True/False)
c) Nasiruddin Mahmud was the eldest son of Sultan Iltutmish of
Delhi. (True/False)


a) Sultan ……………….. was a contemporary of Sultan Iltutmish
of Delhi.
b) Sultan Malik Ikhtyaruddin in …………… A.D. led an expedition
to Kamrup.
c) Simhadhwaj was killed by his minister ……………………….
9.4 MUHAMMAD-BIN-TUGHLAQ
Sultan Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq of Delhi killed Ghiyassuddin Bahadur

Shah and annexed Bengal in 1327-28 A.D. He sent an expedition to
Kamarupa-Kamata in 1332-33 A.D. But nothing is known about the outcome
of this expedition from our sources.
The earliest reference to a Muslim invasion in Assam in noted in the
Alamgirnamah. It mentions that Muhammad Bin Tughlak (son of Tughlak
Shah), invaded Assam with a large and well-armed troops but was
devastated in the battle with no remains found of them. A second expedition
was sent to avenge the earlier defeat, but it met with the same fate. This
event has been dated at 1332-33, based on the evidence from numismatic
sources found in Mymensigh district. It might be assumed that the sultan’s
army made Mymensingh as the base and pushed into the interiors of
Kamarupa. The reference of Alamgirnamah about the invasion suggests
that the expedition did not last long. The Ahom Buranji gives a clue to this
event, wherein it refers to the conspiracy hatched against the Ahom king
and the subsequent invasion by Muhammad Tughlak.
9.5 GHIYASUDDIN AZAM OF BENGAL (1393-1410)
Next invader was Ghiyassuddin Azam, who by taking an advantage

of the conflict between the king of Kamata and the Ahom king
Sudangpha(1397-1407 A.D.) led an expedition to Assam. It is told that
Sudnagpha the Ahom ruler jointly fought the Muslim army of Bengal under
Ghiyasuddin Azam of Bengal. He was better known as Bamun Konwar, due
to his upbringing under the shelter of a Brahmin after his mother was expelled

by his father from the palace. The Buranjis suggests that Sudangpha waged
war against Kamata for capturing Chao Tasulai for illicit affair with the queen
and also for hatching a plot against the king. However, with the onrush of
the Muslim army of Bengal under Ghiyasuddin to Kamata, the ruler of Kamata
sued for peace with the Ahom ruler and also gave his daughter, Bhajani, in
marriage to the king, Sudangpha. The combined
Ahom-Kamata armies checked the advance of this expedition and
pushed it back beyond the river Karatoya.
9.6 THE HUSSAIN SHAHIS OF BENGAL
With the establishment of the Hussain Sahi dynasty in Bengal, the

Ahoms had to face a series of conflict with the Sultans of Bengal.The founder
of this dynasty,Allauddin Hussain Shah(1493-1519)led an expedition into
Kamrup-Kamata in the second decade of the 16th century and conquered
it. He next marched forward and defeated the Ahoms who, under their ruler
Shuhungmung(1497-1539),were advancing towards Kamrup. But later,the
Ahom army inflicted a crushing defeat on the invading Bengal army killing
even a son of the Sultan.Then Shohungmung came down the Brahmaputra
Valley and established a military outpost on the North bank at
Narayanpur,threatening the Muslim base. With the rainy season setting in,
the Muslim army was attacked from all sides, as the native people blocked
all the roads. The campaign of Hussain Shah thus ended with a disaster.
The sources available for this event are mainly literary, numismatics. Literary
sources include the Ahom Buranjis from Khunlung Khunlai, The Ahom
Buranji, Purani Assam Buranji, Wade’s Account of Assam, the Persian
chronicle Fathiyyah-i-Ibriyah( Shihabuddin Talish), Alamgirnamah, Riyaz-
us-Salatin and the Tripura chronicle, Rajmala. There are also certain
numismatic sources.
9.7 NUSRAT SHAH (1519-32):
It was believed that soon after the disastrous campaign of Hussain

Shah, the Bengal army came down heavily on the Ahom kingdom. But this

can be hardly agreed upon because Hussain Shah’s successor, Nusrat

Shah, was busy resisting the advance of the Mughal army of Babur. However,
in 1527, the Ahoms marched against the Muslims at Hajo. The Ahom ruler
at this time was Suhungmung. With the end of his campaign against the
Mughals, Nusrat Shah now turned his attention towards the Brahmaputra
valley. His army reached down to Sonitpur district and here the Ahom pushed
back the Muslims to the Buroi river. The Ahom king well guarded his frontiers
and deputed his ablest soldiers and generals. Meanwhile, the Kacharis
entered into a war with the Ahoms in1531. The Ahoms defeated the Kachari
army under Detcha, brother to the Kachari king Detsung. Detsung fled from
the scene fearing for his life and the Kachari throne was usurped by one
Khunkara. This resulted in Detsung signing a truce with the Ahoms by which
he gave his sister to the Ahom king and also accept his suzerainty. On
hearing this Khunkara fled and sought the help of the Bengal chief to regain
his position. Detsung on his part pledged to capture Khunkara and hand
him over to the Ahom ruler.
Turubak or Turbak was the commander of the Muslim force. Though
the Persian chronicles are silent regarding it, yet sources found from the
family of Sukumar Mahanta and the Purani Assam Buranji describe him as
a commander of the Bengal army sent to Assam by the Sultans of Bengal.
The invasion of Turbak was duly because of the adultery of the queen of
Kamateshwar, who was a Gaur (Bengal) princess. The Kacharis, Ahoms,
and the ruler of Kamateshwar were all interlinked in this warfare due to the
queen. The king of Kamateshwar expelled his queen from the palace
because of her unfaithfulness towards the king and her growing relation
with the son of the royal priest. Hence the queen sought the refuge of the
Kachari king and soon became his companion. In the meantime, the Sultan
of Bengal was furious towards the treatment meted out to his daughter and
in order to save his family honour, sent out Turbak to invade Kamata and
bring back his daughter. The Kamata ruler seeing the inrush of the huge
army of Turbak, sought the help of the Ahom king. On reaching Kamata, it
is believed that Turbak found the place deserted and hence started to
establish an independent territory. Inaction on the part of Turbak thus led
the sultan of Bengal to send an army under the “Bara Wazir” who was
alongside accompanied by someone named “Bit Manik”.
When the ruler of Kamata got to know the whereabouts of his queen
and that the Kachari ruler had given her shelter, he raised a force and
marched against the Kachari ruler. The Kachari ruler was now surrounded
on all sides by their enemies, the Ahoms, the Kamata force and the force
under “Bara Wazir” of Bengal. Detsung, the Kachari Raja fled from the
battle field leaving the queen and her son (from the Kachari king). Meanwhile
the Ahom king made the queen and her son captive, but he was enamoured
by the beauty of the queen and married her ultimately.
This brought the Ahoms into a straight clash with the Sultan’s army
of Bengal under the “Bara Wazir”. In the subsequent clash that followed the
Ahoms had to face defeat initially, but in the second naval encounter, the
Ahoms had the upper hand. The commander deserted the rest of the army
and he fled away. The Ahoms now began a wide scale preparation to thwart
off any advances on the part of the Bengal army.
Meanwhile, the sultan of Bengal was not ready for a defeat and
hence sent again another force and with more troops. The Bengal army
attacked from two directions using both the land as well as the water route.
But they had to face defeat at various points and “the Great Wazir” managed
to flee. Thus the evil designs of the Bengal Sultans under Hussain Shah
and Nusrat Shah ended in a disaster.
After the death of Nusrat Shah, the conflict between the Ahoms and
the Bengal Sultans declined, due to his weak successors. However, the
Muslim chiefs stationed at Kamrup did try to create trouble, time and between,
because of their need to maintain their position. The rise of the Koch kingdom
was also a rising problem.
 RE-EMERGENCE OF TURBAK
After Nusrat Shah, Turbak re-emerged on the scene and carried on
a prolonged war with the Ahoms. Some scholars point that Turbak took to
the battle field as the general of the Bengal Sultan, while Gait opines that
the conflict was more between the Ahoms and the Muslim freelance chiefs
who roamed about in the city. Whatever, the story, yet this was true that
Turbak re appeared on the scene and carried on with the struggle. He had,
in his earlier attempt, failed to make a mark when he was sent to invade
Kamrup Kamata. Therefore, this time he took upon himself the charge of
his incomplete mission and hence encamped opposite of the fort Singiri.
The Ahom king had placed Barpatra Gohain as the commander along with
two princes and Phrasenmung. The long wait made the Ahom army
impatient and hence, the prince crossed the Brahmaputra and attacked
the Muslim army. Though he was successful in the initial phase, however,
at the end it was the Musims who gained an upper hand. It the battle of
Kachuchilai, the ahom were routed and their army slained. This historic
battle is a reminder of “conjugal love and unique valour”. It was in this battle
that Thaomung Phrasenmung Bargohain, rushed towards the Muslim army
and as killed. It is believed that his wife, Mula Gabharu, could not prepare
the kavach kapur (talisman cloth that serves as a protection) in time and
hence was killed in the battle field. As soon as Mula Gabharu got the news
of the death of her husband, she resolved to die like her husband, fighting
the foreign army. She marched along with five other ladies, towards the
army and fought bravely, but was killed by a bullet from Turbak. However,
her chivalry and spirit is still an inspiration to the people of Assam.
Meanwhile the Kacharis has made up with the Ahoms and now were
jointly battling against the Muslims. The enemy army marched up against
the Ahoms and pushed into the interiors of Assam, thus terrifying the Ahom
king. The battle continued for many days, both on the land and water. The
Muslims were routed at Sala. Though reinforcements came to the Muslims,
yet at Dikrai, they had to face defeat again. In a final battle in 1533, the
Muslim army was massacred at a large scale. Turbak was also killed, which
was believed to be due to treachery.
As a result of the long battle, the Ahoms brought home huge profits
as, horses, elephants in large number, cannons and match locks, golds
and other precious metals. Turbak’s daughter was taken captive and put
into the Ahom kings harem. The downfall of the Muslim army was due to
their weak naval strength, delay in reinforcements from Bengal and lastly
due to the excellence shown from the Ahom side in matters of strategy, and
archillery.
The battle marks the use of fire arms for the first time, as claimed
by the Ahom scholars. The large number of Muslim captives were given
different jobs but were good for none. However, they showed much interest
in brass making. Hence they got the name “Mariyas”.
The Kamata ruler accepted the suzerainty of the Ahom king. The
Ahoms had now extended their dominion and subdued their rivals. The
Sultan of Bengal too made up peace with the Ahoms. The Koch ruler under
Visva Singh accepted the Ahom protection. The Sultan of Bengal was now
surrounded on all sides by powerfull enemies and was thus compelled to
leave Kamrup- Koch Bihar for good.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.3: Name the literary sources for the study of

Muslim invasion in Assam?
.......................................................................................................
Q.4: Name the princess of Kamata who was given away to the Ahom
ruler, Sudangpha in exchange for peace terms?
.......................................................................................................
Q.5: Name the brave lady who died in the battle of Kachuachilai?
.......................................................................................................
Q.6: Who were the Mariyas?
.......................................................................................................
Q.7: Who was the successor of Hussain Shah, the Sultan of Bengal?
.......................................................................................................
9.8 FURTHER READING
1. Barpujari, H.K (2003): The Comprehensive History of Assam: Vol. II,

Publication Board, Assam, Guwahati
2. Gait,Edward (2005) :A History of Assam, LBS Publication, Guwahati

9.9 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: a) False
b) True
c) True
Ans to Q No 2: a) Ghyasuddin Iwaz -i- Hussain Khalji
b) 1257
c) Pratapdhwaj
Ans to Q No 3: The literary sources include the Ahom Buranjis from
Khunlung Khunlai, The Ahom Buranji, Purani Assam Buranji, Wade’s
Account of Assam, the Persian chronicle Fathiyyah-i-Ibriyah
(Shihabuddin Talish), Alamgirnamah, Riyaz-us-Salatin and the Tripura
chronicle, Rajmala.
Ans to Q No 4: Bhajani.
Ans to Q No 5: Mula Gabharu.
Ans to Q No 6: The Muslim soldiers, who were held captives by the Ahoms,
were assigned different tasks, but they excelled in brass making and
hence they pursued it for many generations to come. This community
was named “Mariyas”.
Ans to Q No 7: Nusrat Shah.
9.10 MODEL QUESTIONS

Q 1: Who killed Ghiyassuddin Bahadur Shah?
Q 2: Who was Turbak?
Q 3: Who authored Tabaqat-i-Nasiri ?
Q 4: Who was Mula Gabharu?

Q 1: Write briefly about the Hussain Sahi dynasty in Bengal.
Q 2: Write briefly about the Ghiyassuddin Azam of Bengal.

Q 3: Write short notes on-

a) Tabaqat-i-Nasiri
b) Re-emergence of Turbak
C) LONG QUESTIONS (Answer each questions between 300-500 words)

Q 1: What led to the invasion of Kamrup-Kamata by the Muslims?
Q 2: Describe in brief the Ahom Muslim struggle and its consequences
*** ***** ***

UNIT 10 : STATE FORMATION IN MEDIEVAL
ASSAM
UNIT STRUCTURE
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Definition of State Formation
10.4 State Formation of the Ahoms
10.5 State Formation of the Chutiyas
10.6 State Formation of the Bhuyans
10.7 State Formation of the Kacharis
10.8 Let Us Sum Up
10.9 Further Reading

 have an idea about the state formation theories and its
implementation
 know the political condition of the medieval Assam and the system
of medieval state formation
 discuss the state formation of the Ahoms
 discuss the state formation of the Chutias
 discuss the state formation of the Bhuyans
 discuss the state formation of the Kacharis.
10.2 INTRODUCTION
The fragmentation of the ancient Kamarupa state was followed by

the emergence of some petty regional zones. These zones were ruled by
some chiefs. The medieval period in Assam history starts with the coming
of the Muslim invaders. In 1206 Assam was invaded by BakhtiyarKhilji and it
was considered as the starting point of medieval history of Assam. The
Unit 10 State Formation in Medieval Assam
Ahoms , who entered in the Brahmaputra valley from Myanmar gradually

established themselves as the ruling power of Assam . Simultaneously we
also found some small chieftains who established their authority over some
regions. In this chapter we will discuss the system and process of state
formation of the Ahoms , Chutiyas , Bhuyans and Kacharis .To know the
political history of medieval Assam we must have some information of the
process of state formation of all these regions.
10.3 DEFINITION OF STATE FORMATION
State formation is a natural transition from a tribal society to a

segmentary state or to a republic, monarchy and empire.Therefore state
formation has always a link with the growth of agriculture,trade, industry
and urbanization.In the ancient Indian context, the emergence of first state
formation happened in the 6th century CE with the rise of the Janapadas in
Norther India.State formation is a process of the development of a centralized
administrative unit.
There are three main theories of origin of state formation in ancient
India. These are social contract theory, divine origin theory and the organic
theory. The institution of state can be studied in relation to its origin,nature,
aims and functions of the state in ancient India. State formation is a social
body with political power. In ancient India the concept of State was considered
essential because itconfirmspeace, order and happiness. However, the origin
of state has remained a controversial subject since ancient time. With the
establishment of the kingship, the concept of state gradually emerged.
The social contract theory is one of the common theories of the
origin of state. According to this theory state is a result of a contract between
the king and his subjects. Theking, thus appointed was expected to save
the state and the subjects from external aggression and establish order
and security within the state. However, the Vedic works do not accept state
as a result of contract. But they explained that king should protect the subjects
from its enemies.
The theory of divine origin of kingship as well as the state was not
widely celebrated in the ancient Indian polity. The divine origin theory of
State Formation in Medieval Assam Unit 10
kingship advocated that the king was appointed by God. He was answerable
to God only. Certain ancient scriptures like Manusamhita explain that the
origin of state is from the divine. The Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the
Puranas also describe the divine origin of the king and the state.
The organic theory holds the view that sate is like an organism and
that each organ has a specific function to perform. This theory believes that
the well-functioning of the whole organism depends upon the healthy
conditions of each part of the body or organism and its efficient functioning.
The seven parts of the state are the king or the sovereign, the minister, the
territory and population, the fortified city or the capital, thetreasury, the army,
the friends and the allies. Among the seven elements orparts, it is the king
who is most important.
The Mauryan period of ancient Indiaprovided the world a significant
treatise, the Arthasastra of kautilya. It was a book on statecraft. According to
Kautilya there should be seven elements of a state. Kautilya termed these
elements as Prakritis . This theory of Kautilya is known as the Saptanga
theory of State formation. These seven limbs or elements are the essential
organs of the state. These include-
(i) Swami (The ruler)
(ii) Amatya(The Minister )
(iii) Janapada( The population )
(iv) Durga (The fortified Capital)
(V) Kosha( The Treasury )
(Vi) Danda( The Army )
(Vii) Mitra(Ally and Friend)
Kautilya gives extensive powers to the kings. He also believed in the
theory of divine right or divinity. According to kautilya the first and foremost
duty of the ruler is to protect his subjects and their property.
In the Context of Assam we found more or less the same picture of
the process of state formation. The history of Assam is the confluence of
diverse people.In ancient period of Assam history we found three royal
dynasties like the Varmanas , the Salastambhas and the Palas who ruled
over the region . With the fall of the palas in the early part of the 12thcentury,
the powerful kingdom of kamarupa disintegrated. After the fall of the

Kamarupa kingdom several petty independent or semi -independent
principalities emerged in the different parts of the region. Thus we can see
the emergence of the Ahoms, the Bhuyans, the Chutiyas and the Kacharis.
They established their own respective principalities with a proper
administrative unit.
LET US KNOW
Kautilya was an Indian philosopher, economist and policy

maker. His name was Chanakya and Bishnugupta. He
wrote the famous 'Arthasastra', a treatise on statecraft. He was known
as 'Indian Machiavelli'. He served as the prime minister of Chandragupta
Mauryan, the first ruler of the Mauryan dynasty. Kautilya belonged to a
period of approximately 350-275 BCE.
10.4 STATE FORMATION OF THE AHOMS
The Ahoms were the members of the Shan branch of the Tai group.
This group of people were called Shan because they first established
themselves in a land known as Tyai-Shan. In 5th century CE they migrated
to China. After that they migrated to Mungrimungram in Yunan .Due to a
family dispute, Sukapha, a leader of the Tai group, left his homeland in 1215.
He was accompanied by a few nobles. Sukapha moved towards the Patkai
and entered in the Brahmaputra valley. On his way he subdued the Nagas.
He reached Brahmaputra valley in 1228 and established the first capital of
the Ahom dynasty at Charaideo in 1253.The Morans and the Barahis were
subdued by Sukapha with a policy of peace and conciliation. Sukapha did
not follow an extensive policy of expansion of his territory. He was assisted
by two officials. Those were Burhagohain and Borgohain. Thus the process
of state formation started under Sukapha.To understand the Ahom state
formation we must know the administrative machinery of the Ahoms. A strong
centralized bureaucracy is the prime element of state formation.
The Ahoms established a monarchical system of administration.
Theoretically king was the fountain head of the administration but he had to
follow the advice and recommendations of the council of ministers. Divinity

was attached to Ahom kingship. The Ahom king was considered as the
divine power. Therefore he was termed as Swargadeo, the king of heaven.
The prime duty of the king was to protect his subjects. Next to the king was
the council of the five. They were known as patramantris like - Burhagohain,
Bargohain, Barpatragohain, Barbarua and Barphukan . They were entitled
the epithet 'dangariya'. Their duty was to select a king. They had the power
to depose a king.Thus the government was a combination of 'limited
monarchy and oligarchy'. The Ahom king assigned territories to these
dangarias .They exercised power in their respective territories like
independent sovereignty. During the wartime they supplied soldiers to the
royal army. In the normal time they contributed labourers for construction of
roads, bridges and temples, the offices of the Barbarua and Barphukan
were created by Pratap Singha in the early part of 17th century. These two
posts were not hereditary. The Barbarua was the chief executive officer and
the head of the judiciary. The Barphukan was the viceroy. He had the right to
nominate and recommend rajas as tributary to the king. The princes and
the near relatives of the king were appointed as the governors. They enjoyed
the title Raja.
With the extension of the Ahom power, the load of administrative
power increased. As a result several new offices were created for the smooth
run of the administration. Under the patronage of Pratap Singha ,paik or
khel system was implemented by Momai Tamuli Barbarua. Under the khel
or paiksyatem, every adult male between the ages 16 to 50 was listed as a
Paik. They should render their service to the state. The control of the state
over the paiks was very rigid. During the time of war emergency the paiks
rendered their military service to the state. Besides all these duties, the
paiks had to fulfill some feudal obligations to their immediate master.
Sometimes they cultivate the lands of their masters. Each paik in return for
his service to the state was allotted two puras of land. This land was termed
as ga-mati, which was tax free. Thus the people under the Ahom rule
rendered their service to the state.
The Ahom state formation also had a military department. The non-
serving paiks constituted a standing militia. The Barbarua was usually the
commander -in-chief of upper Assam. Barphukan exercised his power in

lower Assam. The Ahom army comprised of infantry, navy, artillery, elephants,
cavalry and spies. The Ahoms were expert in guerrilla fighting.
The Ahoms had no written code of law. The king was the head of the
judicial department. He was assisted by a chief justice known as Nyay Sodha
Phukan. The other judicial officers were Phukans, Rajkhowas and Baruas.
The Ahoms diplomatically maintained their foreign relations. The
threat of early Ahom kingdom came from the outside. After establishing
themselves in the region the Ahoms gradually checked the eastward
expansion of the Kamata kingdom. The Ahoms devoted all their energy to
unite the tribes of the eastern part under one political umbrella. The period
of consolidation of Ahom power was also a period of foreign invasions. The
Ahoms tried to introduce a new political identity to the inhabitants of Assam
known as the people of Assam. Gradually the Ahom rulers themselves
became Aryanised. They maintained a cordial relations with the Chutiyas
and the Koches of Kamarupa. All these steps helped in the process of
Aryanisation. The Ahom king, who first attempted to establish cultural
contacts with Delhi and the Hindu rulers of India, was Rudra Singha. Under
his ruling period the process of encouraging artists, musicians and sculptors
to come into Assam was started.
The king was the owner of the lands of the kingdom. The forests
and mines were under his control.The paiks were given two puras of lands
in return of their service. The pamuas, who cultivated the lands, had to pay
the plough tax. In lower Assam, especially in Kamrup, the Pargana system
was prevailed. Each pargana was in charge of a Choudhury. On the other
hand in the tributary states of Rani, Luki, Beltola and others, lands were
held according to the old tribal system of community basis. Washing of gold
from the sands of the rivers was an important source of income to the
state. Other sources of revenue were the tributes pays in cash or kind by
the subordinate rulers like Darrang Raja. The Ahom state also received
custom duties from different markets.
From the discussion of the administrative system of the Ahoms we
found that they more or less followed the Saptanga theory. They had the
seven elements of the state formation in their administrative unit. The Ahoms
had no written code of conduct for their state policy. They were always
ready to repulse any foreign attack. The liberal social outlook of the early
Ahom rulers was one of the important characters of their state formation.
The Ahom policy towards the neighboring hill tribes also helped in their state
formation. They initiated a friendly and cordial relation with the ill tribes.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

(a) Morans and Barahis were subdued by Sukapha
by a policy of blood and iron.
(b) The post of Barphukan was created by Pratap Singha.
(c) The Ministers were known as 'Dangnariayas'.
10.5 STATE FORMATION OF THE CHUTIAYAS
The Chutiayas were one of the kingdoms in the upper Brahmaputra

valley which emerged in the political scene after the downfall of the Palas.
Chutiyas were indigenous people of Assam. They were Mongoloid origin
and their language had a similarity with the Bodo language.
The Chutiya kingdom was established by Birpal in 1187 CE. He was
a Chutiya chieftain. The Chutiya kingdom was the largest kingdom in Assam
after the fall of the Palas and before the rise of the Ahoms. The kingdom
continued almost 400years in eastern Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The
exact location of the Chutiya capital cannot be ascertained. However it is
generally held that the Chutia capital was situated on the bank of the river
Kundil. Therefore it was known as Kundil Nagar or Bhismak Nagar .It is
assumed that the capital of Chutiya kingdom was Sadia and Ratnapur. The
Chutiyas are now found in the districts of Dibrugarh, Lakhimpur, Sibssagar,
Darrang and Duarareas.
The Chutiyas ruled over a territory bounded on the west by the river
Sisi, a tributary of Subansiri, on the east by the Brahmakunda. In the northern
side it was surrounded by hills and on the south by the river Burhidihing.
The Chutiyas established a monarchical type of government. King was
considered the supreme head of the monarchy. However e was assisted
by his officials. Most of their kings name ended with the suffix 'Narayan'.
Birpal, the originator of the Chutiya kingdom, claimed his descent from a
legendary king named Bhismak. He also took the title Gayapal after
subjugating the nearby petty chiefs.
Birpal's son and successor Gaurinarayan or Ratnadhvajpal was one
of the most powerful Chutia king. He defeated Bhadrasen with alarge army
and made his son as a tributary ruler. After that Birpal took the title
Ratnadhajapal. He also planned to subdue Nyayapala, the neighboring king.
Nyayapala offered his daughter in marriage to the Chutiaking. Thus we found
that the Chutiyas established their state formation on a monarchical structure.
They had a strong military department. With the help of this army they
subdued the nearby chiefs. Ratnadhvajpala built several forts along the foot
hills to check the further aggression of the neighboring hill tribes.
Ratnadhvajpal sent his army to Kamateswara .Ultimately the Kamata king
Sandhya , gave his daughter in marriage to Vijaydhvajpal , the son of
Ratnadhvajpal.
The Chutiya kings were diplomatic in foreign relations. Gatnadhvajpal
maintained friendly relation with the ruler of Gauda. The political relations of
the Chutiyas with the Ahoms started from the middle of the 14th century
CE. Suhungmung or the Dihingia Raja, a powerful Ahom king finally
conquered the Chutiya kingdom. The kingdom was annexed with the Ahom
kingdom in 1523 CE.
10.6 STATE FORMATION OF THE BHUYANS

The Bhuyans were a class of new rulers who emerged after the dis
integration of the ancient kingdom of Kamarupa in 12thcentury. Earlier they
exercised their power in the region between the Dikrai and the Barnadi on
the north bank and in the Kapilivalley. They did not introduce a monarchical
type of government. The word 'bhuyan' means a landlord equal with the
Persian term zaminder. The term Bhuyan came from Sanscrit word 'bhumi'
meaning land. The Bhuyans are also found in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa
etc. The Bhuyans in Assam maintained a confederacy. The most of the
Assamese Bhuyans were Kayasthas. We found the institution of Bhuyans
in Bengal too.
There are two opinions regarding the origin and state formation of
the Bhuyans of Assam. According to one theory the Bhuyans came from
Gauda. As a result of a peace agreement between the Gauda king
Dharmanarayan and the Kamata king Durlabh Narayan in 14th century the
Bhuyans entered into Assam. The Kamata king established them at
Lengamaguri situated to the east of Hajo. However the Bhuyans could not
stay long at Lengamaguri due to the inroads of the Bhutiyas .According to
another theory the Bhuyans were the indigenous inhabitants of Assam. They
were the descendants of Samudra, a minisrer of the king Arimatta.
The officials of the Bhuyans received land-grants in lieu of cash
salaries. The land-grant system was not hereditary. But in actual practice
the land-grants were possessed by the son of the deceased officer. Thus
the state formation of the Bhuyans was formed in the method of feudalism.
Their main source of income was the revenue paid by the cultivators. The
feudatories grouped the villages together in some units. The purpose of
these was to get well assessment of their income from a particular area.
The units comprised of villages were known as Chakla. The Chakla was
administered by an officer known as Bhuyan. If the unit comprised of twelve
villages, the officer -in-charge was called a baro-bhuyan. If the number of
the villages were less than twelve then the officer -in -charge was termed
as Chota-Bhuyan or Saru-Bhuyan or Bhuyan .Sometimes the Bhuyans took
title like raja, Chota-Raj, Gomathaetc.
Each Bhuyan was independent within his respective region. He could
maintain his own army. The Bhuyans ruled like independent chiefs. Inthe
early part of 16th century they were subdued by the Ahoms. The Bhuyans
also had judicial power overtheir respective areas. They established their
own courts known as karkhanas.
The Bhuyans in the Kamata kingdom was very powerful. Niladhvaj,
the ruler of Kamata kingdom became the sovereign lord of the whole kingdom.
The Bhuyans took the leadership and overthrow the government of Hussain
shah.
The power of the Kamata Bhuyans began to weaken with the rise of
the Koches. Biswa Singha, who founded the Koch kingdom, subdued most
of the Bhuyans.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.2: Who had established the Chutiya Kingdom?

.........................................................................................................
Q.3: Which term was used to denote the units of villages in the
administrative system of the Bhuyans?
.........................................................................................................
Q.4: In which place the Bhuyans first settled down?
.........................................................................................................
10.7 STATE FORMATION OF THE KACHARIES
The Kacharis was a branch of the indo-mogoloid group of people.

After the fall of the palas, the Kacharis rose into prominence. In the 13th
century, at the time of the coming of the Ahoms the Kacharis were the most
organized tribe with their kingdom. Their kingdom was extended from the
river Dikhou in the eastern side to the Kapili River in the west. The present
district of north Cachar was also under their jurisdiction.
The Kachari king contemporary to Sukapha was possibly
Bicharpatipha. From the Buranjis we got the information that Sukapha fought
with a large number of Kacharis at the foothills of Naga Hills. Suhungmung
dihingia raja defeated the Kacharis in a battle in 1526 and made them Ahom
feudatory. From that time the Kachari kings came to known as
thapitasanchita (established and preserved) of the Ahoms. But later on the
Kacharis revolted against the Ahoms and recovered their capital Dimapur.
The Kacharis were again subdued by the Koches in 1562 and became
subordinate to the Koches. The Ahom king Rudra Singha finally defeated
the kacharis.
They introduced a developed administrative system. They introduced
a monarchical type of administration. King was the supreme authority. We
do not found any reference of assemblies. The king was assisted by some
ministers. The kingship was hereditary.
The royal authority had an efficient military administration. The army
was consisted of infantry,artillery elephantdetachment etc. The king was
also the head of the judiciary and militia. He was the commander in chief in
the battles.
Ministers held the second position in the administrative unit. Ministers
were generally appointed from the nobility. They advised the ruler
duringemergency. There were administrative divisions in the Kachari
administration. The provinces were under the governors
The Kachari kings also issued silver and gold coins. They maintained
trade relation with the neighboring tribes and the Ahoms. Textile, timber and
salt were the chief source of state revenue. The finance department looks
after the trade and commerce. Moreover the state also levied house tax,
market tax and land revenue. Textile, salt and timber were the chief source
of revenue from exports. About imports item we found reference of minerals.
The Kacharis had numerous towns like Kasomari, Sonapur, Banpur,
Maibong, Khaspuretc. The growth of urban centers indicate development of
municipal administration. The administration of the towns were under the
direct supervision of the ruler. The kachari villages were governed by the
village headman.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Write a short note on the Ahom-Kachari relation.

..............................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
10.8 LET US SUM UP
 In Indian context the first state formation was happened in the 6th
century CE with the rise of the Janapadas in Northern India
 There are three main theories of state formation. These are - social
contract theory, divine origin theory and organic theory.
 Kautilya introduced the Saptanga theory of kingship.
 The essential seven limbs or organ of the Saptanga theory were-Swami
(the ruler) Amatya (the minister), Janapada (The population ), Durga
The Fortified (fort), Kosha (The treasury), Danda (The army) and
Mitra(ally and friend).
 The Ahoms entered in the Brahmaputra valley in 1228 CE and gradually

started their state formation. However there are some differences with
the state formation of early period.
 A strong centralized bureaucracy is the prime element of state
formation.
 The Chutiaya established their kingdom in 1187 CE by Birpal. They
established a monarchical type of state formation.
 The term 'bhuyan'means 'landlord'. They did not introduce a
monarchical type of government.
 The kacharis came into prominence in 13th century CE. They also
introduced a monarchical type of state formation.
10.9 FURTHER READING
1) Barpujari, H.K.(ed) Comprehensive History of Assam (Vol II), Assam

Publication Board, Guwahati , 2004(1990).
2) Baruah, S.L, A comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram
Monoharlal Publishers. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2002.

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: (a) False (b) True (c) True

Ans to Q No 2: Birpal
Ans to Q No 3: Chakla
Ans to Q No 4: Lengamaguri.
A. Very Short Type questions (Answer each question within 50 words)

Q 1: What were the three basic theories of state formation?
Q 2: What term was used by kautilya to denote the elements of Saptanga
theory?
Q 3: Who was Sukapha and how he establish Ahom dynasty in Assam?

Q 4: What was the character of Ahom administration?
Q 5: Who introduce the paik system?
B. Short Type Questions (Answer each question within 150 words)

Q 1: Discuss the three main theories of State Formation.
Q 2: Who was Kautilya? Discuss his theory of Saptanga for the state
formation.
Q 3: Who were Chutiyas? How they establish their state formation in
Assam?
C. Long Questions (Answer each question within 500 words)

Q 1: Discuss briefly the policy of State formation of the Ahoms
Q 2: Who were the Bhuyans? What was their system of State Formation?
Discuss.
Q 3: Who were the Kacharis? Discuss briefly their system of State
Formation.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 11: EXPANSION AND CONSOLIDATION OF
THE AHOM EMPIRE
UNIT STRUCTURE
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Ahom Expansionist Policies
11.3.1 Conquest of the Chutiyas
11.3.2 Occupation of the Kachari kingdom
11.4 Westward Expansion
11.4.1 Ahom-Koch Conflicts
11.4.2 Ahom-Mughal Conflicts
11.5 Let us sum up

 discuss the origins of the Ahoms,
 discuss the expansionist policies of the Ahoms,
 describe the conquest of the Chutiya and Kachari Kingdom,
 analyse the Ahom-Mughal and Ahom-Koch conflicts.
11.2 INTRODUCTION
We have already some basic knowledge of the Ahoms in Assam

from the prevoious chapters. They came to the Brahmaputra Valley in the
13th century and established their political power in this region. In this unit
we are going to discuss about the expansion and consolidation of the Ahom
power in Assam. You will come to know about the struggles of the Ahoms
with the indigenous tribes as well as the Turko-Afghan invaders for their
establishment in the Brahmaputra Valley. However, it was only with the
accession of Suhungmung (1497-1539 A.D.) that the Ahom dynasty became
Expansion and Consolidation of The Ahom Empire Unit 11
the most dominant power in Assam, and maintained their uniqueness of

sustaining for almost six hundred years.
11.3 AHOM EXPANSIONIST POLICIES
Suhungmung (1497-1539 A.D.), the son of Supimpha ascended the

Ahom throne in 1497 at Charguya with all pomp and splendour. He was
also known as Dihingiya Raja due to the fact that he made his capital at
Bokota on the bank of the Dihing. His reign is marked as an important one
due to the changes he brought into the map of the Ahom territory.
LET US KNOW
Suhungmung assumed the name of Swarga Narayan

which reveals the growing influence of Hinduism. It was
from his time that the Ahoms took the title of Swargadeo as the honorable
designation in all official documents.
11.3.1 Conquest of the Chutiyas
In the initial years of his reign, Suhungmung first had to face

the revolt of the Aitonia Nagas in 1504, who were however subdued.
The Aitonia Nagas agreed to pay tribute in kinds like axes, gongs
and timber. The Ahoms had also to wage a fight against the Chutiyas.
The Chutiyas under Dhir Narayan invaded the country in 1513, but
were defeated at Dikhowmukh by the Ahoms. A naval defeat was
also inflicted on the Chutiyas at Siraati. Eventually the town of
Mungkhrang was occupied by the Ahoms. Dhir Narayan tried to bring
the Raja of Mungkhrang to his aid but failed as the latter made peace
with the Ahom king. After a long gap, the Chutiyas again attacked
Mungkhrang in 1520, and were successful. In 1552 Suhungmung
sent a fresh expedition and the Chutiyas were defeated. The Ahoms
not only recovered the lost territory but also occupied lands even
further to the North of the river Tiphao, where a fort was erected. In
1523, the Chutiyas renewed their attack but met with the same fate.
They sued for peace but Suhungmung demanded the heirlooms of
Unit 11 Expansion and Consolidation of The Ahom Empire
the Chutiya kingdom, his gold elephant, gold cat and the gold
umbrella. The Chutiya king refused to oblige with this demand. The
war continued again. The Chutiyas took up position at the mouth of
a river near Sadiya, but they had to flee and were pursued by the
Ahoms till the Akitara hills. The Chutiyas gave a stiff check to the
Ahoms by rolling down big boulders on them. However, the Ahoms
were not to be deterred by this and they made a surprise attack on
the Chutiyas from the rear. In the battle that ensued, the Chutiya
king and his son were killed. Their heads were buried under the
steps of the Ahom temple of the Charaideo, for the king to walk
upon. Upon the annexation of the whole Chutiya kingdom a new
officer was appointed for its administration by the designation of
Sadiya Khowa Gohain.
LET US KNOW
Suhungmung made Senglung the Barpatragohain,

a new office made equal in rank with that of
Bargohain and Burhagohain.
11.3.2 Occupation of the Kachari Kingdom
In 1526, the Ahoms marched against the Kacharis who were

defeated after a tough battle. The Chutiyas also revolted in 1527 but
were subdued. Suhungmung’s reign is also known for the first
Muhammedan invasion in Ahom history. The Muslim commander
was known by the name of Wazir. The Ahoms drove away the
Muhammedans as far as the river Burai where a fort was
constructed. 40 horses and 20 to 34 canons were captured.
Towards the close of the year 1529, the Chutiyas revolted again but
were defeated in different fronts on the Chandangiri and Dangthang
hills, and on the banks of the Brahmaputra, Dihing and Kundil river.
In the year 1531, the Kacharis gave the Ahoms a tough time.
The Kachari king Khunkhara tried to drive away the Ahoms from
Marangi but in the battle the former was routed. Suhungmung tried

to punish the Kachari king and sent an expedition against him. The
Kacharis were defeated and a prince named Detsung was installed
as their ruler.
LET US KNOW
A new officer Marangi Khowa Gohain was created

for the control of the lower valley of the Dhansiri.
11.4 WESTWARD EXPANSION

The Ahoms again came face to face with the Muhammedans at
Temani in the western border. The Muhammedan Commander fled after
his army was routed. The Ahoms then placed their garrisons at Sala and at
Singiri. However, the Muhammedans again attacked and this time it was at
Singiri, but the Barpatragohain, who was in charge of the place, defeated
the Muslim force. Bit Malik, the commander of the Muslim army was slain.
Many canons and guns, besides horses were seized by the Ahoms. The
Barpatragohain was generously rewarded.
In 1532, the Muhammedans under Turbak camped opposite the
Ahom fort at Singiri and this time they were prepared with thirty elephants,
1000 horses, a large number of foot soldiers and artillery. Suklenmung, the
son of Suhungmung was given the charge to repel them. However, after a
few skirmishes he became impatient. He crossed the river Brahmaputra,
against the advice of his astrologer. He was defeated and eight of his
commanders died. The Ahoms retreated to Sala and the Barpatragohain
was made the commander-in-chief of the whole mission. Initially the
Muhammedans had an upper hand. They burnt houses and captured seven
of the Ahom boats. But luck favoured the Ahoms, when in March 1533, the
Muhammedan commanders Benagl and Taju were slain and a naval victory
was achieved near Duimunisila. Both the rival groups camped at the
opposite sides of the river Dikrai, each waiting for the other to abandon the
entrenchments. The Ahoms took the first step and defeated the Muslims.
The last battle took place at Bharali. Turbak was killed and the Muslim army
was totally routed. They were pursued by the Ahoms as far as the Karatoya

river. Hussain Khan was also killed in the fight. Horses, elephants and other
booties in the form of gold and silver were all seized.
During the years 1535 and 1536, the Ahoms had to deal with revolts
from the Khamjang, Tablung and Namsang Nagas. All of them were subdued
in due course of time. The Kacharis, again under Detsung, started their
hostility towards the Ahoms and, therefore, Suhungmung sent an army
against him. The Kacharis were defeated and Detsung fled from one place
to another but at last he was caught and put to death. Thus, the whole of
Kachari kingdom came under the Ahoms. In 1537, the Koch king Visva
Simha and his brother visited the Ahom king with presents. The Raja of
Manipur, too, exchanged gifts with the Ahom king.
Suhungmung was, however, assassinated in 1539 by a Kachari
servant Ratiman. It is often stated that the assassination plan was made by
his son, Suklenmung who was not on good terms with his father. After a
reign of 42 years Suhungmung left the Ahom kingdom on a firm foot. The
Nagas, Chutias and Kacharis were defeated. The Muhammedan invasions
had been driven back. Friendly relations were maintained with the Koches
and Manipur. The reign of Suhungmung was eventful from many aspects.
From a religious point of view, the period witnessed the spread of the
Vaishnava form of religion, propounded by Sankardeva. The Saka era was
adopted from his time. It must also be mentioned here that collection of
census data took place from this time. The society was divided into clans
and the artisans were imported from Chutiya country and some other places.
The use of firearms also began from Suhungmung’s reign. Earlier, the Ahom
army used swords, spears, bows and arrows. Suhungmung was an
enterprising king as he gave a new vision to his successors. He extended
the Ahom territory on all sides through his prowess.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.4: What name was taken by Suhungmung after

his accession?
.................................…………………………………………………

Q.5: Who was appointed to the office of Barpatragohain?

.................................…………………………………………………
Q.6: Who commanded the Muhammedan army during the first Muslim
invasion on the Ahoms?
.................................…………………………………………………
Q.7: Name the office that was made by Suhungmung and was made
equal to that of Bargohain and Burhagohain.
.................................…………………………………………………
Q.8: Name the Koch king who visited Suhungmung along with his brother
and when?
.................................…………………………………………………
11.4.1 Ahom- Koch Conflict
The relation between the Ahoms and the Koches were never
smooth. They were at war with each other at the slightest pretext.
Again, in times of need they entered into marital alliances. The Koch
had a friendly relation with the Ahoms as mentioned in the Ahom
Buranjis. There is the mention of a friendly visit by Visva Simha and
his brother in 1537 to the Ahom king. However, the Koch chronicles
describes Visva Simha as having invaded the Ahom territory, in
which the Koch army had to retreat.
After Visva Simha, his son Malla Deva ascended the throne.
He was famous by the name of Nara Narayan. Another son of Visva
Simha was Sukhladhvaj, better known as Chilarai. During the time
of Nara Narayan, the Ahoms and the Koches came into conflict and
the Ahoms had to face a serious setback. It started with a conspiracy
against Nara Narayan by a petty chief who fled to Suklenmung when
detected. Suklenmung gave shelter to the chief. The result was that
a battle was fought between the Koch king Nara Narayan and the
Ahom king. The Koch army under Chilarai fought at the banks of the
river Dikrai and was able to defeat their rival. Another battle was
fought at Kaliabor, but the Ahoms were again routed with a heavy
loss. During this time, the Koches under Gohain Kamal, another

brother of the Koch king, constructed a road from the Koch capital
to Narayanpur (North Lakhimpur sub division). This road came to
be known as the Gohain Kamal Ali. This construction was completed
in 1547, after which the Koches built a fort at Narayanpur.
Soon Suklenmung attacked and encamped at the bank of
river Pichala. This resulted in a disaster as the supplies of the Koch
army were cut off and many of them died. The Koch army was in a
bad shape after this battle. Nara Narayan soon made an attempt by
burning down some villages within the Ahom boundary. The Ahoms
retaliated and in an engagement at the mouth of the river Dikhou,
the Ahoms were defeated. Again in a second engagement at the
same place, Chilarai, the Koch commander inflicted another
crushing defeat on the Ahoms. The Ahom king and his nobles fled
and soon Garhgaon, their capital city, was captured. The Ahoms
had to sue for peace. The Ahom king had to surrender many of their
nobles and sons of their chiefs to the Koches as hostages besides
paying a war indemnity of sixty elephants, sixty pieces of cloths and
a large amount of gold and silver as per the conditions set while
making peace with the Koch king.
However, even though Nara Narayan was successful
everywhere, yet in the case of Padshah of Gaur, the Koches had to
face much trouble. The Koch chronicle informs of the defeat of the
Koch forces under Chilarai who was taken captive. This made the
Koch king, Nara Narayan very desperate to make a good relation
with the Ahoms. He, therefore, decided to release the prisoners he
had taken during the war with the Ahoms. But this he did by a trick
so that nobody could understand the real motive. He called for a
game of dice to be played with Sundar Gohain, one of the hostages
and staked the release of the hostages, in case of his loss. He
deliberately lost the game and thus released the prisoners and made
friendship with the Ahoms.
In July 1563, the Koch commander, Tipu led an invasion up
to the Brahmaputra. But the Ahoms defeated him. In 1570 again,
Tipu and Bhitarual raised an army against the Ahoms but the Ahom
army was successful in crushing their efforts. In 1577 three men
revolted against Nara Narayan, but having failed they sought the
shelter of the Ahom king. The Ahom king, Sukhampha allowed them
to settle at Gajala. In 1585, the Koch King of Koch-Hajo, Raghudeb
gave his daughter Sankala in marriage to Sukhampha with a
handsome dowry. Sukhampha in his turn gifted the Koch King
generously.
After the death of Nara Narayan the Ahom-Koch relations
entered a new phase. The Koch territory was divided among the
sons of Nara Narayan and Sukhladhvaj (Chilarai). The river Sankosh
became the dividing line. The tract of land east of Sankosh was
given to Raghudeb, son of Chilarai, while the west remained with
Lakshmi Narayan, son of Nara Narayan.
LET US KNOW
Nara Narayan did not marry for long and had

declared Raghudeb, his brother Chilarai’s son as
his heir apparent. But later Nara Narayan got married at the
coaxing of his brother and was blessed with a son. This made
Raghudeb very insecure. Therefore, after the death of Chilarai,
Raghudeb sought to revolt. His uncle Nara Narayan therefore
decided to divide his kingdom for the sake of peace.
However, Raghudeb was made to pay tributes to his uncle

Nara Narayan and acknowledge his lordship. But the death of Nara
Narayan gave Raghudeb the much needed opportunity to declare
his independence. Therefore, Nara Narayan’s son and successor
Lakshmi Narayan instigated Raghudeb’s son Parikshit Narayan to
revolt against his father. Parikshit revolted but was caught and
imprisoned. He escaped later and took shelter at the Ahom kingdom.
He returned on the demise of his father to claim his right over the
territory in1603 A.D. Parikshit now defied the overlordship of Lakshmi
Narayan and hence they exchanged swords in which the latter was
beaten. Both now looked for Ahom friendship. Parikshit gave his
daughter Mangaldahi to the Ahom king Pratap Singha in marriage.
Lakshmi Narayan had no choice but to turn for help to the Mughals.
The Nawab of Bengal saw his chance and so sent an army under
Mukkaram Khan against Parikshit Narayan. Parikshit Narayan had
to sue for peace. He turned to the Ahoms for help, but they insisted
that the Koch army join their forces at which Parikshit chose to fight
the battle alone. He had to suffer defeat and his brother, Bali Narayan
fled to the Ahom king for asylum. Pratap Singha installed him as the
Raja of Darrang as a tributary ruler and renamed him as Dharma
Narayan.
The Ahoms thus came into conflict with the Mughals because
of the Koches. The Ahoms were successful against them. However,
in a new expedition sent from Bengal in 1637, the Ahoms and their
allies were defeated. Dharma Narayan was killed in 1638 and peace
was negotiated. Parikshit’s territory now passed to the Ahoms, while
the Mughals occupied the tract of land west of the river Barnadi.
Sundar Narayan, son of Parikshit was made the new king but he
was no longer an independent king. He was required to consult the
Barphukan on all important matters. The western Koch kingdom
also, in the same way became a vassal of the Muslims. Thus, the
Koch kingdom ceased to exist on its own. However, in 1658, the
ruler of Koch Bihar, again, came into conflict with the Ahoms. With
the death of Shah Jahan, the Mughal troops were withdrawn and
this emboldened Pran Narayan to assert his independence. He
defeated the Mughal forces led by Wazir Bhabanath. Encouraged
by his easy win, he proposed for an offensive and defensive alliance
with the Ahoms which was rejected. Rather he was defeated by the
Ahoms and was driven across the river Sankosh. During the
accession of Chakradhwaj Singha (163-1670 A.D.), the Koch Raja
of Darrang sent his warm wishes. Again, there was an incident of
the Koch ruler helping the Mughals. However, Chandra Narayan or
Surya Narayan, grandson of Bali Narayan was made a tributary ruler
of Darrang by the Ahom king Udayaditya Singha (1670-1672 A.D.).

Thus the Ahom–Koch relation went through different phases. The
Koches tried to establish their independence but had to submit
before the power of the Ahoms.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.9: Name the Koch king who succeeded Visva

Simha.
..............………………………………………………………
Q.10: Sukhladhvaj was better known as …………………..
Q.11: Name the road constructed by the Koches connecting the
Koch capital in Koch Bihar and Narayanpur.
..............……………………………………………………
Q.12: Name the Koch princess married to Pratap Singha.
..............……………………………………………………
Q.13: Who was made the king of Darrang by the Ahoms?
..............……………………………………………………
11.4.2 Ahom- Mughal Conflict
It was during the time of Suhungmung that we hear of the

Muhammedan invasion. Their attacks were repulsed. The next
invasion by the Mughals took place in the time of Susengpha (Pratap
Singha). The reason was the shelter provided to Bali Narayan
(brother of Parikshit Narayan) and the murder of a Mughal trader
near Kaliabor. The Nawab of Bengal, Sheikh Qasim sent an
expedition against the Ahoms, in which they were accompanied by
Sattarjit and Akhek Gohain. The enemies met each other at the bank
of the river Bharali. Initially the Mughals had an upper hand due to
the fog but ultimately due to the treachery of Akhek Gohain, the
Mughal forces were taken by surprise in an attack by the Ahoms,
both by land and by water and the Mughals had to face defeat. Many
of the generals and soldiers were killed or taken captive. The rest
were put to death and a huge booty earned. Soon, the Ahom

commanders ignoring the orders of the king pursued the Mughals

to Hajo, but they were defeated and had to retreat to Srighat. The
Burha Gohain was taken captive. Many ships, elephants, and booty
were taken away by the Mughals. Many Ahom soldiers were
wounded.
Fresh hostilities began in September 1612 when the Mughals
besieged Dharma Narayan in his fort, south of the river Brahmaputra.
The Ahoms soon came to his rescue and in the battle that ensued,
the Mughals were severely routed. There were attempts for a
friendship pact but it could not be materialized because of foul play
by Sattarjit. After some years the relation became strained because
of Sattarjit and his tricks and also because Harikesh, a defaulting
officer under the Nawab of Bengal, was given protection by Pratap
Singha. The Mughals tried to seize Harikesh to which the Ahoms
replied by force and in the battle the Mughals were defeated. Pratap
Singha now decided to fight the war in his enemy’s territory and
hence sought the friendship of local chiefs. Soon he occupied the
Mughal forts at Deomiah, Bantikot, Chamaria, and Nagarbera. At
Hajo the Mughals were reinforced by additional troops sent by the
Nawab of Bengal. In the engagement that followed the Ahoms were
defeated. But soon Pratap Singha sent more forces and the Ahoms
once more advanced and pushed the Mughals back to Sualkuchi.
In an interesting encounter the Ahoms also inflicted a heavy defeat
on the Mughal fleet at the bank of Brahmaputra, near Hajo. The
Ahom chronicles record the capturing of three hundred cannons,
boats, guns and other spoils too. Hajo was soon infested by the
Ahoms and supplies were all cut off leaving the Mughals with no
other option but to surrender.
Another fresh invasion soon was made by the brother of the
Nawab, Mir Zainuddin. On his way he heard of what had happened
to his compatriots but he marched forward and he was assisted by
Pran Narayan, ruler of Koch Bihar. The enemies camped at
Jogighopa and at Hirapur. In the many engagements that followed
the Ahoms were defeated. In October 1637, the Ahoms attacked

the Mughal army but they were defeated. At Barpeta, the Ahoms
were surrounded from all sides by the Mughals and were beaten.
The Mughals soon occupied the fort at Agiathuti and Srighat. The
Kajali fort was soon captured by the Mughals and the Ahoms had to
suffer a serious naval defeat. In 1638, the Mughals along with Pran
Narayan came up to the river Bharali. Hostilities soon began in which
the invaders had to retire back to Guwahati after undergoing a defeat.
Peace was made between both the camps by which the Bar Nadi
on the north bank of Brahmaputra and Asurar Ali on the south were
fixed as the boundary between them.
The next Ahom-Mughal conflict took place during the reign
of Sutamla or Jayadhvaj Singha. The death of Shah Jahan gave
opportunities for those who were desirous of power and thus a long
feud began for succession. Taking this chance Jayadhvaj Singha
made an advance towards Guwahati. The Mughal Faujdar of
Guwahati had fled leaving horses, cannons, guns etc. Pran Narayan
the ruler of Koch Bihar sought alliance against the Mughals from
the Ahoms but the Ahoms did not agree. They marched against the
Koches who were driven across the river Sankosh. Thus, the whole
of the Brahmaputra Valley came under the Ahoms. The Mughals
under Mir Jumla who was the governor of Bengal marched against
the Ahoms in 1662. He was accompanied by Rashid khan. After a
long march he arrived at the fort of Jogighopa with a large army.
The Ahom garrison at Jogighopa could not give resistance to the
Mughal force and hence they retreated to Srighat. On hearing this
Jayadhwaj Singha sent reinforcement to Srighat and Pandu, but
the Mughals had already reached and the Ahoms gave no fight. The
fort of Srighat was destroyed by the Mughals and Guwahati fell to
the hands of the invaders. The troops on the North bank of the
Brahmaputra fled to Kajali while those on the South bank were killed.
The Ahom forces at Kajali were so upset with the news that came
that they chose to retreat to Samdhara. The Ahoms began
strengthening the forts at Samdhara and Simlagarh.
Meanwhile Mir Jumla marched towards Garhgaon, the Ahom

capital. Many chiefs and rajas submitted to him, among those were
the Raja of Dimarua and the Raja of Darrang. Mir Jumla next camped
close to the fort of Simlagarh. The Ahoms after a feeble resistance
gave up and fled. Thus, the fort of Simlagarh fell to the Mughals very
easily. At this news the Ahom garrison at the fort of Samdhara lost
heart. They fled, after destroying the store of gun powder. Mir Jumla
appointed a Faujdar in charge of the fort and proceeded further. The
Ahoms next attacked the Mughal fleet which was isolated as Mir
Jumla moved ahead with his foot soldiers. The battle continued the
whole night but when the Ahoms heard the trumpets of the coming
of the Mughals the next day, they fled. As many as three hundred
ships were captured by the Mughals. The Ahom forces under the
Bar Gohain gained some success but they kept on retreating. The
Ahoms next established themshelves at Lakhau or Lakhugarh but
as the invaders arrived, the Ahoms retreated again. The Ahom king
Jayadhvaj Singha ordered the Burha Gohain to remain at Garhgaon
and himself along with the Bar Phukan and the Bar Barua and five
thousand men fled to Namrup. On reaching Gajpur, Mir Jumla heard
of the flight of the Ahom king. He at once sent his forces to Garhgaon.
On 17 March, 1662 Mir Jumla entered the Ahom capital,
Garhgaon and occupied it. A large booty of eighty two elephants,
gold and silver worth three lakhs of rupees and 170 storehouses,
each being able to contain one to ten thousand mounds of rice fell
into their hands. But slowly the rainy season set in. Taking advantage
of it, the Ahom army launched some surprise attacks on the invaders.
The garrison at Gajpur was overpowered by the Ahoms. But they
failed at Deopani. As the rains continued Mir Jumla found it difficult
to maintain his outposts and therefore retreated to Garhgaon. Most
of the country had been re -occupied by the Ahoms and Jayadhwaj
Singha returned to take charge. Negotiations for peace were made,
but they failed. The Ahoms renewed their attack on the capital,
Garhgaon. The Mughals gave up after a tough fight. The Ahoms
attacked the Mughal army day in and day out. Moreover, the food
supplies had decreased and fever and dysentery plagued the Mughal
army. Meanwhile, in Lower Assam, the Mughal garrison was driven
away by Pran Narayan, the ruler of Koch Bihar.
By the end of September, rains had ceased to fall and
reinforcements started pouring in. When the floods receded, the
supplies started flowing lending mobility to the Mughal troops, the
Mughals again prepared for a fresh attack. The Ahom king and his
nobles fled to Namrup again. Mir Jumla attacked the Baduli Phukan
who submitted and joined the Mughals in pursuing the Ahom king.
But due to the famine in Bengal, supplies were not reaching the
Mughal forces. Mir Jumla also fell ill and his soldiers were not at all
ready to risk another rainy season and hence threatened to desert
him. Thus the Nawab was compelled to negotiate for peace with
the Ahom king. The famous Treaty of Ghilajhari Ghat was concluded
on January 9th 1663 by which the country west of the river Bharali
on the north bank of the Brahmaputra and to the Kalang on the
south was ceded to the Emperor of Delhi. Soon after this, Mir Jumla
gave orders for returning to Bengal. But on 30th march 1663, he
died just before reaching Dacca.
When Jayadhwaj Singha died, he had no direct heir and the
nobles invited the Charing Raja to occupy the throne. He was named
Supungmung and assumed the Hindu name Chakradhvaj Singh.
New hostilities began with the Mughals on the question of payment
of the indemnities as promised in the peace treaty made by Jayadhvaj
Singha. Rashid Khan was succeeded by Saiad Firuz Khan as the
Faujdar of Guwahati. Firuz Khan demanded the payment which was
due from the Ahom king. Chakradhvaj Singh now decided to go to
war and after more than a year of due preparation, on August, 1667
the Ahom army under Lachit Barphukan set out to take Guwahati
from the Mughals. The outposts at Kajali and Bansabari were taken
by the Ahoms. After a siege of two months, Guwahati and Pandu
were captured too. The Mughal forces were routed and Firuz Khan
was killed. Even though fresh reinforcements arrived, yet the Mughals
could not make much headway. They had to retreat from Agiathuti
and fell back on the Manas river. They were surrounded from all
sides. Many of them were killed and some were sent as captives to
the Ahom capital, Garhgaon.
In 1668, fresh conflict began with the Mughals. Aurangzeb,
the Mughal ruler sent one Raja Ram Singh as the commander of
the imperial army to avenge the death of Firuz Khan and the loss of
Guwahati. Raja Ram Singh was accompanied by Rashid Khan. In
the battle near Tezpur, the Ahoms were routed but they soon gained
a naval victory and also took over the fort at Rangmahal. The
Mughals were again defeated near Sualkuchi, both on land and in
water. At Sessa the Ahoms won a double engagement. Next, the
fort at Agiathuti fell into the hands of the Ahoms. But very soon Ram
Singh routed the Ahoms and the Bar Phukan had to retreat with a
heavy loss. Raja Ram Singh now sued for peace. For some time
hostilities between both the rival camps were halted.
Meanwhile, Chakradhwaj Singha was succeeded by
Sunyatpha or Udayaditya Singha. Raja Ram Singh again presses
for the recognition by the Ahoms of the old boundary. As he was
desperate he started his march to Sitamary. The Ahoms also
marched from Samdhara to Srighat. In an engagement the Ahoms
were successful but due to their naval defeat the army had to retreat.
But when reinforcements arrived the Ahoms were able to defeat the
Mughals in a naval battle and a second land victory was also gained
by them. After leading the Ahoms to victory at the decisive battle of
Saraighat, Lachit Barphukan who was ailing succumbed to his
illness. By March 1671, Ram Singh due to repeated losses had
retreated to Rangamati. For some years there was peace. During
the time of Sudaipha (1677-1679 A.D.), Guwahati was lost to the
Mughals. In March, 1679 it was handed over by the new Barphukan
who had allied with the Mughals on his falling out with the
Burhagohain.
The last Muhhamedan war was fought during the time of

Gadadhar Singha (1681-1696 A.D.). His first course of action on his
accession was to oust the Mughals from Guwahati. At the first assault,
the forts at Kajali and Bansabari fell into the hands of the Ahoms.
Another naval victory was gained near the bank of the Bar Nadi. The
Mughal Faujdar of Guwahati was too weak to give resistance and
fled. Thus, Gauhati was re- occupied by the Ahoms along with a
huge booty. From now onwards the river Manas was accepted as
the boundary by both the parties.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.14: In which year did Mir Jumla invade Assam?

……………………………………………………………….
Q.15: During whose reign did Mir Jumla invade Assam?
........………………………………………………………………….
Q.16: Name the capital of the Ahoms when Muhammedans came to
Assam.
........………………………………………………………………….
Q.17: What was the outcome of the invasion of Mir Jumla?
........………………………………………………………………….
Q.18: During whose reign was the last Muhammedan war fought?
........………………………………………………………………….
11.5 LET US SUM UP
After going through this unit you have learnt about,

 the origin of the Ahoms, their advent, and their establishment as a
political power in the Brahmaputra Valley.
 from the time of Suhungmung the Ahom dynasty started its
expansionist policy and was able to establish itself as a dominant
power in the Brahmaputra valley.
 during the time of Suhungmung, there were conflicts with the Mughals,

Chutias, and Nagas, etc. Throughout the rule from Suhungmung to

Rudra Singha, the Ahoms were fighting and had been successful in
compelling their neighbours to submit to them. This period is very
important as it marks the rise of the Ahoms and it can also be termed
as the golden age of the Ahom dynasty.
 the inroads made by the Mughal army were reversed. The Ahoms
also made friends with the tributary Rajas through matrimonial
alliances.
1. Gait, Edward (2005): A History of Assam, LBS Publication, Guwahati

2. Baruah, S.L(1996): A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram
3. Barpujari, H.K(2003): The Comprehensive History of Assam, Volume-
I &II, Publication Board, Assam, Guwahati

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1:
a) 1215 A.D.
b) Suteupha
c) Sutupha
d) Mong Kwang
Ans to Q No 2: Sukapha had a dispute with one of his brothers for which
he left his ancestral kingdom to seek his fortune elsewhere.
Ans to Q No 3: It took 13 years for Sukapha and his followers to reach the
Patkai.
Ans to Q No 4: Swarga Narayan
Ans to Q No 5: Senglung

Ans to Q No 6: Wazir
Ans to Q No 7: Barpatragohain
Ans to Q No 8: Viswa Simha
Ans to Q No 9: Nara Narayan.
Ans to Q No 10: Chilarai.
Ans to Q No 11: Gohain Kamal Ali.
Ans to Q No 12: Mangaldahi.
Ans to Q No 13: Bali Narayan or Dharma Narayan.
Ans to Q No 14: 1662
Ans to Q No 15: Jayadhvaj Singh
Ans to Q No 16: Garhgaon
Ans to Q No 17: The country West of the river Bharali on the North bank of
Brahmaputra and of the Kalang on the South bank of Brahmaputra
was ceded by the Ahoms to the Mughals.
Ans to Q No 18: Gadadhar Singha.

Q 1: What do know about Hangdang?
Q 2: Name the route through which the Ahoms came into Assam.
Q 3: Who succeeded Sukapha?
Q 4: Who was Sadiya Khowa Gohain?

Q 1: Write briefly about Nara Narayan.
Q 2: Who were Ahoms?
Q 3: Write Short notes on-
a) Conquest of Chutiyas
b) Conquest of the Kacharis
c) Ahom-Mughal Conflict under Jaydhwaj Singha
d) Suhungmung

C) LONG QUESTIONS (Answer each question in between 300-500 words)

Q 1: Explain the role played by Sukapha in the establishment of Ahom rule
in Assam.
Q 2: Describe the foundation of the Ahom kingdom.
Q 3: Describe Mir Jumla’s invasion of Assam during the time of the Ahoms.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 12: SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND RELIGION
DURING THE AHOM PERIOD
UNIT STRUCTURE
12.2 Introduction
12.3 Society
12.4 Economy
12.5 Religion
12.6 Let Us Sum Up

 describe the social settings within the Ahom Empire
 explain the economic condition of Assam in the Ahom period
 discuss the religious condition during the Ahom rule
 analyse the trend of Bhakti and Neo-Vaishnavism in Assam and its
influence on the culture of Assam.
12.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we have discussed the expansion and
consolidation of the Ahom empire. In this unit we will be discussing the
socio-religious and the economic conditions that existed during the rule of
the Ahoms. The Ahoms ruled in Assam for nearly 600 years and during this
long period they introduced new elements into the society of Assam. This
unit takes a deeper look into the socio-cultural issues and economic affairs
during the rule of the mighty Ahoms.
12.3 SOCIETY
The social life during the period of Ahom rule in Assam can be
constructed from several sources like the Buranjis (chronicles),
Unit 12 Society, Economy and Religion During The Ahom Period
Rajavamsavalis (genealogies), Charitas (biographies) of the Vaishnava

saints and preachers, inscriptions of the Ahom and the Koch kings and the
huge literary sources left behind by the Muslim historians and foreign
travellers.
We find references to professional communities and traditional
castes of Pre-Ahom Assam in the inscriptions. From the 13th century
onwards fresh waves of Brahmanas who occupied a privileged position in
Brahmanical Hindu society started settling down in Assam. The kings of
Assam brought learned Brahmanas for the purpose of strengthening the
Brahmanical tradition. There has been no reference made to any class
distinction among the Brahmanas except for Hamilton who mentions two
sections: Radha and Vaidika made on the basis of the areas from which
they migrated.
The next rank in the caste hierarchy was the Daivajanas or the
Ganakas who were astrologers by profession. They enjoyed the patronage
of the Ahom rulers and an honoured position in the society. The Darrang
Raja bestowed the title of “Khari”, while the Ahom rulers gave them the title
of Doloi or Bordoloi. However, even though they performed all forms of rituals
and wore the sacred thread, the Brahmanas never made any matrimonial
alliances with the Ganakas as the latter were considered to be of a lower
caste.
The next were the Kayasthas, whose work was to maintain the
accounts and serve as the record keepers or the scribes. Under the rule of
the Kamata kings, the Kayasthas managed to carve out principalities. They
were called Sat Karmi since they performed the six sacraments. They did
not plough their fields or carry loads.
The Kalitas surpass the Brahmanas or the Daivajanas in numbers.
The origin of the Kalitas is not known but they have been occupying a
respectable position in the Assamese society since the 14th century. They
have been referred to as belonging to the Alpine stock by scholars like P.C.
Choudhury and K.L.Barua. The Katha Gurucharita refers to a Kalita Desa
in the Himalayan foothills in the North-Eastern region. In Assam the Kalitas
were divided into two categories: Bar Kalitas and Saru Kalitas. Those
Society, Economy and Religion During The Ahom Period Unit 12
Kayasthas who were descendant from intermarriage with the Kalitas were
known as the Bar Kalita. They rose into prominence as religious preachers
during the Neo-Vaishnavite movement. The Kalitas pursued many
professions and also performed many Hindu samskaras (rites and rituals).
The next position in the social hierarchy was occupied by the Keots.
The term Keot originated from the Sanskrit Kaivarta which became Kevatta
(boatman) and finally Keot. The earliest reference to the Keots is to be found
in the Katha Gurucharita. The two classes of Keots were Haluwa Keots
who were treated as upper caste Hindus and Jaluwa Keots who were treated
as belonging to the lower depressed class of fisherman community. The
Koch records refer to the Jaluwa Keots as Dooms, while the Haluwa Keots
were termed as Keots. The foreheads of the fisherman were tattooed with
the mark of a fish during the rule of the Ahoms. The Kaivartas followed the
Vaishnavite religion.
The Koches or Rajavamsis were another high caste in the social
ladder though not equal to the Kalitas or the Keots. The Koches were part of
Tibeto-Burman stock and came to be known as Koch or Rajavamsis due to
the influence of Brahmanical and Neo-Vaishnava preachers who admitted
them into the Hindu fold.
The Chutiyas were another tribal group that underwent social
transformation and caste status. A part of the community merged with the
Ahoms, another with the Mishing, while a third section became a part of the
Barahis of Eastern Assam and therefore came to be known as Barahi
Chutiya. The priestly class of the Chutiyas or the Deoris remains true to
their faith. The Chutias who accepted Hinduism maintained a separate
identity. They were the Hindu Chutias who did not dine or enter into marital
alliance with the Ahom Chutiyas and also with Miri Chutiyas.
Assamese society was also constituted of many other castes, sub-
castes and professional classes which find mention in the Dharma Purana
(12th century), the Brhaddharma, the Brahma Vaivarta Puranas composed
in the 12th or 13th century also mentions the social classes of Eastern India.
Madhava Kandali, the great poet refers to two caste groups or professional
classes: the Nathayogis and Haris in a derogatory manner indicating their
low social status. Sankardeva mentions the hill tribes in his Bhagavata-
Purana. Barring a few caste based professions, most of the professions
could be pursued by all members of the different castes and creeds.
Assam was inhabited by a large number of tribes, who lived according
to their own community rules and laws. The Lalungs or Tiwas and Dimasas
were Bodo-Kachari tribes. Among the Buddhist communities that migrated
from the early part of the 18th century, the Khamtis, the Doanahs, the Tai
Phakes, the Turungs, the Aitonias and the Naras formed small groups. The
Muslim invasion of Bakhtiyar Khilji also led to the settlement of the Muslims
in the region. The assimilation of the tribes and the new Muslim population
along with the plains people was very gradual and it continues even today.
The society of medieval Assam gave much space for the growth of
art and architecture. The Ahom and Koch rulers rebuilt many of the old
temples which were in ruins. They also built new ones and introduced new
styles in the shape of an octagonal sanctum and beehive dome. They also
initiated the widespread use of brick instead of stone blocks. Many of these
temples still stand today in Sibsagar, Guwahati and other places. The Neo-
Vaishnava movement resulted in the development of the art of illustrated
manuscripts patronised by the Ahom rulers and the Koch king. It made great
advancements in this regard. The manuscripts were illustrated with beautiful
pictures in different colours and shades. Some of the illustrated religious
manuscripts were Bhagavata Purana, Sankhachuda-Vadha, Gita Govinda
and Dharma Purana. The Hastirvidyarnama is the most unique example of
a painted manuscript among the secular branch of manuscript paintings.
It was owing to the impact of the emergence of Neo- Vaishnava
movement that Assamese language and literature developed. Prior to it
Sanskrit was the main language and the early inscriptions bear testimony
to this fact. Sanskrit was studied by the Satras and their religious leaders
and also by Brahmanas. But gradually Assamese took over and along with
Sanskrit, Assamese language began to be used in land grants. King Rudra
Singha is said to have read the Sastras and composed Assamese poems.
Vernacular literature soon took over due to the distinguished personalities
like Madhava Kandali, Sankaradeva, Bhattadeva, Ram Saraswati, Ananta
Kandali, etc. Sankaradeva’s Kirtana Ghosa, Rukmini Haran, Bhakti

Ratnakara are some classic works in the vernacular language. The Ahom
and Koch rulers patronized vernacular literature, as they were themselves
accomplished in poetry. Assamese language and literature grew to a new
height with works like Satriya Vamsavalis (chronicles of the Satras) and the
Hagiography- Literature
Charita Puthis (Hagiographies). Many secular writings also enriched the concerned with the lives of
Assamese literature. Bakul Kayasthas’ Kitabat Manjuri (a mathematical saints.
treaties), Sridhar’s Sandhyakanda (an astrological work) are some
examples of non-religious literature. The Buranjis were the greatest
contribution of the Ahom rulers towards the literature of Assam.
Games and sports, dance and music were patronised by the Ahoms.
Animal fights were the common pastimes. The appointment of Senchowa
Barua (person in charge of training falcons), Kukurachowa Barua (trainer of
cocks for cock fights) indicate the popularity of the above sports. Some of
the sports which were imported from outside were wrestling, jugglery, etc.
Dance and music formed an integral part of the Assamese culture. It revolved
round festivals, both religious and agricultural. Mainly it was the agricultural
festivals which were celebrated, like Bihu, but religious festivals like Durga
worship due to the influence of Saktism were also celebrated with equal
pomp and glory. The Devadasi form of dance also prevailed in the temples
and was performed by the female dancers called Natis. Institutions like the
Satras also encouraged the various forms of dance, mainly Oja-Pali,
Sutradhari, Dasavatar, and Krishna-Nritya.
The joint family set up in medieval Assam was typically patriarchal.
The entire family lived together. Women folks of Assam lived under patriarchal
dominance, but did not suffer from social evils like sati which was rampant
in the rest of the country, though we do have some instances of self
immolation as mentioned in the Haridevacharita. The widows among the
Brahmanas and the Kayasthas had to live an austere life. Formal education
was not allowed for the women folk and they learned the 3 R’s (Reading,
Writing and Arithmetic) from the men folk of the family. They were considered
educated if they could read the Ratnawali, Kirtana and the Namaghosa.
However, the women folk equally participated in agricultural activities like
planting, sowing crops, etc. They faced fewer restrictions than their
counterparts in other places of India. But there is no denying the fact that
women were dominated. The women of each and every household were an
expert weaver.
The marriage customs in the society were not uniform. The Ahoms
had their own rites in matters of marriage called Chaklang. However, Vedic
rites were followed if an Ahom king married a non-Ahom girl. The tribal groups
of the region followed their own tribal customs but those who were Hinduised
practiced Vedic rites.
Regarding the food habits, rice, milk, fish and pulses were the staple
diet of the people, rich or poor. Liquor among the high caste Hindus was
disfavoured. Chewing of areca nuts with betel leaves was a common
practice.
During the initial phase of the Ahom rule, the society was marked by
harmonious relation between different sections and classes although social
harmony was often disrupted by war between the Ahoms and other tribes
who were gradually assimilated into a greater Assamese society. After the
Ahom rule had been firmly established over the greater part of the
Brahmaputra Valley, we find a hierarchical society. The aristocracy
consisting of the king, his circle of ministers (Patra Mantri), the local
governors, the priestly class, the king’s son, his wives and family members
occupied the top rung of the social ladder. The next in line were the Chamua
class who mostly occupied the office of the Barua, Hazarika, Saikia, etc.
The people at the lowest order were the Paiks and the slaves. The Paiks
formed the majority of the total population and also constituted the country’s
military as well as the labour force. The social distinction among the classes
was in the matters of dress, food habits, possession of Paiks, etc.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.1: What was the primary occupation followed by

the Daivajanas or the Ganakas?
.........................................................................................................

Q 2: What title was bestowed upon the Daivajanas by the Ahom

rulers?
.........................................................................................................
Q.3: Name the two groups into which the Kaivartas or the Keots
were divided.
.........................................................................................................
Q.4: Name the various forms of dance that existed in Medieval Assam.
.........................................................................................................
Q.5: What do you understand by Chaklang?
.........................................................................................................
Q.6: Who was Senchowa Barua?
.........................................................................................................
12.4 ECONOMY
Agriculture was the backbone of the economy of the Ahom period.

Though at times the wealthy section of the people took to trade (internal and
external), yet an urban economy failed to develop their beyond a certain
level. The agricultural economy was a self sufficient one and the people
never faced insecurity regarding food, except during trying times like war
and natural calamities.
Villages were organized in such a manner that the families belonging
to a particular profession and ethnic origin were settled together. Many
villages were occupied basically by people from a particular professional
community and this is revealed by the names of the villages like Tantikuchi,
Kamarkuchi, etc. The village life seemed very hard as the common man
had to reel under the pressure both of paying taxes to the king in the form of
manual labour as well as fighting during wars and at the same time they
were required to pay their respect to the religious head of the Satras in the
form of taxes.
There were urban settlements in medieval Assam. Some important
urban centres were located at Rangpur, Garhgaon, Guwahati, Hajo, etc.
These settlements grew up as administrative, trading or religious centres.

Many foreign travellers have left a rich account of the natural products
found in Assam. It was the abundance of the agricultural products that
attracted the Mughals to this region and trade also flourished. Rice was the
staple food crop and hence it was cultivated on a large scale. Other agro
based products were pulses, oil seeds, spices, mustard, poppy (as an
intoxicant), bamboo, etc. Fruits like thekera, owtenga, amara, orange, lemon,
etc. were very common. Shihabuddin Talish, who accompanied Mir Jumla
during the latter’s expedition to Assam in 1662-63, mentions an alkali called
Khar used by the local people which was used as a substitute for salt.
Black Pepper (jaluk) was produced in considerable quantity for internal
consumption. Names of places like Banhbari, Jalukbari, Adabari, Betkuchi,
etc indicate areas of cultivation of a particular crop. Bay leaves (tejpat) were
cultivated in the hilly areas. Sugarcane of three varieties was cultivated as
Shihabuddin Talish (a Muslim chronicler accompanying Mir Jumla) mentions
it. Tobacco formed an important cash crop of Assam after it was first
introduced into India by the Portuguese. Areca nuts and betel leaves were
widely found and their use was very common. Talish speaks of the presence
of betel nut sellers in the markets of Guwahati and Garhgaon.
As the economy was totally agricultural, the tools used were mostly
bamboo-harrow, plough spade, clod breaker, rakes, axes, sickle, etc. Oxen,
buffaloes and a few horses were used for cultivation purposes. The tribal
population in the hills followed the jhum system (shifting system) of cultivation.
Small industries grew up centering on textiles, metal casting, timber woods,
etc. Ivory industry, gold washing, iron smelting, salt manufacturing, copper
and bell metal industry flourished side by side. Wood craft attained some
excellence though it was not of a high order. Pottery making was another
industry which was carried out by the Kumar and the Hira communities.
While the former used the potter’s wheel, the latter were specialized in
hand made pottery. Brick making industry grew up under strict state
supervision. Brick was used to build many temples, tombs and palaces
during the Ahom rule, from the reign of Rudra Singha onwards.
Trade did not play a major role in the medieval economy of Assam
due to its self sufficient nature. Moreover, the houses of every people were
filled with a year’s supplies for the family and hence the only person who sat
at the market place to sell their wares was the areca nut and betel leaves
sellers. This was the reason why during the early period of the Ahom rule,
external trade was minimized. The Ahom rulers also followed an isolation
policy or closed door policy during the days of conflict with the Mughals.
However, the Charita Puthis give evidence of some people who made their
living through trade. The Buranjis however give in detail the encouragement
of the Ahom rulers in the sphere of internal trade. For the purpose of internal
trade the Ahoms established different marts or haats, Sadiya being the central
market for the entire hill tribes. Market regulations were made in order to
keep in check the trading activities. The different hill tribes brought their
products like millets and rock salt and exchanged their goods with each
other and the plains people in lieu of goods itself as the circulation of money
was limited.
Trade with other parts of India was mainly carried through Bengal.
Prior to Rudra Singha, the Ahoms considered any outsider as a threat to the
country and hence many traders who came from Bengal were executed.
But the Ahoms could not bar the growing curiosity of the outsiders towards
the resources of Assam for a long time. It was Rudra Singha who abandoned
the isolation policy and started a new economic policy and welcomed trade
with other parts of India.
Assam-Bengal trade took a massive leap with the coming of Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa under the East India Company’s possession. The result
was the coming of many foreign traders, thus facilitating trade in huge
quantities. But the Assam-Bengal trade soon passed over the Company
due to growing rivalry and hostility between the Assamese traders and the
Company officials.
In order to facilitate trading activities, Choukis or outposts were
erected under officers called Duaria Baruah or Chakial Baruah to collect
taxes and control illicit transport of goods. The Hadira or Kandahar Chouki
was an important outpost. After the Moamariya rebellion and the expedition
of Captain Welsh to Assam, the Ahom king Gaurinath Singha agreed to
expand trade with the East India Company. As a result, besides Salt, imports
from Bengal later included mainly salt, ghee, pulse, sugar and spice, stone
beads, coral, gems, cutlery and glass-ware, paints, English woolen goods,
shells, etc. The items of export were stick lac, muga silk, ivory, iron hoes,
bell metal vessels, black pepper, silk cotton (simolu), mustard seed, slaves,
etc. Apart from the trade with Bengal and the Mughals, trade relations
between Bhutan and Tibet had always existed.
According to Talish, Cowries, rupees and gold coins were used in
the Ahom kingdom. Similarly the Koch coins, the Narayani rupee was also
accepted as a currency in Assam. Transactions were made directly between
the producer and the consumer or through the middlemen.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.7: Name some urban towns of Medieval Assam.

.........................................................................................................
Q.8: Which Muslim invader was accompanied by Shihabuddin Talish?
.........................................................................................................
Q.9: What was the officer in charge of the Choukis or outposts known
as?
.........................................................................................................
Q.10: The Koch coin is known as ………………………
12.5 RELIGION
Medieval Assam was very much shaped by the Bhakti movement in

the religious sphere and its influence prevails even today. But that came
later, and before that we need to have a glimpse of the other forms of worship
that were a part and parcel of the life of the people. Brahmanical religion
maintained its supremacy in the Assamese society. However, the religion
became more complex with meaningless and elaborate rituals and
ceremonies. Hence, it could not find favour with the common people. Esoteric
forms of worship and Vamacara rituals and Tantric practices became
common. Magic and incantation was practiced and people were very much
attracted to it. Many made an earning out of it, for others it was a means of
rising against social domination of the Brahmanas. These practices
continued long after the expansion of the Neo-Vaishnavite movement. This

fact is revealed in many works like the Ain-i-Akbari, Fathiyyah-i-Ibriyyah,
Baharistan-i-Ghaibi, Alamgirnamah, etc. The Ahom rulers also came under
its spell. It is said that Pratap Singha (1603-1641) thought himself to be
possessed by an evil spirit and that he had to be cleansed before his
accession to the throne.
Tantricism was another form of cult worship that involved sacrifices,
both animal and human. It found support amongst the tribal people.
Contemporary sources mention many such sacrifices that were made in
the name of this cult. It is said that human beings were sacrificed at the altar
of Kamakhya, Kesaikhaiti and Jayanteshwari. These sacrifices continued
until it was banned by Gaurinath Singha (1780-1795) towards the close of
the 18th century. Besides these, the worship of Siva and Sakti was also
followed. The ruling families as well as the tribal communities worshipped
Siva and Sakti in their various forms. The Bodo-Kacharis worshipped Bathow,
whom they identified with Siva. The Hindu families worshipped Siva according
to the Brahmanical rites, while the tribal people followed their tribal rituals.
The Ahom kings built many temples dedicated to Siva in order to win popular
support.
Sakti worship was also very much prevalent among the local people.
The Chutiyas worshipped Kesaikhaiti, who is identified as the Goddess
Dikkaravasini of the Tantras. The Jayantias worshipped Jayanteshwari. It is
suggested that Kamakhya was a tribal deity in its origin and hence the rulers
paid their obeisance to it. A tribal God Maroi (Manasa in Hinduism) and another
tribal deity known in its Hindu form as Sitala Aai, the Goddess of small pox
was adored and worshipped with elaborate rituals.
Regarding Buddhism, it can be inferred from the literary sources
that during the time of Sankaradeva, Buddhism was loosely associated with
a degenerated form of Tantricism of the Vajrayana faith. There were of course
some tribes who migrated from Myanmar and practiced Buddhism. The
Sherdukpens and Monpas also followed the Tibetan Buddhist School.
There were followers of the Sikh faith as well in Assam. It has been
believed that Guru Nanak dev visited Kamrupa, which led to many people
taking up the Sikh faith. Guru Teg Bahadur is believed to have visited the
Kamakhya temple and left his followers in Assam. It is said that due to the
belief of the outsiders that Assam was a land of magic and magicians, the
invaders brought the spiritual leaders along with them just as the Guru was
brought to Assam by Ram Singh.
Similarly, the Muslims were also settled in Assam due to the invasions
of the foreign powers. Raja Ram Singh brought five Muslim saints with him.
The Kanai Barasi Bowa Rock Inscription gives the earliest evidence of Muslim
invasion in Assam. Though the Muslims were routed by then ruler of Kamrupa
yet some of the soldiers remained behind. They were responsible for
spreading the seed of Islam in Assam. Shah Badar was reportedly one of
the earliest Muslim saints to have visited Assam, during the 14th century
when Ibn Battuta visited Assam. The Dargah of the five Pirs (Sufi saints),
namely, Shah Akhar, Shah Bagmar, Shah Saran, Shah Sufi and Shah Kamal
in Dhubri stands as an edifice of the growth of Islam in Assam. Shah Milan
was also a Pir, commonly known as Azan Pir, who composed many
devotional hymns like Zikirs and Jaris in Assamese. The Ahom monarchs
gave due patronage to the Muslim saints and their holy places. Land grants
were also made in favour of the Muslim saints.
With the coming of the East India Company Christianity too started
penetrating in Assam.
NEO-VAISHNAVISM
It was the launching of the Bhakti movement that brought the
tumultuous phase in religious sphere to a halt. Sankardeva and his disciple
Madhavdeva in the 16th century launched the Neo-Vaishnavite movement in
Assam. The objective of the Vaishnavite creed was to form a broad society
on the noble principle of Bhakti (devotion) faith. He included the diverse
tribal communities within the Neo-Vaishnavite movement giving it a single
entity. Islam too was not sidelined. He preached the doctrine of universal
social brotherhood aiming at the harmonious settlement of all the population
irrespective of caste, creed, religion, etc. Mir Jumla’s chroniclers were
surprised at the assimilation of the Hindus and Muslims as they paid homage
to their respective saints and visited the sacred places. The Ahom kings
encouraged this process of assimilation and granted land grants to the Muslim
Pirs and Mosques. Just as the Mughal music influenced the Satras and
Namghars, similarly, the Vaishnava hymns influenced the Muslims so much
that Azan Fakir composed his Zikirs on the lines of Vaishnava hymns.
The Bhakti movement started by Sankardeva was termed as
Mahapurushiya dharma as the reformer himself was known as a
Mahapurush or Great Man. Officially it assumed the name of Ek-Sarana-
Dharma. As most of its teachings were based on the Bhagavata Purana, it
was also known as Bhagavati Dharma. The Neo-Vaishnava religion was
based on four principles namely, Guru, Deva, Bhakta and Nama. According
to Sankaradeva, all the four elements are inter-linked. A devotee should not
only keep in close association with the other devotees but also with his
spiritual guide or guru. He considered other Gods as the offshoots of the
Supreme Lord Vishnu. He never gave importance to image worship. Rather,
he made the new disciples of the faith to prostrate before the Bhagavata
placed on the altar. He accepted disciples from all walks of life and gave
them equal space, thus giving a boost to social cohesion and harmonious
living in the society of Assam. He advocated love towards all people however
lowly placed. Anyone who meditated on the lord with his heart and souls
was a true devotee to God and it did not matter if he was a Chandala (a low
caste) or a Brahmana. His idea of community feeling was spread through
his speeches and through prayers (Kirtana - Nama) in prayer halls
(Namghar).
Satra, the highest seat of learning, is the most important organ of
the Vaishnava organization. The first Satra was established in Bardowa in
1494 by Sankardeva following which many other Satras were established.
The ecclesiastical ranks of a Satra consisted of Satradhikar (Abbot), Bhakats
and Sisyas. The Satradhikar was sometimes a celibate and known as
Gossain or Mahanta. It was the Satradhikar who initiated the disciple to the
new faith and conducted religious functions. The Bhakats were the devotees
who held clerical jobs. Celibate devotees were known as Kewaliya Bhakats.
The laity or the laymen were called Sisyas.

Vaishnavism or the worship of Vishnu was prevalent in the ancient

period of Assam. The Pala ruler, Dharmapala became a Vaishnavite as
mentioned in the Pushpabhadra grant. The Vaishnava cult which existed
prior to the coming of Sankaradeva was associated with Pancharatra cult.
This form of Pancharatra Vaishnavism was allied with Tantric rituals. The
copper plate grants issued by king Satyanarayana of Lakhimpur district dated
in 1392 and 1401 A.D. gives evidence of the Vaishnava cult.
The Vaishnava cult of Sankardeva is immersed in the teachings of
Gita and Bhagavata Purana, and they served as the source of guidance to
its followers. The Neo- Vaishnavism cult encouraged its followers to surrender
themselves into the absolute power of the sole Lord Krishna or Vishnu.
Sankaradeva had announced that a true Vishnu devotee should visit no
other temple but that which was dedicated to Vishnu. They should also not
accept any offerings given in temples dedicated to other Gods or deities
other than Vishnu. Like the rest of the Bhakti movement in India, Neo-
Vaishnavism was based on devotional elements like the absolute
surrendering to God and feeling joy and happiness in serving one’s chosen
God. Sankaradeva also laid stress on the acquisition of knowledge for self
realization. According to the reformer, an ideal devotee should aim not for
absorption in the Lord but for eternal continuity in his relationship with the
Great Power.
Bhakti can be practiced through nine modes, which are (i) Sravana
(act of listening to the tales, names, glories and dramas (lila’s) of the Lord),
(ii) Kirtana (chanting the Lord’s name), (iii) Smarana (act of memorising
the lord’s words, acts, etc), (iv) Padaseva (serving at the Lord’s feet), (v)
Archana (act of ceremonial worship of the deity), (vi) Pranama (act of
salutation or prostrating at the Lord’s feet and the rest of the three are the
relationship between the devotee and his Lord), (vii) Dasya (offering to serve
the Lord as a faith or loyal servant), (viii) Sakhya (serving the Lord as a
friend, a relationship between an adorer and the adored, (ix) Atmanivedana
implying total surrender to the Lord. The Neo-Vaishnava faith laid emphasis
on the first two, Sravana and Kirtana, the third most important element being
Smarana. According to Sankaradeva, the best relation between the individual
and the creator (Lord) was that of the Dasyabhava attitude, where Vishnu
was the Supreme Universal Lord and the devotee has faithful servants who
serve him with whole hearted devotion. Sankaradeva did not believe in
renunciating life or being a celibate for spiritual attainment. He also did not
hesitate to initiate women into the faith.
The popularity of the new faith led to a creative upsurge of literary
works like the translation of epics, devotional prose and lyrics (Bargeets),
dramas, etc. Both Sankardeva and Madhavdeva, his disciple and successor
were accomplished poets. Sankaradeva along with his cousin Ramaraya
established prayer halls for religious discussion, mass prayer, occasional
performances of dance and drama, etc. These prayer halls were known as
Namghars around which developed a well organized institution called the
Satra accommodating devotees. The Namghar today has become a symbol
of traditional Assamese culture which is found in every nook and corner of
Assam. The devotional lyrics sung and called Bargeets. The Gayana-Bayana
or the Vaishnava orchestral party comprising singing and playing on
instrument like the Khol played an important role in the religious functions.
After the death of Sankardeva in 1568, Madhavdeva succeeded him
but the movement suffered a jolt due to the secessionist group led by
Damodardeva and Harideva. The orthodox section led by Madhavdeva
practiced celibacy. There were soon many rifts and division within the
orthodox section too. Following the imitation of Rudra Singha’s sons into
Saktism, royal patronage of Sakti worship increased and Vaishnavism had
to face many challenges.
CHECK YOUR POGRESS
Q.11: Which Ahom ruler stopped the practice of

human sacrifice in matters of religion, especially
Tantricism?
.................................................................................................................
Q.12: Name the God of the Bodo-Kacharis who is identified with the
God Siva.
.......................................................................................................
Q.13: The Chutiyas worshipped the Goddess ………………… often

identified as Dikkaravasini of the Tantras.
Q.14: Jayanteshwari was the Goddess worshipped by the
......………...............……
Q.15: Vaishnava faith was launched by ……......………….
Q.16: Who succeeded Sankaradeva after his death?
.......................................................................................................
Q.17: Where was the first Satra established?
.......................................................................................................
a) Namghar 1. Azan Fakir
b) Charita Puthi 2. A Title
c) Khari 3. Prayer hall
d) Zikir 4. Devotional lyrics
e) Bargeet 5. Hagiographies
12.6 LET US SUM UP
After going through this unit, you have learnt about

 The socio-economic and religious condition of Assam. We have
discussed the society of medieval Assam which was hierarchical and
loosely based on caste and profession. The Brahmanas still dominated
the Hindu society. The tribal population followed their own social rules
and customs.
 The economy was basically agricultural, and yet we find small
industries related to wood and timber, textile, etc being encouraged
by the Ahom rulers. The people of Assam did indulge in trading activities
with outside powers though it was never very extensive. However, it
cannot be denied that Assam had the power to attract foreign powers
towards its rich resources.
 Religious affairs in medieval Assam underwent a tremendous upsurge
with the infusion of the Bhakti movement by Sankardeva and

Madhavdeva. The Neo-Vaishnavite movement brought about social

harmony and equality in the soil of Assam. As Assam passed from the
medieval to the modern era, this socio-economic and religious
condition had a deep impact in shaping the history of the days to come.
1. Baruah, S.L(1996): A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram

2. Barpujari, H.K(2003): The Comprehensive History of Assam, Volume-
I &II, Publication Board, Assam, Guwahati
3. Gait, Edward (2005): A History of Assam, LBS Publication, Guwahati

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: Astrologer.
Ans to Q No 2: Doloi/Bordoloi.
Ans to Q No 3: Haluwa and Jaluwa Keots.
Ans to Q No 4: Oja-Pali, Sutradhari, Dasavatar, etc.
Ans to Q No 5: The matrimonial ceremony according to Ahom rites.
Ans to Q No 6: The officer in charge of training hawks for fighting was
called Senchowa Barua.
Ans to Q No 7: Garhgaon, Hajo, etc.
Ans to Q No 8: Mir Jumla.
Ans to Q No 9: Duaria Barua.
Ans to Q No 10: Narayani.
Ans to Q No 11: Gaurinath Singha.
Ans to Q No 12: Bathow.
Ans to Q No 13: Kesaikhaiti.
Ans to Q No 14: Jayantias.
Ans to Q No 15: Sankardeva.
Ans to Q No 16: Madhavdeva.

Ans to Q No 17: Bardowa.

Ans to Q No 18: a) 3, b) 5, c) 2, d) 1, e) 4.
A) VERY SHORT QUESTIONS: (Answer each question within 50 words)

Q 1: ………………….was the backbone of the Ahom economy. (fill in the
blank)s
Q 2: Who composed Rukmini Haran ?
Q 3: Bihu was a………………festival. (fill in the blank)
Q 4: Mention two food items, exported from Bengal.
B) SHORT QUESTIONS: (Answer each question within 150 words)

Q 1: Briefly discuss the condition of women in Ahom society.
Q 2: Write about Sankaradeva and his contribution to the Assamese society.
Q 3: Write a short note on Tantric cult.
Q 4: Write a short note on Spread of Islam in Assam.
C) LONG QUESTIONS: (Answer each question within 300-500 words)

Q 1: Discuss the social conditions in medieval Assam.
Q 2: Describe the economic condition of medieval Assam.
Q 3: Write a critical note on the religious condition of medieval Assam.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 13: THE KOCHES
UNIT STRUCTURE
13.2 Introduction
13.3 Origin of the Koches
13.4 Viswa Simha
13.5 Nara Narayan
13.6 Partition of the Koch Kingdom
13.7 Let Us Sum Up
13.9 Answers to check your progress

 trace the origin of the Koches
 discuss about Viswa Simha
 know about Naranarayana
 describe the partition of the Kingdom
13.2 INTRODUCTION
The Koches were a great power that emerged in the Western part of Assam
in the 16th century. They founded a kingdom on the ruins of the old kingdom
of Kamrup- Kamata. The meaning of the term ‘Koch’ is obscure. Probably
the Koches had a Mongoloid origin. They were also known as Mech in the
Assam history. This unit will enlighten you about the rise of Koch power
under different Koch kings and due to inter dynastic conflict the Koch power
was ultimately divided into two parts in 1581 A.D.
13.3 ORIGIN OF THE KOCHES
There are different opinions regarding the origin of the

Koches. According to the Puranas and Tantras, they were of mix blood of
Unit 13 The Koches
Mongoloid, closely allied to the Meches, the Tharus, the Garos and the
Dravidians. Frequent inter-marriages between the Koches with others
aspired their social uplift which encouraged their political as well as economic
advancement in the Brahmaputra Valley. Adopting Hinduism, they sought
skilfully reinforce their claim to a higher social status by the legend. In the
Darrang Raj Vamshawali, it has been mentioned that they were of Kshatriya
origin. The Brahmins encouraged them to patronage them Hindu deities
like Siva, Shakti, Vishnu and in addition Sanskrit learning. Even in this process
of Hinduisation, the first ruler Viswa Simha was said to have a divine origin,
as the son of Siva himself. Thus rising in the social ladder the Koches
gradually favoured to identify themselves of higher social order by
disappearing their original tribal characteristics.
The earliest known ancestor of the Koch royal family was Hariya
Mandal, a resident of Chiknabari village in the Khuntaghal pargana of
Goalpara district. He was a chief or head of the 12 Koch or Mech families of
the pargana. He married two sisters Jira and Hira, daughters of a Koch
chief named Hajo. From them they two sons namely Visu, son from Hira
and Sisu, son from Jira. It was Bisu more popularly known as Viswa Simha,
with the assistance of his brother Sisu or Hinduised name Siva Simha, laid
the foundation of the Koch political power, according to the chronicle Darrang
Raj Vamsawali. Let us discuss about the chronological events of the Koch
Kingdom.
13.4 VISWA SIMHA
Viswa Simha was a courageous man with tremendous military and

administrative ability. His brother Siva Simha assisted him as minister and
commander. His rise to power can be placed in about 1515 A.D. He defeated
all the Bara Bhuyans (powerful class of local landlords) and set up a strong
and independent kingdom with his headquarters at Chikangram. Later on,
he shifted his capital to Koch Bihar. The kingdom initially extended from
Karatoya in the West to the Barnadi in the East. After establishing his
authority over the newly founded kingdom on a firm footing, Visva Simha
gradually expanded to the East leading to a possibility of conflict with his
The Koches Unit 13
Ahom counterpart Suhungmung (1497-1539 A.D.) who too was expanding

his dominion in the West. But there was no such direct conflict as both the
kingdoms had to face the advancing Muslims.
It was in about 1532-33 A.D. that the Ahoms under their Commander-
in-Chief Shankham first came into conflict with Visva Simha while returning
from their victorious campaign against the Gauda commander Turbak. They
had established friendly terms with the Sultan of Gauda who gave two of
his daughters to the Ahom king along with a dowry. On the advice of his
ministers, Kalketu and Dhuma Sardar, Visva Simha refrained from any armed
confrontation with the Ahoms. He sent DhumaSardar with presents to meet
Shankham and a peaceful relation was established. Visva Simha agreed to
pay the annual tribute of horses to the Ahom king and became a
thapitasanchita (established and protected by the Ahom king). The Ahom
Commander-in-Chief Shankham also presented Viswa Simha the territories
West of the river Sankosh that had been given as dowry by the Sultan of
Gauda to the Ahom king.
This was a great political victory for Viswa Simha as he had not only
made territorial gains, but also secured Ahom protection in the light of the
danger of a possible Muslim attack. In 1537 A.D. Viswa Simha along with
his brother Siva Simha personally went to the Ahom king to pay homage.
With Ahom protection being secured, Viswa Simha gradually expanded his
dominion. In the North, he brought Bhutan under his control. In the South
and South-East he subdued the Bhuyans of Kamrup. In the South-West he
conquered a part of Bengal in Jalpaiguri. He initially regularly paid tribute to
the Ahoms. But with his growth in power, he defaulted in payment of tributes
and invaded the Ahom kingdom to remove the disgrace of being a tributary.
He sailed up the Brahmaputra to Singari (in Nagaon district), but withdrew
thereafter owing to the hardship of the journey and shortage of provisions.
Three years later in 1540 A.D. Viswa Simha died after laying a strong
foundation of the Koch kingdom. He consolidated his conquests with efficient
administration under which he had 12 ministers or Qazis from among the
12 chief Mech or Koch families and other officials like Thakurias (placed
over 20 men), Saikias (placed over 100 men), Hazaris (placed over 1000
Unit 13 The Koches
men), Umras (placed over 3000) and Nawabs (placed over 66,000 men).
Besides, he appointed officials like Wazir, Lashkars, Bhuyans, Baruas, ect.
As wardens of the frontiers. He collected revenue from the peasants in
kind. Having acceped Hinduism he, was a great patron of Hinduism, but
equally tolerant to other religions. He restored the worship of Kamakhya,
become her devotee and his sons rebuilt her temple on the Nilachal hill.
13.5 NARA NARAYANA
Nara Narayana, the eldest son of Viswa Simha succeeded his father
to the Koch throne. He was also known as Mall Deva and was declared the
successor by Viswa Simha. However he did not have a smooth succession
to his father’s throne as one of his brothes Nara Simha tried to usurp the
throne, but failed. After ascending the throne, Nara Narayan appointed his
beloved brother Sukladhwaj as the Dewn, combing the post of Prime
minister and Commander-in-chief. Sukladhwaj was a great warrior and used
to fight like a kite in the battle field. For this he was also known as “Chilarai”
(Kite Prince). He was the main propelling force behind Nara Narayana. The
military exploits of Chilarai expanded the boundaries of the Koch kingdom
and brought them into the conflict with the Ahoms who also pursuing an
expansionist policy from the reign of Shuhungmung onwards (1497-1539
A.D.).
(The Ahom-Koch conflict which started during the time of Nara
Narayana and continued thereafter has been discussed in detail in the
previous unit.)
Nara Narayan, after an initial reverse successfully defeated the
Ahoms under the command of his brother Sukladhwaj and forced the Ahom
king Suklenmung (1539-1552 A.D.) to accept Koch overlordship.
Emboldened by the success against the Ahoms, the Koch brothers, Nara
Narayan and Sukladhwaj also conquered the neighbouring kingdoms one
after another, namely Kachari kingdom of Hidimba, Manipur, Khairam,
kingdom of Jayantia, Tripura and Dimarua. Nara Narayan thus made himself
the master of North-Eastern India and the Koch became the paramount
power. He also attempted expansion Westwards and sent an army under
The Koches Unit 13
Sukladhwaj to attack Gauda. But the Padshah (ruler) of Gauda Sultan

SulaimanKarrani (1563-1572 A.D.) defeated the Koch army and made
Sukladhwaj a captive. However, Sukladhwaj was subsequently released
by the Padshah of Gauda so that a strong alliance could be developed with
the Koches in the wake of an inevitable danger of Mughal aggression.
LET US KNOW
The court of Nara Narayan was adorned with scholars of

different branches of learning. Apart from Sankardeva
and his disciple Madhavdeva, they were PurushottamVidyabagish, Ram
Saraswati, Ananta Kandali, Sridhar and BakulKayastha. As such Nara
Narayan was called the Vikramaditya of Assam.
Despite being released, no friendly relationship was established with

the Padshah of Gauda. Rather, a few years later Nara Narayan along with
Munim Khan, who was sent by the Mughal Emperor Akbar (1556–1605
Gauda: Province of
A.D.), decided to attack Gauda. The Koch army under Sukladhwaj attacked
Bengal
from the East, while the Mughal army under Munim Khan advanced towards
Gauda from the West. The Padshah of Gauda was easily defeated and his
kingdom was equally divided between the Koch king Nara Narayan and the
Mughal Emperor Akbar. But in the course of this expedition, Sukladhwaj
contacted small pox and died on the bank of the river Ganga.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
a) Viswa Simha 1. Sukladhwaj

b) Siva Simha 2. Nara Narayana
c) Raghu Deva 3. Hira
d) Lakshmi Narayana 4. Jira
Q.2: Name the earliest known ancestor of the Koch family?
.......................................................................................................
Q.3: Where did Viswa Simha initially establish his first capital?
.......................................................................................................

Unit 13 The Koches
Q.4: What was the popular name of Sukladhwaj?

.......................................................................................................
13.6 PARTITION OF THE KOCH KINGDOM
Meanwhile an epoch-making event occurred which changed the

history of the Koch kingdom and prepared the ground for foreign intervention,
leading ultimately to loss of independence. The death of Sukladhwaj greatly
undermined the power of the Koches. Nara Narayana took no further
aggressive enterprise and devoted himself to public welfare and religious
works. Being childless, he nominated his nephew Raghu Deva (son of
Sukladhwaj) as his successor. But in his advanced age he was blessed
with a son named Lakshmi Narayan. This created apprehension in the mind
of Raghu Deva, who at the instigation of some officials, declared himself
the king at Barnagar. Instead of fighting against Raghu Deva, Nara Narayana,
in 1581 A.D. divided the Koch kingdom into two halves. The territories East
of the Sankosh river known as Koch Hajo were handed over to Raghu Deva
and Western part was retained by Nara Narayana for himself and his
descendents. Raghu Deva ruled over Koch Hajo, but paid tribute to his
uncle Nara Narayana, acknowledging his overlordship. But after the death
of Nara Narayana in 1587, Raghu Deva stopped paying tribute and assumed
independence by issuing coinage in his name.
The death of Nara Narayana marked the end of the glorious days of
the kingdom of Koch Behar. Lakshmi Narayana (1587-1627 A.D.) became
the new ruler of Koch Behar. The assumption of independence status by
Raghu Deva was disliked by Lakshmi Narayana as it ended the authority of
Koch Behar over Koch Hajo. As a result, there started a conflict between
the two Koch kingdoms which finally led to the Ahom-Mughal conflict.
ACTIVITY 13.1
Write down few lines on Sukladhwaj.

.............................................................................................
................................................................................................................

The Koches Unit 13
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.5: When did the Koch Kingdom was partition?

.......................................................................................................
Q.6: Who was the king of Koch Hajo?
.......................................................................................................
13.7 LET US SUM UP
After going through this unit you have learnt about,

 the Koches were original Mongoloid people of the Brahmaputra Valley
living on the Western part of the land. But after the process of
Hinduisation, they raised their social status to that of the Kshatriya.
 the earliest known ancestor of the Koch royal family was Hariya
Mandal, a resident of Chiknabari village in the Khuntaghal pargana of
Goalpara district.
 Viswa Simha, son of Haria Mandal established the Koch kingdom.
Because of his administrative and military ability, the kingdom soon
acquired the political dominance over the area.
 the most able king of the Koch kingdom was Naranarayana. He was
not only a able leader but also a wise man. He was a great patron of
Hinduism. He with his brother Chilarai expanded the boundaries of
the Koch kingdom and brought them into the conflict with the Ahoms.
 with the death of Nara Narayana, the Koch kingdom was divided into
two parts namely Koch Hajo and Koch Behar 1581 A.D.
1. Barpujari, H.K.(2003 ): The Comprehensive History of Assam, Volume-

II, Assam Publication Board Assam, Guwahati
2. Barua, S.L. (1996 ): A Comprehensive History of Assam, Guwahati
3. Gait, E.(2005): A History of Assam, LBS Publication, Guwahati

Unit 13 The Koches

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: a) 3, b) 4, c)1, d) 2
Ans to Q No 2: Haria Mandal
Ans to Q No 3: Chikangram
Ans to Q No 4: Chilarai
Ans to Q No 5: 1581
Ans to Q No 6: Raghu Deva

Q 1: What does Purana speak about the origin of the Koches?
Q 2: What does Darrang Raj Vamsawali speak about the origin of the
Koches?
Q 3: Who was Raghu Deva?
Q 4: Who was Lakshmi Narayana?

Q 1: What do you know about the origin of the Koches?
Q 2: Why did the Koch kingdom partition in 1581?
Q 3: Write short note on-
a) Chilarai
b) Nara Narayana
c) Viswa Simha
C) LONG QUESTIONS (Answer each question in between 300-500 words)

Q 1: Describe the foundation of the Koch kingdom.
Q 2: Do you think that Nara Narayana was a able administrator as well as
an wise king? Discuss.
Q 3: Discuss about the partition of the Koch Kingdom.
*** ***** ***

UNIT 14: CULTURAL AND ARCHITECTURAL
DEVELOPMENTS IN THE MEDIEVAL
PERIOD
UNIT STRUCTURE
14.2 Introduction
14.3 Palaces, Temples and other monuments in Medieval Period
14.4 Literature during the Medieval Period
14.5 Cultural development during the Medieval period
14.6 Origin of Vaishnavite Movement
14.7 Centre of Pro-Vaishnavite
14.8 Let Us Sum Up
After going through this unit, you will be able to -

 discuss the palaces temples and monuments of Ahom period
 know the structural development in the medieval period
 discuss the literary development during the medieval period
 discuss the cultural progress in the medieval period
 know the emergence of Vaishnavite movement in Assam
 discuss the structural form and activities of the pro- Vaishnavite
centers.
14.2 INTRODUCTION
The medieval period in Assam history starts with the coming of the
Muslim invaders. In 1206 Assam was invaded by Bakhtiyar Khilji and it was
considered as the starting point of medieval history of Assam. In 1228 the
Ahoms, a group of Tai people entered in the Brahmaputra valley from
Myanmar. They established their first capital at Charaideo under their leader
Unit 14 Cultrual and Architectural Developments in the Medieval Period
Sukapha. The Ahoms continued their rule for a long period of 600 years.
With the signing of the treaty of Yandaboo in 1826, Assam was annexed by
the British. In 1449 Sankardeva, the harbinger of the Vaishnavite movement
was born. He started a new form of Vaishnavite movement to reform the
whole Assamese society and culture. In this chapter we will discuss the
palaces, temples and other monuments of pre Vaishnavitetimes. Along with
this we will discuss the literary and cultural developments of pre-
Vaishnaviteperiod. Moreover we will also discuss the centers of pro-
Vaishnavite movement like Satra and Namghars, their origin and activities.
LET US KNOW
The Bhakti movement originated in the eighth-century Tamil

Nadu and Kerala. Later on it spread to Northwards. It was
a theistic devotional trend.
14.3 PALACES, TEMPLES AND OTHER MONUMENTS

OF THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
The architectural remains of Ahom period are mainly scattered in

the undivided Sibsagar district of Assam. The Ahom rulers patronized in the
construction of different palaces, temples, douls, ramparts, bridges and
roads. The Ahom architectures were constructed from the last part of the
sixteenth century up tothe eightieth century. The architecture of Ahom period
can be divided into two groups – the Royal architecture and the religious
architecture. The religious architecture further can be divided into two groups-
the temple architecture and the satraarchitecture.
The medieval period witnessed the construction of a large number
of temples. The old temple of Kamakhya which was destroyed by Kalapahar
was rebuilt by Chilaraiin 1565 CE. Chilarai was the brother of Koch king
Naranarayana. This temple contains nat –mandir or mandapa, the
gopuramand the garbha-griha. The Sikharais a combination of Nagara and
Vesera type. Near the Kamakhya temple is the temple of Ugratara. It shows
the same design with an imposing gate at the approach to the temple. The
temple was built by GarhgayanSandikaiPhukan at the instance of Gadadhar

Cultrual and Architectural Developments in the Medieval Period Unit 14
Singha in 1694. The temple of Hajo was rebuilt by Raghudeva, son of Chilarai.
Thesikhara of this temple is different from the earlier temples.Thestructure
of the temples was influenced by different Indian schools.
The ruling period of king Rudra Singha(1696-1714) is the significant
period of the architectural development of the Ahom dynasty. During his
reign steps were taken to introduce indigenous style in the architectural
buildings. Besides temples he took steps to rebuild the city of Rangpur. The
ruling period of Siva Singha( 1714-1744) can be designated as the golden
period in the architectural development of the Ahom period .
The Ahom kings constructed a large number of temples. These
temples were specially dedicated to lord Siva and Durga. The Siva temple
at Sibsagar was constructed by Siva Singha. It had an area of 4 ½ acres.
This temple has a mandapa, a garbhagriha and a gate. Over the garbha-
griha rises the sikhara with fluted vertical lines. The main sikhara is
surrounded by its replicas called uramanjari . The Devi temple at Gaurisagar
does not contain the familiar amalaka. A tier of gold-plated kalasas in tapering
sizes is placed on a solid circular base made of bricks. The style of other
temples of Ahom kings are more or less similar tothat of the Siva temples at
Sibsagar. Some of the most important temples constructed under the
patronage of the Ahom government are theSukleswar, the Rudreswar and
Navagraha temples at Gauhati and the Siva temples at Dergaon and
Biswanath. In Sibsagar we found Vishnu temples on the same site with
Siva and Devi temples.
Remains of the Ahom palaces constructed during the Ahom period
are important architectural achievements of the Ahom rulers. These palaces
were constructed with bricks. The first Ahom capital was Charaideo,
established by Sukapha in 1253. The coronation ceremony of the Ahom
rulers known as “singarighorutha “was held in Charaideo. Later on
Charaideo was used for doing religious activities of the Ahom rulers.
Charaideois famous for the graveyard of Ahom rulers, queens administrative
officials and nobles known as ‘maidums’. The structure of the maidums
ishemispherical. The large maidums contain several rooms and multiple
stories. We can notice two kinds of maidums – earthen maidums (made of
earth) and brick maidums (made of stone or bricks). Metropolis of Rangpur

was constructed during the period of Rudrasingha .The original name of
Rangpur was Meteka. Rudrasingha had established this city in 1699. The
new metropolis at Rangpur contains the famous Talatalghar. TheTalatalghar
can be designated as the greatest architectural achievement of Ahom period.
Interestingly drainage system was introduces in the construction of
Talatalghar. It should be noted here that this palace has some underground
stories also.Rudrasingha and his successors had constructed several
roads, palaces and doulsin Rangpur. The famous Joysagar was constructed
in Rangpur city. Another important palace of Ahom period was Ranghar or
amusement pavilion. This is a two-storied brick structure with its roof
designed after the fashion of a thatched house. This building is like
amphitheater of present day stadium.
In the old metropolis, at Garhgaon too there was a Kareng-ghar.
TheGarhgaon capital was constructed by king Suklengmung (1539-1552).
The most important palace of Garhgaon is the Karengghar which was
constructed by RajeswarSingha (1751-1769). The Karengghar was used
as the administrative house. Therefore he was also known as the
Garhgayaraja. It is surrounded by a brick wall about two miles in
circumference. The ruins of the masonry gateway are still seen. This
construction was completed by twelve thousand workmen engaged for one
whole year. It also contains an audience hall. This palace had seven stories.
But people can notice only four stories now.
Numerous stone bridges were constructed during the Ahom rule.
But only those over the Namdang, Darika and Dijai are intact. The Namdang
Bridge was built by King RudraSingha in 1703. It was the biggest stone
bridge of the Ahom period. Besides these bridges the Ahom rulers also
constructed large numbers of roads,ramparts, ponds etc. Two most
important ponds of Ahom period are – the Jaysagar Pukhuri and the Sibsagar
Pukhuri.
The architectural developments of medieval period will not be
complete if we do not mention the architectural remains of the neighboring
areas of Ahom state. The Kacharies had rich architectural remains. They
knew the use of bricks prior to the Ahoms. Some important archaeological
sites of Kachari kingdom are – Dimapur, Maibong, Kasomari and Khaspur.
Dimapur was the oldest capital of the Kacharies. The capital city of Dimapur
is covered by bricks walls. In the northern side of the capital city there is a
brick gateway. The courses of bricks in the structure were very nearly laid
and the mortar used was very fine and good. The ground plan of the gateway
has width of 16.10m facing to the east. The Ahom chronicles refer to the
existence of brick built structure at Dimapur. The gateway is also decorated
by engraving severalflowers, birds, animals etc. Another important place of
architectural importance of Kachari kingdom was Kasomari. The important
architectural remains of Kasomariare the megaliths. These are monolithic
structures. Instead of Hindu influence these structures were influenced by
the Islamic art tradition. The objectives of the making of these architectural
remains is not clear. But probably these are commemorative structures to
celebrate victory in a war or any heroic deeds. Maibong, the another capital
of Kachari kingdom was also important for architectural remains. The lion
gateway of Maibongstill exists. The Ranchandi temple in Maibong is famous
for architectural remains. This is an incomplete double storied temple. It is
a rock-cut temple. The last capital of Kachari kingdom was Khaspur. The
city of Khaspur is surrounded by brick walls. In Khaspur, gateway made of
bricks, temples and royal palaces have been discovered. Bengal influence
is noticed in the architectural remains of Khaspur.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.1: Write True or False :

(a) The first Ahom capital was established at
Charaideo.
(b) The Ahoms did not use brick in their architecture.
(c) Namdang bridge was built by Rudra Singha.
14.4 LITERATURES DURING THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
The Ahom rulers were initially concerned mainly with one branch of
literature, i.e. historical chronicles called Buranjis .The Ahoms started the
writing of Buranjis. In the beginning, Buranjis were written in Tai –Ahom

language. But from the 16th century Assamese was used to write the Buranjis.
Since the time of RudraSingha , the Ahom kings started patronizing Hindu
religious and different branches of secular literature. Kaviraj Chakravarty,
the poet-laureate of king RudraSingha and his son Siva Singha translated
the Brahma-Baivarta Purana and the Abhigyan Sakuntalam into Assamese.
His astronomical work Bhaswati is a translation of the Surya Siddhanta. Of
the secular works of the Ahom period the most important is the
Hastividyarnaba compiled by Sukumar Barkaith. Hasta –muktawali on dance
technique, Kama-ratna-tntraon sexology and Ghora-nidan on the diseases
and treatment of the horses may be ascribed to about the same period.
There are some undated poetic works some ofwhich might have
received royal patronization. These are Kaviraj Mishra’s SialGosain , Ananta
Acharya’s Ananta Lahari and Rama Mishra’s PutalarCharitetc. Towards the
later part of the Ahom rule, a new type of drama in Sanskrit-cum-Assamese
languages were written under royal patronage. Dharmodaya by
DharmadevaSarma is an example of such play. It was staged at the royal
court on the occasion of reinstallation of Lakshmi Singha.
Assam’s contact with Islam also had its influence in the literature.
Two famous Assamese lyrics Mrigawati Charit and Madhu-malati were
based on 16th century Sufipoems. Moreover the zikirs and the zaris, the Sufi
religious preaching were composed in the style of Kirtan –ghosa , Nam-
ghosa and Bargeets.
In medieval period traditional education consisting of
Sanscritgrammar, the religious texts were imparted as in ancient period.
Educational institutions were mainly the tolas where the Brahmanas played
the role of teacher. Education was however confined mainly to the Brahmana
and Kayastha pupils only.
The royal court also served as the center of learning for the royalty
and the nobility. The Kamata and Koch kings gathered a number of scholars
and poets around their courts and thus used to patronize learning and
education. Naranarayana, the great Koch king was very educated. He studied
at Benaras. He even organized religious debate. The Ahom kings had great
interest in historical literature. Buranjis were compiled under the direct
patronization and supervision of the Ahom kings. Besides Buranjis the Ahom
kings also interested in other secular literature also. One important classic
is Pung-gao-kham (Ahom Ramayana).
ACTIVITY 14.1
Write a short note on the literary development during the

Ahom period.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
14.5 CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE

MEDIEVAL PERIOD
The medieval period of Assam history shows significant development
in the different aspects of culture. Itexhibit development in the field of
architecture and literature. We have already discussed the architectural
development and literary development of the medieval period. Now we will
discuss other aspects of cultural developments in the medieval period.
The Ahoms performed their marriages according to their own rites
called Chaklang. But if a Ahom king married a Hindu girl then Vedic rites
were observed. Among the tribes there was no system of dowry. Instead of
it the bridegroom had to pay bride –price (ga-dhan) there was no child
marriage except among the Brahmanas and Kayasthas.
The Hindus observed Vedic funeral rites and non-Hindu tribes
observed their respective tribal rites. The Ahoms buried their dead in vaults
called maidums. Since the time of Rajeswar Singha, the Ahom kings took
to cremation and performed their funeral ceremonies according to Vedicrites.
Rice, pulses, fish and milk were the staple diet of both aristocratic
and common people. Taking of liquor was disfavored by the caste Hindus
the practice of chewing areca-nut with betel leaf was a common habit of the
people of medieval Assam. This is also mentioned by the person chronicler
Shihabuddin Tallish.

The full dress of the nobles during medieval period, in general,

consisted of a churia or dhuti, a jacket like half –coat, a turban and a chaddar
folded over the right shoulder. The common people used only a churia and
a gamocha. The garments of the nobles were made of silks like pat, muga
and fine cotton. Whether the common people used cloths made of cotton
and eri. Distinction was there in the use of ornaments and utensils etc.
Common people were not allowed to wear gold ornaments. The women of
the nobility wore three pieces of garments. The lower garment was called
mekhelaand two upper garments calledriha and chaddar. The common
women wore only two piecesgarments, the mekhelaand the chaddar.
The Ahom kings took keen interest in games and sports. This includes
the fights of different animals like elephant,bull,buffalo, tiger and birds like
cocks. Hawk fight was their favoritepastime. To train these hawks, there
was khel under an officer called SenchowaBarua. The Ahom kings were
also fond of elephant catching and hunting. The venue of the performance
of the games and sports was the RupahiPathar. The king and the nobles
witnessed the performance from the Rangghar.
The most important and popular festival was Bihu. The most important
dance form was Bihu. In the temples, dances like nati, deodhani and devadasi
were performed usually by a class of professional dancers called nats.
Queen Phuleswari was originally such a dancer attached to the Siva temple
at Dergaon. Some common musical instruments were horns,flutes, drums
etc. King RudraSingha had high regard for Mughal music. He therefore sent
Assamese musicians to Delhi to learn the instruments like
pakhuaj.Rashjatra, douljatra, janmastami were also performed in the Satras.
After the acceptance of Saktism by the Ahom kings, the worship of Durga
was performed in the royal courtyard.
14.6 ORIGIN OF VAISHNAVITE MOVEMENT IN ASSAM
A social reform movement was started all over India between the
12th and 15th century CE. This reform movement was known as bhakti
movement. The movement was liberal and based on the doctrine of bhakti
or devotion. The bhakti movement gradually encompassed the whole India

and brought new thoughts and ideas in the socio-religious life of the Indian
people.
Assam was also come under the influence of this bhakti movement.
The ancient kingdom of Kamarupa was disintegrated slowly since the 13 th
century. Assam was then ruled by several petty chieftains like Kachari,
Chutiya, Bhuyan, Kamata king etc. Constant conflict for supremacy among
these powers brought instability in the political history of Assam. The political
instability ultimately brought chaos in the field of society and religion. Assam
in the fifteenth century presented a diverse shades. The majority of the people
belonged to non-Aryan tribes. The followers of Hinduism basically worshipped
Sakti. Tantricism was in its highest pick during this period. At this background
Sankardeva appeared as a spiritual leader of the Assamese society. He
was a social reformer, prolific writer. The neo-Vaishnava movement initiated
by Sankardeva started a new era in the socio-cultural history of Assam. He
actually brought all the scattered people of Assam under one umbrella. This
new creed of faith initiated by Sankardeva is known as eka-sarana –nam-
dharma. Sankardeva believed in devotion to a single god. Lord Vishnu or
Krishna was considered the supreme deity in the neo-Vaishnava movement.
This new religious movement of Sankardeva was very liberal and opened to
all casts and creed.
14.7 CENTRE OF PRO-VAISHNAVITE

The neo-Vaishnavite movement initiated by Sankardeva has two
institutions or centers viz the Satra and the Namghar. These two centers
associated with the social, cultural as well as religious life of the Assamese
society. The Namghar is actually a miniature replica of the Satra institution.
The Satra is an institution where devotee can devote a single god with the
help of a Guru or teacher. One of the functions of these Satras was to
initiate aspirants to neo-Vaishnavism. The initiation by the Satras actually
brings the cultural integrity among different sections of Assamese society.
The Satras contains four Samhatis – 1. Purusha, 2. Nika, 3. Kala and 4.
Brahma. The PurushaSamhati derives its origin from PurusottamaThakura.
He was the eldest grandson of Sankardeva. This Samhati emphasized on
nam or prayer. The Nika Samhati was founded by Mathuradas Burha- ata.
In this Samhati the position of Madhavdevais more important than that of
Sankardeva. The Satrasestablished by Gopaldeva and his successors are
known as Kala Samhati. The kala Samhati gave the Guru a supreme position.
This Samhati was more liberal in matters of casts. The most prominent
Satras of this Samhati were the Moamariya and Dihingsatras. The Brahma
Samhati consisted of the subsects of Damodardeva and Harideva.
The Satras has significant contribution towards the cultural
development of the Assamese society. The first stage of evolution of the
Satra naturally began with Sannkardeva. It was during the time of
Madhabdeva and Damodardeva that the Satra institution attained the second
phase of its growth. During this period the architectural structure of the
Satras received its final stage. By the middle of the 17th century the Satra
institution establish itself. The Ahom kings and nobles accepted neo-
Vaishnavism. One component of the Satra institution, the Kirtanghar, became
an integral part of Assamese village. Another name of Kirtanghar is Namghar.
The Satra institution contributed several important religious literatures. It
also contributed the cultural history of Assam by introducing classical dance
and music. The establishment of Namghar came with the idea of popularizing
the neo-Vaishnavite faith among the masses. The Namghars are
democratically designed. People of all caste and creed can enter into it.
The Namghar is built without walls. It has a symbolic meaning that the
Namghar is open to all people irrespective of caste and creed. The Namghar
became the place of community prayers. The Namghar also played the role
of Panchayat. Assam conceived the idea of community development and
Panchyatiraj through the institution of village Namghar.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Q.1: In Satra Institution teachings are offered by

whom?
.........................................................................................................
Q.2: What is another name of Kirtan Ghar?
.........................................................................................................

Q.3: From which the Purusha Samhati originated?

.........................................................................................................
14.8 LET US SUM UP
After going through this unit, you have learnt –

 The Ahoms established their firstcapital at Charaideo.
 The architecture of medieval period can be divided into three groups –
the Royal architecture, the Temple architecture and the Satra
architecture
 Kamakhya temple was destroyed by Kalapahar and it was again built
by Chilarai, the brother of Koch king Naranarayana.
 The Ahom kings constructed a large numbers of temples. These
temples were mainly dedicated to lord Siva and Durga.
 For the construction of palaces the Ahom kings used bricks.
 Charaideo is well-known for the graveyard of the Ahom rulers, queens
and administrative officials. These are known as ‘maidums’
 Some important architectural remains of Ahom period are – Jaydoul,
Sivdoul, Kareng Ghar, Talatal Ghar and Rang Ghar.
 The Buranji writing was started with the coming of the Ahoms .
 Some important literatures of Ahom period includes – translated version
of Brahma-Baivartapurana, translated version of Abhigyan
Sankuntalam, Hastividyarnaba, Hasta-Muktavalietc.
 The Ahoms performed their marriage according to their own rite called
Chaklang.
 Rice, pulses, fish and milk were the main food during medieval period
 The most important festival was Bihu.
 Sri Manta Sankardeva initiated the Ek-Sarana –Nam-Dharma in Assam.
He was a social reformer of medieval period of Assam.
 Satra and Namghars are the two important institutions of Pre-
Vaishnavite Movement.

1. Barpujari, H.K. (ed) Comprehensive Aistory of assam, Vol. III, Assam

Publication Board, Guwahati, 2004 (1990)
2. Barua, S. L. A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram
Monoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd, Guwahati, 2002

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: (a) True (b) False (c) True.

Ans to Q No 2: Guru or Teacher.
Ans to Q No 3: Namghar.
Ans to Q No 4: Purusottama Thakura.
A. Very Short Type questions (Answer each question within 50 words)

Q 1: Who built the Ugratara Temple and When?
Q 2: What is Coronation ceremony?
Q 3: Who was Kaviraj Chakravorty?
Q 4: What is Maidums?
Q 5: How many Samhatis are there in Satra institution? Give details.
B. Short Type Questions (Answer each question within 150 words)
Q 1: Discuss the Temple architecture of the Ahom period.
Q 2: Give a short note on the paleces of Ahom period.
Q 3: Discuss the literary development of the medieval period.
Q 4: What is Bhakti Movement? Who was the propagator of this movement
in Assam?
C. Long Questions (Answer each question within 500 words)
Q 1: Discuss briefly the architectural development of the Medieval Period.
Q 2: Make a note on the cultural development in the medieval period.
Q 3: Discuss the activities of pro-Vaishnavite institutions of Assam.
*** ***** ***
UNIT 15: WOMEN IN THE MEDIEVAL ASSAM
UNIT STRUCTURE
15.2 Introduction
15.3 Definition of Medieval Period
15.4 Medieval period of Assam
15.5 Social Condition of Women in Medieval Assam
15.6 Political Condition of Women in Medieval Assam
15.7 Let us sum up
15.8 Further reading
15.9 Answers to check your progress

 find the definition of medieval period in History
 learn the medieval period of Assam
 discuss the social condition of women in medieval Assam
 discuss the economic condition of women in medieval Assam
 discuss the political condition of women in medieval Assam
15.2 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we are going to have a discussion of the social and political
condition of women in the medieval period in Assam. The Medieval period
in Assam started with the coming of the Ahoms in 1228 CE. The period
continued till the signing of the treaty of Yandaboo in 1826CE. This period
witnessed the glorious rule of the Ahoms for six hundred years.
The medieval period of Assam is important not only for the political
developments but also for the cultural and social developments. In this
chapter we will discuss the socio-political position of women in medieval
period. We shall have a look on the women belonging to different strata of
society. While dealing with women we will also discuss the patriarchal nature
of the society of medieval Assam.
Unit 15 Women in the Medieval Assam
15.3 DEFINITION OF MEDIEVAL PERIOD
History is a continuous process. Periodization in history is not an

easy task. It is not always easy to distinguish clearly when one period ends
and another begins. Although for our convenience of study we may divide
historical developments into certain periods like Ancient, Medieval and
Modern.
In the history of Europe, the middle ages or medieval period lasted
from 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman
Empire and merged into the renaissance and the age of discovery. The
term medieval has its origin in the Latin term “mediumaevum” (middle age).
The term medieval first came into use in the 19th century, although the idea
of a middle age had been around for several hundred years.
In Indian historical context the medieval period started from around
8th century to the mid eighteenth century (Battle of Plassy). Some historians
divide medieval Indian history into two parts, before the coming of the
Mughals and from the Mughal period to the coming of the English East India
Company, these are-
1. Early medieval period (8th century to the 13th century)
2. Late medieval period (13th century to 18 the century)
15.4 MEDIEVAL PERIOD OF ASSAM
The medieval period in Assam began with the attacks from the
Bengal sultanate. The first of which took place in 1206 by Bakhtiyar Khilji as
mentioned in the Kanai –Boroxiboa Rock inscription, after the breakup of
the ancient Kamarupa kingdom. But commonly, the medieval period of
Assam history is said to have started from the coming of the Ahoms in
1228 till the termination of their rule by the British in 1826. The Ahom kingdom
was established in 1228 when Sukaphaa, a Shan prince of Mong Mao came
to Assam by crossing the Patkai mountains and entered in the Brahmaputra
valley (Which we have already studied in our previous units). The rule of
this dynasty ended with the Burmese invasion of Assam and the subsequent
annexation of the state by the British East India Company following the

Women in the Medieval Assam Unit 15
Treaty of Yandaboo in 1826. The six hundred years of Ahom rule had great
contribution towards the society and culture. Besides the Ahom ruling
dynasty some petty feudatory chiefs also ruled in some parts of Assam in
medieval period.
LET US KNOW
The Treaty of Yandaboo was signed after the defeat of

Burmese at the hands of British in 24 February 1826. The
treaty was signed after the first Anglo-Burmese war. To drive out the
Burmese; Ahom king took help from the British power. After the sign of
the treaty of Yandaboo Assam was annexed by the British power.
15.5 SOCIAL CONDITION OF WOMEN IN MEDIEVAL

ASSAM
The social structure of a civilization to a great extent based upon
the status of women in its various periods. Since the origin of society, women
have become an essential part of the social structure. With the changing
times, the society also changes. With continuous changes in the society,
the position of women also undergoes certain changes. It has been found
that women had to face many ups and downs in their position during the
different periods of history.
Regarding the position of women in the ancient and medieval period
of Assam history, there is a difficulty of authentic sources. But it can be
assume that, as an integral part of the Indian society, the Assamese women
were also influenced by the same Indian dogmas and customs rampant in
the other parts of the country.
The social structure of Assam in the medieval period comprised of
the different ethnic groups. The society of that period was mainly patriarchal.
Like the other patriarchal society, in Assam also women enjoyed a lower
position compared to men. But as the social structure of Assam was
originally non-Aryan and the position of women was to some extent favorable
here. Assamese society by practice was a rural society. In this traditional
rural society, women of different ethnic group suffered less from social

disabilities like the other parts of India. Because of the influence of the
Mongoloid culture on the Assamese society, some strict social taboos like
Child marriage, Purdah, sati –dah etc. did not affect the Assamese women
in general.
But, like the greater Indian tradition, Assamese Hindu society was
also based on male –dominated family system where elder male used to
take the leading roles in the family matters. They had the right to inherit the
family property and they were socially considered as continuing the family
line. The women however had right to claim the bridal gifts and presents.
Though the evil custom of dowry was not prevalent in the Assamese
society, but the social status of the groom’s party was always superior in
comparison to the bride and her family. But, the system was quite different
in the non –Aryan society. In the non-Aryan society, the system of bride
price, which was contrary to the dowry system was prevalent. In medieval
society too, the birth of girl child was not a desired one. People celebrated
the birth of a male child. But killing of girl child was not existed in Assam. In
shaping a family the contribution of women is significant. In medieval period
too women played a significant role in shaping the family as a mother, wife,
cook and an honorable host for the guest etc. She had an authority only in
the household activities. She did not enjoyed the power of decision –making.
There was a sexual division of labor in Assamese society. Certain
tasks were fixed for women while certain other tasks were meant for men.
In case of agricultural works , women can engage themselves in water –
supplying, weeding reaping , thrashing and so on . But they were not engage
in ploughing. The women from so-called upper classes cannot engage in
agricultural activities. There was restrictions for the upper class women to
work in outside. They generally engaged themselves in household duties
only. All women from queen to the common women were proficient in
spinning and weaving. The women of Assam did not constitute a caste by
themselves. They naturally took the caste of their fathers and husbands.
In comparison to the women of the upper class, women of the
peasant and working class had to take lots of burden. Apart from doing the
household liabilities, they had to do some outdoor duties. Women helped
their husbands in cultivation. They engaged themselves in bamboo, cane

or wooden works. Under the supremacy of the Ahoms, the most important
and compulsory work allotted to the women were spinning and weaving.
In the Ahom period, we found reference of royal consorts, who
occupied significant position in administration. But the women from lower
strata of society did not participated in political machinery. It indicates a
social difference between the women from royalty and the general women.
Polygamy was the common feature of the medieval social structure.
The system was more prominent among the royal folks. In medieval Assam
Durlabh Narayan, the Kamata king had seven queens. Almost all the Ahom
kings had at least two or three principal queens. These queens were known
as Parbatiakuwari, Barkuwari, Tamuli Kuwari and many subordinate queens
known as Chamuakuwari. The nobles and ministers also adopted the
manner of polygamy. It appears that in the medieval Assamese society,
polygamy was widely practiced; especially by the members of the royal
family. The existence of polygamy proves the low status of women in
medieval Assam. The position of co –wives was tremendously miserable.
Chastity is considered an important quality of women in medieval
Assam. The medieval social reformers were not different from such ideas.
The Neo-Vaisnavite movement had put forward certain other restrictions.
Madhavadeva even advised Sankardeva’s wife to address her husband as
Gosain or God. Thus chastity was considered important in medieval period.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
State True or False

Q.1: The society of Medieval Assam was patriarchal.
……….....………
Q.2: Pardah system was existed in Medieval Assam. .............…………
Q.3: Polygamy was continued in medieval Assam. ........................……
Pardah system was unknown in the medieval Assamese society.

The Assamese women were free to move and take equal shares in the
agricultural works with the men folk in the society without covering their

faces. In the picture of queen Ambika, we never see her to wear a veil on
her head. The tribal women were given a large degree of liberty in every
matter. They never wore veil or covered their heads.
No formal education was given to the girls. However from a very
early age girls got teachings of morality and spirituality from the elder member
of their family.
ACTIVITY 15.1
Write a short note on polygamy in Medieval Assam

…………..........................................................................................…….
…………..........................................................................................…….
15.6 POLITICAL CONDITION OF WOMEN IN

MEDIEVAL ASSAM
In Medieval period the political machinery was in the hands of the

male members. From king to paiks, the people who were associated with
royal duties were male. But we notice some instances of association of
women in royal duties as well. But it should be mention that these women
had associated with the royal duties through their family relation. The first
women who ascended on the throne of Ahom dynasty was ‘Barraja
Phuleswari Kuwari’. She was the wife of Swargadeo Siva Singha. During
the ruling period of Phuleswari Kuwari the famous Moamoria rebellion took
place. Though she ascended on the Ahom throne according to the Ahom
rule yet she cannot issue coins independently in her own name. She issued
coins along with Swargadeo Siva Singha. This is a clear example of the
patriarchal nature of the Ahom royalty. After the demise of Phuleswari Kuwari
another wife of Siva Singha Rani Madambika and Sarbeswari Kuwari
started to rule the Ahom dynasty. These three queens emphasized on
welfare activities. They constructed several douls and ponds. They also
patronized the culture and literature. Phuleswari Kuwari also emphasized
on education and she introduced a school in the royal premise. Under her
patronization Kabiraj Chakravorty wrote the ‘Sankhachur Badh’ and
‘Sankuntala Kabya’. Under the patronization of Rani Madambika, ‘Kam
Kumar Haran’ was composed by Kabiraj Dwija. The famous book on

veterinary science ‘Hastibidarnwab’ was composed during this period.
Besides the Ahom queens, Bhanumati, the wife of Koch king
Naranarayana, requested Purosottam Gajapati to compose a book on
Grammar, ‘Ratnamala Byakaran’. Another queen from Nara community,
Chao Ching kuwari was famous for transferring the Ahom capital to
Gargaon. She was the wife of Suklengmung (Gargaya raja). Chao
Chingkuwari was a very learned queen. Swarnalata Baruain her ‘A
Comprehensive History of Assam’ and Dambarudhar Nath in his ‘Asom
Buranji’ mentioned Chao Ching Kuwari as a beautiful, intelligent and
competent women. According to Swarnalata Barua, Chao Ching Kuwari
can wrote tai language. She had a great contribution to the royal duties and
the matter of defense of the state.
Matrimonial alliance always played a significant role in the diplomatic
relation of any particular dynasty. The Ahoms also used matrimonial alliance
as a tool to initiate favorable relation with neighboring states. Swargadeo
Rajeswar Singha married Kuranganayani, the Manipuri princes and daughter
of king Jai Singha. Kuranganayani became the chief queen of king Rajeswar
Singha. During the period of Moamoria rebellion, the Moran ruler Ragh Moran
forcefully married Kuranganayani. It was Kuranganayani who planned to
murder Ragh Moran. She ultimately succeeded in her plan and rescued Ahom
dynasty from its downfall though for time being. Another important woman
who took part in royal matters was Rajmao Dangariayani. She was the mother
of King Chandrakanta Singha. She considered Badan Barphukan guilty for
the Moamoria rebellion. Therefore, she tried to restore the Ahom ruling
dynasty by murdering Badan Barphukan with the help of Rupsing Chubedar.
Polygamy as already mentioned was a common phenomenon
existed among the Ahom rulers. There were several categories of queen
like – Barkuwari, Parbatiya Kuwari and Tamuli Kuwari. Besides these three
categories others were known as Chamua Kuwari. The queens enjoyed
the right to look after and administer the land which was allotted to them.
But it should be mention that the existence of polygamy definitely worsened
the status of Ahom queens.
The Ahom queens were also good warrior. Some of them fought
bravely in the battlefield along with their male counterparts. The Muslim
ruler Turbak attacked the Ahom kingdom in 1532 CE. During that period
Suhungmung (Dihingia Raja) was the ruler of Ahom dynasty. In this battle
the Ahom commander Phrasengmung Bargohain died and eventually his
wife Mula Gabharu fought bravely along her women associates with the
foreigners. She died while fighting with the invaders. Another brave woman
of Ahom period was Nangblock Gabharu. She was the wife of Ahom royal
officials Tankham Bargohain. She played an active role in the Ahom-koch
conflict. During the reigning period of Jayddhaj Singha, the Mughal emperor
Aurangzeb appointed Mirjumla as the commander in chief to fight with the
Ahoms. The Ahom ruler Jayaddhaj Singha after his defeat in the hands of
Mirjumla sent his six years old daughter Nang Cheng or Ramani Gabharu
to Mughal royal house in marriage to Mughal emperor. Along with Ramani
Gabharu, the daughter of Tipam Raja, Mohini Aidew was also sent. In Mughal
royal house these two daughters from Assam came to be known as Rahmat
Banu and Maphija Begum. After 13 years later, during the battle of Saraighat,
Laluksola Barphukan intended to surrender Guwahati to Mughal without
fighting. Hearing this news Rahmat Banu, who was a niece of Laluksola
Barphukan wrote a letter to her maternal uncle not to surrender Guwahati.
This proves her bravery and a deep love for her motherland. Jaymoti kuwari,
the wife of king Gadapani was another example of brave woman. She died
for the security of Ahom throne.
Those women who had some royal links were only associated with
the political arena of medieval Assam. The women from lower strata of
society did not play any role in politics. A few common women were politically
conscious during that period. On the other hand, the daughter of royal
officials had played some important role in political field. In medieval period
matrimonial alliances with nearby states played an important role. Ahom,
Koch, Kachari , Nara, Naga, Moran, Chutia etc. had maintained matrimonial
alliance with Gauda, (Bengal) Brahmadesh (Myanmar) and Mughals.
Matrimonial alliances were made to initiate friendly relation so that in need
of emergency the ally can help them.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.4: Who was the first women who ascended on
the Ahom throne?
.........................………………………………………………………
Q.5: Who was the author of Ratnamala Byakaran?
.........................………………………………………………………
Q.6: When Turbak invaded the Ahom dynasty?
.........................………………………………………………………
15.7 LET US SUM UP
After going through this unit you have learnt about –

 The social structure of medieval Assam was based on patriarchal
nature. Women did not enjoy equal status with their male counterparts.
 As Assamese society consisted of different ethnic groups. Therefore,
the women of Assam enjoyed some freedom.
 The evil customs like Child marriage, Sati system, and dowry and
Pardah system were not existed in medieval society in Assam.
Education was not imparted to the women in medieval Assam.
 The common women had no hold in political field during the medieval
period. The women from the royal links only participated in the political
field. Bar Raja Phuleswari Kuwari and Rani Madambika were two
prominent women who took part in politics.
 The Queens could not issue coins independently in their own name.
· Poligamy was practiced by most of the medieval rulers. They had at
least three chief queens. The custom of polygamy lowered the status
of women in medieval Assam.
 We found the names of some women who took part in battle with
their male counterparts. Some brave women from medieval Assam
were Mula Gabharu, Ramani Gabharu, Joymoti Kuwari and so on .

1. Barpujari. H.K (1990) The Comprehensive History of Assam, vol.III,

(ed) Assam publication Board, Guwahati, 2004
2. Barua,. K., (1986) A Cultural History of Assam, (Reprinted), vol.I, Bina
library, Guwahati
3. Barua, S., L., (2002) A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram
Monoharlal publishers pvt. Ltd, Guwahati

PROGRESS
Ans to Q No 1: True
Ans to Q No 2: False
Ans to Q No 3: True
Ans to Q No 4: Bar raja Phuleswari Kuwari
Ans to Q No 5: Purosattam Gajapati
Ans to Q No 6: 1532 CE
15. 10 MODEL QUESTIONS
A. Very Short Questions (Answer each question within 50 words)

Q 1: Who were the Ahoms?
Q 2: What were the household duties of the women of Medieval Assam?
Q 3: What kind of marriage system was prevailed in Medieval Assam?
B. Short Questions (answer each question in and about 150 words)

Q 1: Write a short note on the joint family system in Medieval Assam.
Q 2: What was the social status of the medieval women?
Q 3: Write a short note on the matrimonial alliances followed by the Ahom
rulers.

C. Long Questions (Answer each question in and about 500 words)

Q 1: Discuss the role played by the Ahom queens for the development of
literature and culture.
Q 2: Write a short note on the military role played by the women of Medieval
Assam.
Q 3: What was the role of the medieval women in the political field?
Discuss.
*** ***** ***

REFERENCES (For All Units of the Course)
1. Barpujari, H.K(2003): The Comprehensive History of Assam, Vol-

ume-I &II, Publication Board, Assam, Guwahati
2. Barpujari, H.K. (ed) The Comprehensive History of assam, Vol. III,
Assam Publication Board, Guwahati, 2004 (1990)
4. Barua, K., (1986) A Cultural History of Assam, (Reprinted), volI, Bina
library, Guwahati
7. Gait, Edward (2005) :A History of Assam, LBS Publication, Guwahati


History of Assam Till 16th Century

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BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONS) (HISTORY)

FOUR YEAR UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMME

(CBCS and Accordance with NEP 2020)

HISTORY OF ASSAM UPTO THE 16TH CENTURY C.E

(Discipline Specific Core Course/Discipline Specific Minor

Surya Kumar Bhuyan School of Social Sciences

1. Prof. Paromita Das, Gauhati University

1,2,3,4 Muktar Rahman Saikia, St. John College Dimapur, Nagaland

Structure, Format & Graphics : Dr. Priti Salila Rajkhowa, KKHSOU

© Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University

Head Office : Patgaon, Rani Gate, Guwahati-781017; Web : www.kkhsou.in

2 History of Assam up to the 16th century A.D.(Block 1)

UNIT 1 : Sources of Ancient Assam 5-16

UNIT 2 : Geographical Outline of Assam History 17-24

UNIT 3 : Cultural Contact and Migration 25-32

UNIT 4 : Historicity of Naraka and His Sucessors 33-42

UNIT 5 : Ruling Dynasties of Ancient Assam since 4th century 43-57

UNIT 6 : Society, Economy and Religion in Ancient Assam 58-73

UNIT 7 : Administration in Ancient Assam 74-85

History of Assam up to the 16th century A.D.(Block 1) 3

4 History of Assam up to the 16th century A.D.(Block 1)

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to

1.3 SOURCES OF ANCIENT ASSAM

1.3.1 Literary Source

Literary sources are a very important source of information

History of Assam up to the 16th century A.D.(Block 1) 5

sub-divided into Indigenous and Foreign literature. We are now going

about Kamarupa-Kamakhya and other pithas of Assam. The Hevajra

Some other Tantrik works containing references

Epics provide an illuminating picture of the political and social

History of Assam up to the 16th century A.D.(Block 1) 7

city of Pragjyotisha in the Varaha Mountain. The Mahabharata refers

Some other Sanskrit works along with their

The Buddhist or Jain literature does not have any definite

8 History of Assam up to the 16th century A.D.(Block 1)

of Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan associates ancient Assam with the

places which may possibly be identified as being located in ancient

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Fill in the blanks:

1.3.2 Archaeological Sources

Like the literary sources, the Archaeological remains too are

History of Assam up to the 16th century A.D.(Block 1) 11

12 History of Assam up to the 16th century A.D.(Block 1)

Some contemporary inscriptions from other parts of India

which gives information of Assam-Bengal trade relationship. Some

Thus, the ancient architecture and monuments help us a lot

Study an inscription located in your locality and write

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.4: Match the following:

1.4 LET US SUM UP

After going through this unit, you have learnt-

1.5 FURTHER READING

1. Barpujari, H. K. (2003): The Comprehenhive History of Assam, Vol-

1.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

1.7 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) VERY SHORT QUESTIONS (Answer each question within 50 words)

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to

As you have already learnt about the different sources of ancient

2.3 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF ANCIENT ASSAM

2.3.1 Assam- Origin of the Name

Assam is known by different names in the Epics, Puranas

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