Routledge Encyclopedia of Technology

and the Humanities 1st Edition Chan

Sin-Wai
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/routledge-encyclopedia-of-technology-and-the-human
ities-1st-edition-chan-sin-wai/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Financial Mathematics for Actuaries 2nd Edition Wai-Sum

Chan

https://textbookfull.com/product/financial-mathematics-for-
actuaries-2nd-edition-wai-sum-chan/

The Routledge Companion to Media Studies and Digital

Humanities 1st Edition Jentery Sayers

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-routledge-companion-to-
media-studies-and-digital-humanities-1st-edition-jentery-sayers/

Grief Memoirs Routledge Studies in Literature and

Health Humanities 1st Edition Malecka

https://textbookfull.com/product/grief-memoirs-routledge-studies-
in-literature-and-health-humanities-1st-edition-malecka/

Antarctica and the Humanities (Palgrave Studies in the

History of Science and Technology) 1st Edition Roberts
Peder

https://textbookfull.com/product/antarctica-and-the-humanities-
palgrave-studies-in-the-history-of-science-and-technology-1st-
edition-roberts-peder/
The Routledge Encyclopedia of Citizen Media Critical
Perspectives on Citizen Media 1st Edition Mona Baker
(Editor)

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-routledge-encyclopedia-of-
citizen-media-critical-perspectives-on-citizen-media-1st-edition-
mona-baker-editor/

Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology

Fifth Edition Mehdi Kosrow

https://textbookfull.com/product/encyclopedia-of-information-
science-and-technology-fifth-edition-mehdi-kosrow/

Digital Bodies: Creativity and Technology in the Arts

and Humanities 1st Edition Susan Broadhurst

https://textbookfull.com/product/digital-bodies-creativity-and-
technology-in-the-arts-and-humanities-1st-edition-susan-
broadhurst/

Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology 4th

Edition Mehdi Khosrow-Pour

https://textbookfull.com/product/encyclopedia-of-information-
science-and-technology-4th-edition-mehdi-khosrow-pour/

Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology, Second

Edition Volume I Laplante

https://textbookfull.com/product/encyclopedia-of-computer-
science-and-technology-second-edition-volume-i-laplante/
 ROUTLEDGE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
TECHNOLOGY AND THE HUMANITIES

Routledge Encyclopedia of Technology and the Humanities is a pioneer attempt to introduce a wide range
of disciplines in the emerging field of techno-humanities to the English-reading world.
This book covers topics such as archaeology, cultural heritage, design, fashion, linguistics, music,
philosophy, and translation. It has 20 chapters, contributed by 26 local and international scholars. Each
chapter has its own theme and addresses issues of significant interest in the respective disciplines.
References are provided at the end of each chapter for further exploration into the literature of the relevant
areas. To facilitate an easy reading of the information presented in this volume, chapters have been arranged
according to the alphabetical order of the topics covered.
This Encyclopedia will appeal to researchers and professionals in the field of technology and the
humanities, and can be used by undergraduate and graduate students studying the humanities.

Chan Sin-wai is Dean of the Ip Ying To Lee Yu Yee School of Humanities and Languages, Saint Francis
University President of the Association for Translation Technology, and was Member of the Translation
Technology Committee of the International Federation of Translators (FIT). He received his BA from The
Chinese University of Hong Kong and his doctorate from the School of Oriental and African Studies,
University of London. He has published 62 academic books in 75 volumes, mainly scholarly monographs,
bilingual dictionaries, and translated works in different fields.

Mak Kin-wah is President of Saint Francis University and Principal of the Caritas Bianchi College of
Careers. He received his MBA from City University London, doctorate degree and graduate degree from
the University of Cambridge, and undergraduate degree from The University of Western Australia. He is
Chairman of English Schools Foundation; Chairman of Hong Kong Society for The Aged; Deputy Chair-
man of the ATAL Engineering Group; Council Member of The Hong Kong Management Association; and
Member of Hong Kong Housing Authority. He is also Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers Hong
Kong and Member of The Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology.

Leung Sze Ming is Vice-President (Administration) of Saint Francis University and Caritas Bianchi
­College of Careers in Hong Kong. She earned her PhD in education at The Chinese University of Hong
Kong. The integrated learning experience of literature, linguistics, and education enables her to develop a
wide range of research interests, for example, teacher feedback, writing instruction, and the use of ICT in
language teaching and learning.
ROUTLEDGE ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF TECHNOLOGY AND THE
HUMANITIES

Edited by Chan Sin-wai, Mak Kin-wah,

and Leung Sze Ming
 Designed cover image: agsandrew via Getty Images
First published 2024
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 selection and editorial matter, Chan Sin-wai, Mak Kin-wah, and Leung
Sze Ming; individual chapters, the contributors
The right of Chan Sin-wai, Mak Kin-wah, and Leung Sze Ming to be identified
as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual
chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78
of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent
to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-032-04942-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-04941-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-19526-9 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003195269
Typeset in Times New Roman
by codeMantra
 CONTENTS

List of Figures viii

List of Tables xi
List of Contributors xii
Acknowledgmentsxix

Introduction 1
Chan Sin-wai, Mak Kin-wah, and Leung Sze Ming

1 Advancing Archaeological Research: The Contribution of Spatial Technologies 7

Giacomo Landeschi

2 A Critical Pedagogy for Architectural Technology 26

Pete Silver and Will Mclean

3 Virtual Technology, Online Resources, and Learning with/in Art Museums 42

Cheung On Tam and Claire Ka Yan Hui

4 Technology and Interpersonal Communication Ethics: Empathic

Communication in Customer–Chatbot Service Encounters 61
Yeung Wing-lok

5 DH-XR: Extended Reality’s Relevance to the Digital Humanities 73

Erik Champion and Hafizur Rahaman
 Contents 

6 Exploration of the Emotion-Adaptive Engine in the Computer-Aided

Design Process 93
Amic G. Ho

7 Technology and Fashion: Fashioning Technology – Science, Selfs,

and Systems 111
Natascha Radclyffe-Thomas

8 Deep Learning for Recipe Generation 127

Chan Sin-wai

9 Convergence and Fragmentation: End-Users, Dialogic Interaction, and

Digital Heritage 163
Hafizur Rahaman

10 Ready for the Future? Towards the “Tech” Revolution in Interpreting 183
Gloria Corpas Pastor

11 Concept-Based Grammar Teaching in the Digital Era: Potential

and Challenges 200
Man Ho Ivy Wong and Tsun Sing Hung

12 Corpus Linguistics and Language Technology 219

Niladri Sekhar Dash

13 Technology and Literary Criticism 247

Grant Hamilton

14 Digital Humanities and Classical Chinese Literature 259

Siu Chun Ho

15 Re-scaling Beethoven: Very Long, Very Short 284

PerMagnus Lindborg

16 Philosophy and Technology 299

Danielle J. Williams and Gualtiero Piccinini

17 Religion and Technology 315

Erna Oliver

18 Techno-humanities: Some Trends of the Portrayal of Science

in Art on the Hong Kong Stage 325
Thomas Luk Yun-tong

vi
 Contents 

19 Being Human in a Technology-Driven World: Checkmate

or Opportunity for Social Responsibility? 332
Anita L. Cloete

20 Translation and Technology 342

Xiaojun Zhang

Index 357

vii
 FIGURES

1.1 Robotic total station in a field project. This instrument can be handled
by a single surveyor 10
1.2 RTK GPS employed during an archaeological field survey 11
1.3 Typical graphic interface of a CAD online viewing program 12
1.4 GIS user interface with full-3D functionalities enabled. Vector drawing is done
with a 3D surface model as a geometrical reference 14
1.5 Terrestrial laser scanner is a very flexible instrument that is very well-suited for
acquisitions performed in ‘difficult’ environments, where visibility conditions
are not optimal 15
1.6 Image-based 3D modeling requires a dedicated software to be performed and
good performing computational platforms 16
1.7 Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) employed in a field project 18
1.8 Landsat multispectral images can be accessed and downloaded for free and
these represent a very useful source for the study of archaeological landscapes 20
1.9 Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) employed for making a DTM of a study area 21
1.10 LiDAR-derived DTM with slope enhanced and employed for the detection of
archaeological features in forest land 22
2.1 Samples from the visiting lecturer series at the School of Architecture,
University of Westminster 27
2.2 Technical lectures for first-year undergraduate students at the School of
Architecture, University of Westminster 28
2.3 Observational sketch: Andrzez Kostrzewa 29
2.4 Observational sketches: NG Sear Nee 29
2.5 Glass floor 31
2.6 Brick plinth 32
2.7 Apple cantilever 33
2.8 Open-web truss 33
2.9 Hat stand 34
2.10 A 10-metre pedestrian bridge: tensegrity structure: scale model 35

viii
 Figures

2.11 Baywatch project: render: Matteo Rossetti 36

2.12 Bandstand: scale model 36
2.13 (a) and (b) Façade project: Amer Aldour: origami facade 37
2.14 (a) and (b) Façade project: Harish Persad: memory metal skin 38
2.15 (a) and (b) Façade project: Christos Kakouros: hydroponic façade 39
5.1 Mixed reality at Ballarat Heritage Weekend 2018: fingers sideways to
Microsoft HoloLens’ camera enables the HoloLens to select and virtually
move a virtual ‘hologram’ (that only the boy can see, overlaid on his view
of the real world) 81
5.2 Participatory Game Design Framework (PGDF) 83
5.3 Boolkaala (Banksia) is identified via the phone AR application (courtesy of
Dr Hafizur Rahaman) 86
5.4 SS Xantho, WA Shipwrecks Gallery, Perth, Western Australia (courtesy of
Dr. Mafkereseb Bekele) 86
5.5 Virtual museum template 87
5.6 Saving Heritage, Brazil: game, DH Summer School, Turin (September 2018) 88
6.1 Different focuses among the various design approaches 97
6.2 Model of the implementation of the emotion-adaptive engine in the design process 102
8.1 Use cases in recipe recommendation 128
8.2 Illustration of the support vector machine method 129
8.3 A tree representation of a recipe 131
8.4 Use cases in food image recognition 132
8.5 Use cases of cross-modal recipe retrieval 133
8.6 Modelling cross-modal recipe data in a joint embedding space 133
8.7 A search engine solution based on image-to-recipe retrieval 134
8.8 Use cases in recipe question answering 136
8.9 Structure of an open-domain QA system 137
8.10 Visual question answering (VQA) based on a cross-modal representation of a
multimodal (­image + text) query 140
8.11 An example of the VideoQA task in cooking 141
8.12 Some applications of recipe generation 142
8.13 Use cases of recipe generation 143
8.14 A recurrent neural network (RNN) for text generation 144
8.15 Pretraining and finetuning a LLM for recipe generation 145
8.16 Retrieving/generating recipes based on cooking videos 147
8.17 Use cases in food image generation 150
8.18 Training a generative adversarial network (GAN) 151
9.1 Conceptual framework (PrEDiC) for interpreting digital heritage (adopted
from Rahaman, 2018) 167
9.2 Screenshot (partial) of the main page 169
9.3 Different groups and their task during the experiment 170
9.4 Frequency of using the experiment platform during the experiment week 171
9.5 Participants reporting on appreciation of their visit 171
9.6 Participants reporting on self-attitudinal changes 172
10.1 Interpreting technologies: pivotal concepts 189
10.2 Interpreting technologies used (Pielmeier and O’Mara, 2020: 47) 192

ix
 Figures

11.1 A sample of the training screen before selecting a preposition 211

11.2 A sample of the training screen after selecting a preposition 212
11.3 A sample of the picture elicitation assessment screen 213
12.1 Major domains of language technology (past, present, and future) 222
12.2 Primary idea of lemmatization of inflected words (Dash, 2021: 168) 233
12.3 Major types and subtypes of corpus annotation (Dash, 2021) 236
12.4 Application of language corpus across various domains (Dash, 2021) 241
13.1 Ellis’ own table of calculations 249
13.2 Jockers’ graph of the correlation 255
14.1 Aggregated social network of Jiang Kui, maximum node distance = 1 261
14.2 List of letters related to Wang Shizhen (partial screenshot) 262
14.3 Tagging function of MARKUS 262
14.4 Term clipper clipping the term “Yangzhou” 263
14.5 1-gram and 2-gram frequency analysis of Baishi Daoren Gequ 264
14.6 Proximity search for “wine” and “flower” in Zhou Bangyan’s ci lyrics 266
14.7 Word cloud of Zhou Bangyan’s ci lyrics 266
14.8 Word cloud of Jiang Kui’s ci lyrics 266
14.9 CKIP CoreNLP’s accurate word segmentation of lines containing the
characters “jinhe” 267
14.10 3-gram word cloud for Baishi Daoren Gequ 268
14.11 Social network graph of Jiang Kui 268
14.12 Social network graph of Wen Tingshi 270
14.13 Social network graph of Xuehai Tang’s literati 271
14.14 Geographical distribution of Qing writers described as “proficient in poetry
and prose writing” 272
14.15 Incorrect Geographical Placement of Xu Nanqing in Jiang Kui’s social
network map 273
14.16 Wang Changling’s map of poetical itineraries (partial screenshot) 274
14.17 Search result for five consecutive level tones in system of Quan Tangshi
Analysis (partial screenshot) 276
14.18 Variations of Yangzhou Man (partial screenshot) 279
14.19 Liu Yong’s ci lyrics with “4，4，6。” pattern (partial screenshot) 279
14.20 Display of tonal values (partial screenshot) 280
15.1 Lens model illustrating the relationship between the analytical concepts
employed in this chapter 287
15.2 Temporal proportions between the main two pieces discussed in the present
paper: 9 Beet Stretch (Inge 2002, realised by Vinjar in 2004) and Complete
Beethoven Symphonies, in Compression Sound Art (Kreidler 2009), connected
via Ninth Symphony (Beethoven 1824; recording by Drahos and Esterházy
Sinfonia released on Naxos 1997) 288
16.1 Different dipping sticks gathered by Lapuente et al. (2016) 303
16.2 Cathedral termite mounds (Nasutitermes triodiae), Northern Territory, Australia. 304
16.3 Unifacial and bifacial chopping cores (Image credit: Chazan and Horwitz, 2006) 307
20.1 SDL Trados Studio 2019 345
20.2 Workflow of translation project management (https://www.maxitrad.com/en/
languages-translation-documents.html) 347

x
 TABLES

9.1 Remembering, Recall and Identification of wrong information between groups 170
11.1 Seven selected pairs of in, at, over, and through polysemes 210
11.2 Effects of concept-based training on the learning of spatial
and non-spatial polysemes 213
12.1 Classification of corpora based on different axes 226
12.2 The target end-users and the type of corpus they require 228
12.3 Sense variation of the English word game in the English corpus 231
12.4 Collocation of ‘time’ in British English texts 232
12.5 Generation of lemma and sets of suffixes by lemmatization 234
12.6 Morphological processing of a Bengali inflected finite verb 235
12.7 People and the type of corpus they require 241
14.1 Frequency comparison of ten selected characters in Zhou Bangyan
and Jiangkui’s ci lyrics 265
14.2 Comparison of time adverbs in Zhou Bangyan and Jiang Kui’s ci lyrics 267
14.3 Variant forms of Nange Zi 277
14.4 Examples of alternative pronunciations of the character “yang” in Quan Tangshi 280
20.1 Evolution of translation technology 344

xi
 CONTRIBUTORS

Anita L. Cloete is Full Professor in Practical Theology, lecturing for (19) years at Huguenot
College in Wellington (5 years) and University of Stellenbosch (14 years), respectively. She was
the Head of the Department of Practical Theology & Missiology, 2014–2017 and the Chair of the
Winter School Committee for five years for an annual event at the Faculty of Theology. She is a
National Research Foundation rated scholar. Currently, she is the editor of the section on practical
theology in the Stellenbosch Theological Journal. Her research areas include youth culture, spir-
itual formation, religion, and media. She published and supervised several postgraduate students
in these areas. She recently (2019) edited a book with the title: Interdisciplinary Reflections on the
Interplay between Religion, Film and Youth.

Amic Garfield Ho graduated with a PhD Des, MEd, MDes, BA (Hons) Des (Visual Communica-
tion). Currently, Amic is Assistant Professor and the Programme Leader of BFA (Hons) in Imaging
Design & Digital Art and BFA (Hons) in Cinematic Design & Photographic Digital Art at the De-
partment of Creative Arts, Hong Kong Metropolitan University. His design expertise and research
interests are in typography, emotion and design, and communication design.
Amic served as conference chair and editor of the proceedings book at the International Con-
ference on Human Factors in Communication of Design (AHFE) and International Symposium
of Creative Technology & Digital Media (AHFE); scientific advisory board in the International
Conference on Affective and Pleasurable Design (AHFE). Moreover, he served as associate editor
for Convergences – Journal of Research and Arts Education and has been on the advisory board
for Art, Design & Communication in Higher Education (journal) and has acted as a reviewer for
several design and education journals, including the International Journal of Design Research,
Design Principles & Practices Journal Collection, The Learner Journal Collection, New Design
Ideas (journal), International Journal of Food Design, She Ji: The Journal of Design, Economics,
and Innovation, etc. His research has been published in various academic journals, book chapters,
and conference proceedings.

Chan Sin-wai is Professor-cum-Dean of the School of Humanities and Languages, Saint ­Francis
University, Hong Kong. He was formerly Professor at the School of Humanities and Social Sci-
ence, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Professor at the Department of Trans-
lation, the Chinese University of Hong Kong. He was also Director of the Master of Arts in the

xii
 Contributors

Computer-Aided Translation Programme and Director of the Centre for Translation Technology.
His teaching and research interests lie mainly in the areas of translation studies, translation tech-
nology, and bilingual lexicography. He is chief editor of the Journal of Translation Technology,
published by the Chinese University of Hong Kong and editor of the International Journal of
Techno-Humanities. He has published more than 66 academic books in 85 volumes, mainly dic-
tionaries and scholarly monographs, and translated works in different fields. He edited An Ency-
clopaedia of Translation, revised Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture (bilingual
edition), and authored A Dictionary of Translation Technology and A Chinese-English Dictionary
of the Human Body. His book translations from Chinese into English include An Exposition of
Benevolence, Palaces of the Forbidden City, Letters of Prominent Figures in Modern China,
Paintings and Calligraphy of Jao Tsung-I, Stories by Gao Yang, An Illustrated History of Print-
ing in Ancient China, Famous Chinese Sayings Quoted by Wen Jiabao, and Selected Works of
Cheng Siwei: Economic Reforms and Development in China, Volume 2. He also translated My
Son Yo Yo from English into Chinese. His edited books include Style, Wit and Word-Play (2012)
and The Dancer and the Dance (2013), both published by Cambridge Scholars Publishing. His
most recent publications include The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Chinese Language (2016),
An Encyclopedia of Practical Translation (2018), The Human Factor in Machine Translation
(2018), Routledge Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Culture (2020), and A Dictionary of
Chinese Popular Sayings and Famous Quotes (2021).

Cheung on Tam was awarded Doctor of Philosophy in 2006 (University of London) and is cur-
rently working at the Education University of Hong Kong as Head of department and Associate
Professor in the Department of Cultural and Creative Arts. His publications include Three Cases
of Using Object-based Learning with University Students (2015) and Development, Implementa-
tion and Effectiveness of Using Online Lesson in Visual Arts Education: A Design-based Study
(2021). His papers appeared in International Journal of Education Through Art (2010), Studies
in Art Education (2022), Research in Arts Education (2010, 2016, 2019), Research in Learning
Technology (2012), The International Journal of Art and Design Education (2017, 2018, 2019,
2023), Australian Art Education (2019), Special Education Perspectives (2015), and Indo-Pacific
Journal of Phenomenology (2008, 2016). He had been appointed visiting fellow by the Institute
of Education, The University of London. He is co-editor of The International Journal of Art and
Design Education. He has been principal investigator of a number of research projects, including
Developing Students’ Critical Response to Visual Arts: A Study of Inquiry Approaches and Out-
comes in Learning Art Criticism (General Research Fund, 2015), An Investigation of the Use of
Group Dialogue and Questioning Strategies with Primary School Students Learning Visual Arts
in Museums and Schools (General Research Fund, 2018), and Creating Connections: A Study
of the Impact and Effectiveness of a Visual Arts Teacher-Curator Pedagogy (General Research
Fund, 2021).

Claire Ka Yan Hui is a PhD student in the Department of Cultural and Creative Arts at the Educa-
tion University of Hong Kong. Prior to her current position, Hui held posts across different arts and
cultural contexts in both public and educational sectors, and completed a two-year museum trainee
programme in the Hong Kong Museum of Art. She received a bachelor of arts degree in creative
media with first class honours from City University of Hong Kong and a master of arts degree
in cultural management from The Chinese University of Hong Kong. She was a recipient of the
Entrance Scholarship from City University of Hong Kong and the HSBC Overseas scholarship to

xiii
 Contributors

London, where she completed an Independent Studio Programme at the Slade School of Fine Art,
University College London, United Kingdom. She also has an artistic practice and her works have
been exhibited at galleries and art festivals in Hong Kong, Seoul, and London.

Danielle J. Williams is a Postdoctoral Fellow in Modeling Interdisciplinary Inquiry at Washing-

ton University in St. Louis. In 2022, she was a fellow for the Summer Seminars in Neuroscience
and Philosophy program at Duke University. In Spring 2022, she was nominated for the Outstand-
ing Graduate Student Teacher Award for her instruction of the course titled ‘Minds, Brains, and
Computers.’ Her publications include “Markov Blankets: Realism and our Ontological Commit-
ments” (Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2022) and “Realism and Instrumentalism in Bayesian
Cognitive Science” (with Zoe Drayson, forthcoming in T. Cheng, R. Sato, and J. Hohwy, Eds.,
Expected Experiences: The Predictive Mind in an Uncertain World, Routledge).

Erik Champion is currently Enterprise Fellow at the University of South Australia, ­Honorary
Professor at the Australian National University, Honorary Research Fellow at the University
of Western Australia, and Emeritus Professor at Curtin University. At Curtin, he was UNE-
SCO Chair of Cultural Heritage and Visualization, as well as Visualization Theme Leader and
Steering Committee member at the Curtin Institute for Computation. Prior to Curtin, he was
the project leader of DIGHUMLAB in Denmark. He wrote Rethinking Virtual Places (Indiana
University Press, 2021), Critical Gaming: Interactive History and Virtual Heritage (Routledge,
2015), and Playing with the Past (Springer, 2011, the second edition appeared in 2023). He also
wrote Organic Design in Twentieth-Century Nordic Architecture (Routledge, 2019), edited The
Phenomenology of Real and Virtual Places (Routledge, 2018), and Game Mods: Design, Theory
and Criticism (ETC Press, 2012), and co-edited Cultural Heritage Infrastructures in Digital
Humanities (Routledge, 2017).

Erna Oliver is Full Professor of Church History in the Department of Christian Spirituality,
Church History, and Missiology at the University of South Africa. In addition to her theological
education from South African universities, she has a master’s degree in open distance e-learning
from the University of Maryland University College in the United States and the University of
South Africa (Unisa). She has co-published in more than 20 non-academic books and published
more than 50 academic articles and several book chapters. She has acted as book editor in both
the disciplines of theology and higher education. She is passionate about lifelong and life-wide
learning and implementing the triangle of effective education (student-centered teaching, interac-
tive learning, and transformative assessment) in higher education in theological curriculums to
enhance not only knowledge, but also the capabilities and capacity for graduateness of theological
students that enable them to become agents of positive change in their work and social environ-
ments. The links with and lessons that can be drawn from the past are focus points in her teaching
of theology to the digital information age students.

Giacomo Landeschi is Associate Professor of Archaeology and Researcher at Lund University.

His research interests include archaeological computing, landscape and field archaeology, and ar-
chaeological method and theory. His current research is focused on the development of advanced
computational methods for analyzing the perceptual experience of a past landscape and the use of
Artificial Intelligence for the detection of archaeological features in forest land.

xiv
 Contributors

Gloria Corpas Pastor is Professor of Translation and Interpreting at the University of ­Malaga,
Spain, and honorary adjunct professor at Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, China. She is
­currently director of the Research Institute in Multilingual Language Technologies (IUITLM)
and Head of the Research Group Lexicography and Translation (LEXYTRAD). Published and
cited extensively, her research interests cover language technologies applied to translation and
­interpreting, NLP, corpus linguistics and computational phraseology. She has been recently
awarded the Certificate of Commendation-Saint Francis Prize in Techno-Humanities (Caritas In-
stitute of Higher Education, Hong Kong, 2022), “Flag of Andalucia Award” on Research, ­Science
and Healthcare (Andalusian Government, 2023) or the “Carlomagno Research Award” in Arts and
Humanities (2023), among others.

Grant Hamilton is Associate Professor of English at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. He
teaches and writes in the areas of computational literary studies, world literature, and literary
theory. His most recent book is Mapping the Posthuman (2023), an edited collection of research
on posthuman thought that features new work by world-leading voices in the field.

Gualtiero Piccinini is curators’ Distinguished Professor of Philosophy and Associate Director

of the Center for Neurodynamics at the University of Missouri, St. Louis. In 2014, he received
the Herbert A. Simon Award from the International Association for Computing and Philosophy.
In 2018, he received the K. Jon Barwise Prize from the American Philosophical Association. In
2019, he ­received the Chancellor’s Award for Research and Creativity from the University of Mis-
souri, St. Louis. His publications include Physical Computation: A Mechanistic Account (Oxford
­University Press, 2015) and Neurocognitive Mechanisms: Explaining Biological Cognition (Ox-
ford ­University Press, 2020).

Hafizur Rahaman is a technology-focused consultant, researcher, and educator with more

than 12 years of professional experience in user experience research and advanced visualiza-
tion in GLAM settings. He is a research academic at the Faculty of Science and Engineer-
ing, Curtin University, WA, Australia; he also works with CyArk (cyark.org) as a consultant
in collaboration with Google Cultural Institute for digital documentation of two UNESCO
world heritage sites. He has completed 19 research projects and published 35 research ar-
ticles in reputed journals and peer-reviewed conference proceedings and has received five
international awards.

Leung Sze Ming is Vice-President (Administration) at Saint Francis University in Hong Kong. She
earned her PhD in education at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The integrated learning ex-
perience of literature, linguistics, and education enables her to develop a wide range of research
interests, for example, teacher feedback, writing instruction, and the use of ICT in language teach-
ing and learning.

Mak Kin-Wah is currently President of Saint Francis University. He received an MBA from City
University London, a doctorate and a graduate degree from the University of Cambridge and an
undergraduate degree from The University of Western Australia Business School. He is Chairman
of English Schools Foundation and Chairman of Hong Kong Society for The Aged. He is also on
the board of Hong Kong Science & Technology Parks Corp. and Analogue Holdings Ltd. He is

xv
 Contributors

also a Member of Hong Kong Housing Authority, The Institute of Marine Engineering, Science &
Technology, and the Institution of Civil Engineers Hong Kong and a Council Member at The Hong
Kong Management Association.

Man Ho Ivy Wong is Assistant Professor in the Department of English Language and ­Literature at
Hong Kong Shue Yan University. She also teaches postgraduate courses at the Chinese ­University
of Hong Kong, including cognitive linguistics and its applications in language teaching and inter-
disciplinary approaches to multilingualism. Her research interests lie at the intersection of cogni-
tive linguistics and second language acquisition. Her dissertation project on applying cognitive
linguistics to English preposition learning earned her the Fulbright-Lee-Hysan ­scholarship to con-
duct research at Georgetown University in 2017–2018. Her current research project, ­Promoting
Conceptual Development of English Prepositions among University Graduates through Human-
and Computer-Assisted Instruction, has been funded by the Standing Committee on Language
Education and Research of Education Bureau to investigate the applicability of cognitive linguis-
tics to language learning in Hong Kong. She is currently holding a two-year Bowland Research
Fellowship at the University of York starting October 2023 to further investigate the potentials of
cognitive linguistics-inspired instruction on grammar learning in different contexts. Her research
works have been published in top-tier journals such as Language Learning and TESOL Quarterly.

Natascha Radclyffe-Thomas is National Teaching fellow, Vice Chair of The Costume Society,
Chair of the UN PRME UK and Ireland Chapter, and Editor-in-Chief for Bloomsbury Fashion
Business Case Studies. Natascha is Professor in Marketing and Sustainable Business at the Brit-
ish School of Fashion, Glasgow Caledonian University London where she is also responsible
for Academic Leadership for Business and Sustainability. Natascha’s cross-disciplinary research
spans creative industries practice; sustainable fashion; social enterprise and responsible business;
cultural heritage, consumer behavior; and international fashion marketing.
Natascha has a doctorate in education and extensive experience teaching in Europe, Asia,
and North America and is an award-winning case study author and co-author of Fashion Man-
agement: A Strategic Approach. Natascha has a background in luxury fashion and is an in-
ternationally recognized educator and an inaugural advisory board member for the Council
for International African Fashion Education. Natascha won the Case Centre 2020 Award for
Ethics and Social Responsibility and was Runner-Up in the FT’s 2022 Responsible Business
Educator Awards and recipient of multiple institutional and national awards, including be-
ing named in The SustainabilityX® Magazine’s inaugural Global 50 Women In Sustainability
Awards™2022.

Niladri Sekhar Dash (born in 1967) is Professor-in-Charge of the Social Sciences Division and
Head of the Linguistic Research Unit of the Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India. For the last
three decades, he has been working in the areas of corpus linguistics and language technology,
computational lexicography, documentation and digitization of endangered indigenous languages,
computer-based language teaching, digital humanities and ethnography, manual and machine
translation and dementia of bilingual aphasic patients. He is International Visiting ­Fellow of the
British Academy, UK (2018), Visiting Research Scientist of the School of Psychology and ­Clinical
Language Science, the University of Reading, UK (2018–2024), Visiting Scholar of Language
and Brain Laboratory, University of Oxford, UK (2019), and Visiting Scholar of the ­Institute
of English, the University College London, UK (2022–2023). To his credit, Professor Dash has

xvi
 Contributors

published 19 research books and more than 300 research papers in international and national
journals, anthologies, and conference proceedings. His four unique theoretical contributions ([a]
the use of data and information from corpora for compiling dictionaries, [b] the etymological an-
notation of words in text corpora, [c] the use of the SHELL method in ELT, and [d] the elicitation
of free discourse texts for documentation of endangered languages) are widely acknowledged
and referred to. He has delivered academic lectures or taught short-term courses in more than 100
universities and institutions in India and abroad. He has served in different capacities in Indian and
international universities, government bodies, and international organizations like the UNESCO.

PerMagnus Lindborg 林博培, PhD, is a research-driven composer and sound artist. He has
authored more than a hundred media artworks and compositions, commissioned or selected for
ArtScience Museum (Singapore 2021), Osage Gallery (Hong Kong 2021), CubeFest (Virginia
2019), Berlin Konzerthaus (2018), Xuhui Museum (Shanghai 2017), Tonspur (Vienna 2016),
National Gallery (Singapore 2015), Onassis Centre (Athens 2014), Moderna Museet (Stock-
holm 2008), and Centre Pompidou (Paris 2003). He has won awards for short films at World
Film Carnival (2021), Cannes Short, and TIFF (2020), and for composition at SSO [First Prize]
(Norway 2002), Forum [Audience Prize] (Canada 1996), and Young Artist and TONO Awards
(Norway 1998, 1999, 2003). Refereed publications in PLoS One, Leonardo, Applied Acoustics,
Frontiers, JAES, IRCAM-Delatour, and conference proceedings, such as SMC, ICMC, ICMPC,
NIME, and ICAD. He serves as Vice-President for Asia-Oceania of the International Computer
Music Association and Associate Pprofessor at the School of Creative Media, City University
of Hong Kong.

Peter Silver is a teacher and coordinator of technical studies in the School of Architecture at the
University of Westminster. Mr Peter Silver and Dr McLean have co-authored four books on archi-
tectural technology that have been published in nine languages and have sold over 10,000 copies
worldwide.

Siu Chun Ho is Associate Professor in the Department of Chinese Language and Literature, the
Chinese University of Hong Kong. His major research interests include Chinese versification,
early medieval Chinese literature, and history of historical Chinese phonology. He received his
doctor of letters degree from Kyoto University, and was awarded the Rohoku Prize 2016 in Ja-
pan for his research on the relationship of Chinese versification and Sanskrit poetics. Since then,
he has been working on the history of recent style prosody and ci prosody, the construction of
the Tang-Song Versification Database, and the conservation of Cantonese chanting. His recent
publication includes Handbook of Cantonese Chanting in Hong Kong 《香港粵語吟誦手冊》
(2022) and New Exploration of the Arapacana Syllabary:Religion, Language and Politics of the
Ming-Qing Period《華嚴字母新探：明清宗教、語言與政治》 (2021). He is currently prepar-
ing a book manuscript on the Chinese Versification Studies in 17th–19th Century Chinese and
Japanese Corpora and the revisit of kinsei tō’on’s phonological systems as seen in musical scores
of Edo-period Japan.

Thomas Luk Yun-tong, Formerly a Professor in the Departments of English, Cultural and
­Religious Studies at The Chinese University of Hong Kong, and Department of Literature, at Fo
Guang ­University, Taiwan, was a Professor and Academic Leader in English studies, and Dean of
School of Humanities and Social Science at Hang Seng Management College. He was the Head and

xvii
 Contributors

Professor of the Department of English at Hong Kong Chu Hai College and the Acting Dean
of Faculty of Arts and Social Science. He received his PhD in comparative literature from the
­University of Michigan, the United States, having acquired his BA (Hons.) and MA in English
respectively from the Chinese University of Hong Kong and York University, Canada.

Tsun Sing Hung is Lecturer (part-time) in the Department of English at Lingnan ­University and the
Department of English Language and Literature at Hong Kong Shue Yan University. He ­obtained
his MA in Linguistics (with a specialized stream in Language Acquisition and ­Bilingualism) and
MPhil in English (Applied English Linguistics) from The Chinese University of Hong Kong and
his Cambridge CELTA from International House London. His research ­interests lie primarily in
the sociocultural approach to second language acquisition, feedback in second language writ-
ing (teacher feedback and peer feedback), conceptual metaphors and image schemas in cognitive
linguistics, (critical) discourse analysis, and corpus linguistics. His current research project inves-
tigates how theories in cognitive linguistics and Sociocultural Theory in SLA and L2 education
can be applied in the teaching of L2 English prepositions of movement to L1 Cantonese junior
secondary school students in the Hong Kong ESL context.

Will Mclean is a teacher and coordinator of Technical Studies in the School of Architecture at
the University of Westminster. Dr McLean and Mr Peter Silver have co-authored four books on
architectural technology that have been published in nine languages and have sold over 10,000
copies worldwide.

Yeung Wing-lok completed his PhD in computer science in the United Kingdom. He has held
various academic positions in universities in the United Kingdom and Hong Kong. He has taught
various subjects in computing and information systems in undergraduate courses, ­including e-busi-
ness and computer ethics. His research areas include software engineering and ­business process
modelling. He has published in refereed academic journals, including Science of ­Computer Pro-
gramming, Formal Methods in System Design, Journal of Systems and Software, and I­ nternational
Journal of Production Research. His current research interests include chatbots and question-
answering systems.

Xiaojun Zhang is Associate Professor in Translation Technology at Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool

University and an Honorary Associate at the University of Liverpool. He is Adjunct Professor at
Northwestern Polytechnical University and the Open University of Cyprus in natural language
processing. He is professional conduct committee member of the Association for Computational
Linguistics (ACL) and the Deputy Chairman of Translation Technology Education Society af-
filiated to World Interpreter and Translator Training Association. He has held academic staff and
researcher positions at reputed educational institutions in China, Ireland, and the United Kingdom
after he had obtained his PhD degree in computational linguistics in 2008. He is scientific member
at top conferences in natural language processing areas as ACL, EMNLP, LREC, CWMT, CCL,
and AACL. He is also peer reviewer of international and national journals. His research interests
cover translation technology, natural language processing, and practical translation.

xviii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to express our most sincere and profound gratitude to Andrea Hartill, Senior Pub-
lisher at Routledge, for her strong support towards the publication of this work. We have ben-
efited enormously from her professionalism in the publication of this book. Our thanks also go
to Iola Ashby, Editorial Assistant at Routledge, for her great efforts in the production of this vol-
ume. ­Special thanks are due to contributors of this Encyclopedia for their time and effort in writing
chapters for this volume, to Florence Li Wing Yee and Jessica Ng Tsz Hei, our colleagues at Saint
Francis University, for their assistance in the production of this work, and to Dr Wei Yuxiang,
­Research Associate at Saint Francis University, for compiling the index.

xix
 INTRODUCTION
Chan Sin-wai, Mak Kin-wah, and Leung Sze Ming

Preamble
We are living in an age of technology. Technology is ubiquitous and super-powerful, bringing
many positive changes to our life. Technology has been used in a multitude of areas, one of which
is the humanities, which is known in general as “techno-humanities”. The growth of the humani-
ties in this digital age obviously relies on technology.
It should be noted that techno-humanities grows from digital humanities. Digital humanities
has been around for decades. Many centres of digital humanities have been established since the
1980s, more than 40 years ago. A quick survey reveals that the importance of digitizing humanities
materials is widely recognized by many universities in the world. As a result, around 70 research
centres have been set up in different countries, mostly in the West, and more than 80 English
books on digital humanities have been published in the past 2 decades. The achievements in the
area of digital humanities lead to the emergence of techno-humanities, which is not merely about
digitizing materials in the arts, but mainly about the use and development of technology for the
humanities. It is therefore a step beyond digital humanities, a marriage of technology and the arts.
It is about time to sum up the scholarship in this field and look into its future. This first encyclo-
pedia on technology and humanities is a pioneer attempt to introduce a wide range of disciplines
in the emerging field of techno-humanities to the English-reading world, covering topics such as
archaeology, cultural heritage, design, fashion, linguistics, music, philosophy, and translation. It
has 20 chapters by 26 local and international scholars. Each chapter has its own theme and ad-
dresses issues of significant interest in the respective disciplines. References are provided at the
end of each chapter for further exploration into relevant literature. To facilitate an easy reading of
the information presented in this volume, chapters have been arranged according to the alphabeti-
cal order of the topics covered.

Topics in the Encyclopedia

Archaeology
The application of technology to archaeology should be of great interest to many. In Chapter
1, ‘Advancing Archaeological Research: The Contribution of Spatial Technologies’, Professor

1 DOI: 10.4324/9781003195269-1
 Chan Sin-wai et al.

Giacomo Landeschi of Lund University in Sweden, a specialist in archaeological computing, pro-

vides an overview of the main achievements gained through the use of new technologies to ar-
chaeology in recent decades. It focuses on technologies for site documentation in field archaeology
and landscape archaeology and non-destructive methods for the prospection of an archaeological
landscape prospection.

Architecture
In Chapter 2, ‘A Critical Pedagogy for Architectural Technology’, Mr Peter Silver and Dr Will
McLean of the School of Architecture, the University of Westminster, outline their human-­oriented
approach to teaching architectural technology to architecture students. They emphasize the con-
nection between technology and human culture, thereby enabling students to develop strong intui-
tion on abstract technical details. They illustrate this approach in the chapter with examples from
student projects.

Art
In Chapter 3, ‘Virtual Technology, Online Resources, and Learning with/in Art Museums’,
Dr Tam Cheung On and Ms Claire Hui Ka Yan of the Education University of Hong Kong provide
a timely review of digital and virtual technologies in museum education. Their review covers the
impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the educational landscape and highlights the role of virtual
technology in the learning experience beyond physical museum spaces. This chapter ends with a
brief review of some relevant studies.

Communication
In Chapter 4, ‘Empathic Communication in Customer–Chatbot Service Encounters’, Dr Yeung
Wing-lok of Saint Francis University discusses some ethical issues on the use of AI technology
in human–computer communication. He focuses on the increasing use of AI chatbots in customer
service and argues that empathy is a necessary communication skill for chatbots from an ethi-
cal point of view. Furthermore, the chapter reviews some challenges to endowing chatbots with
empathy.

Culture
In Chapter 5, ‘DH-XR: Extended Reality’s Relevance to the Digital Humanities’, Professor Erik
Champion of the University of South Australia and Dr Hafizur Rahaman of Curtin University
explore the use of digital technology in the dissemination of cultural heritage. They cover 3D
models, virtual/extended reality, game design, etc. and discuss issues and challenges involved in
these technologies. They also introduce immersive (digital) literary as a relevant learning skill for
cultural heritage in this digital age.

Design
In Chapter 6, ‘Exploration of the Emotion-Adaptive Engine in the Computer-Aided Design Pro-
cess’, Dr Amic G. Ho of Hong Kong Metropolitan University discusses the role of human emotions

2
 Introduction

in experience-based design and how emotional factors can be incorporated into the design process.
The chapter reviews some technologies for recognizing and measuring users’ emotions and their
use in designing experiences that adapt to users’ emotions.

Fashion
Technology has been core to the development of the fashion and textiles industries. Professor
Natascha Radclyffe-Thomas of the British School of Fashion, Glasgow Caledonian University,
London in the United Kingdom, in Chapter 7, ‘Technology and Fashion: Fashioning Technology –
Science, Selfs, and Systems’, reviews the trends and technological innovations in the production
(smart textiles, 3D printing, etc.), promotion (social media, online communities, etc.) and con-
sumption (e-commerce, market analytics, etc.) of fashion. This chapter concludes with thoughts
on the role of technology in the future fashion industry.

Food
Food, as we all know, is a very important part of a culture and recipes are a major source of useful
information in our daily lives. From conventional cookbooks to YouTube cooking videos, one can
find numerous cooking ideas and practical instructions readily available through various channels.
Finding or recommending recipes that meet our needs is, however, not always an easy task. Re-
searchers have studied many intelligent ways of meeting such needs using computational methods.
Deep learning has recently opened up interesting and powerful ways to exploit the vast troves of
recipes and food images amassed in digital forms and support innovative use cases in food- and
health-related applications. In Chapter 8, ‘Deep Learning for Recipe Generation’, Professor Chan
Sin-wai of Saint Francis University provides an overview of these use cases, reviewing the use
of AI technology in the visualization of Chinese recipes with English translations through text
(recipe)-to-image and image-to-text (recipe) generators and make human and automatic evalua-
tions of their outputs and quality.

Heritage
To maintain cultural heritage is a daunting task to perform. In Chapter 9, ‘Convergence and Frag-
mentation: End-Users, Dialogic Interaction, and Digital Heritage’, Professor Hafizur Rahaman of
Curtin University in Australia consider a user-centric approach to design in digital heritage pro-
jects with an emphasis on end-users’ interpretation through dialogic interaction. He also report on
a user study in a project based on this approach and reflect on its findings.

Interpreting
In the field of interpreting, great efforts have been made to incorporate technology in the work
of consecutive and simultaneous interpreting, which is perceived as a “technological turn” in
­computer-aided interpreting. In Chapter 10, ‘Ready for the Future? Towards the “Tech” Revolu-
tion in Interpreting’, Professor Gloria Corpas Pastor of the University of Malaga in Spain provides
an overview of technologies that have been applied to interpreting and gives a roadmap for the
future development of interpreting technologies.

3
 Chan Sin-wai et al.

Language
Language technology has been around for many years. The use of technology in education is
educational technology. In Chapter 11, ‘Concept-Based Grammar Teaching in the Digital Era’,
Dr Ivy Wong Man Ho of the Department of English Language and Literature of Hong Kong Shue
Yan University and Mr Hung Tsun Sing of the same university discuss the challenges of using
computer-assisted language learning (CALL) technologies in Second Language (L2) Education
and highlight the importance of pedagogical groundedness in ensuring the effectiveness of these
technologies. They introduce a concept-based pedagogical approach in the form of a five-step
guide for designing CALL and report on a pilot study in the effectiveness of this approach in an
eCALL tutor for teaching L2 grammar.

Linguistics
The chapter on linguistics and technology is written by Professor Niladri Sekhar Dash of the
­Indian Statistical Institute in India. In Chapter 12, ‘Corpus Linguistics and Language Technology’,
he reviews the state-of-the-art in corpus linguistics and language technology. The review covers
some major domains of technology applications, including digital font generation and conversion,
language corpus building, corpus processing, corpus annotation, and corpus utilization.

Literary Criticism
The employ of technology to literary criticism is an under-explored area. In Chapter 13, Tech-
nology and Literary Criticism’, Professor Grant Hamilton of the Department of English of The
Chinese University of Hong Kong reviews the genealogy of computational literary studies and
highlights the role of technology in literary criticism. The review covers significant develop-
ments in the field from early speculations on stylometry to the recent advances in artificial
intelligence.

Literature
Digital humanities in the field of classical Chinese literature is far from adequate, hindering effec-
tive data retrieval. In Chapter 14, ‘Digital Humanities and Classical Chinese Literature’, Professor
Siu Chun Ho of the Department of Chinese Language and Literature of The Chinese University of
Hong Kong introduces text mining tools and visualization tools for classical Chinese literature, be-
sides pointing out the weaknesses of current electronic resources for Chinese versification studies.

Music
Digital music is currently in vogue. Studies on electronic classical music, however, is relatively
rare. In Chapter 15, ‘Re-scaling Beethoven: Very Long, Very Short’, Professor PerMagnus Lind-
borg of the City University of Hong Kong considers our perceptions of iconic musical works as
filtered through the technology of sound recording and reproduction. He discusses how musical
pieces of extreme (long or short) durations are perceived and characterized by listeners in terms
of continuity, slowness, and repetition for very long pieces; and recognizability and specificity for
very short pieces. With an experiment based on Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony and a couple of its

4
 Introduction

derivatives, the overarching concept of iconicity is brought out as a quality enabled by technolo-
gies of appropriation.

Philosophy
The relationship between technology and philosophy has not been deeply explored. In Chapter 16,
‘Philosophy and Technology’, Ms Danielle J. Williams of the University of California at Davis and
Professor Gualtiero Piccinini of the University of Missouri – St. Louis ask some core philosophi-
cal questions about technology. They consider ideas such as artifacts, functions, and goals, pertain-
ing to technology as well as its relationships with science and with humans and non-humans (such
as animals). They also discuss the ethical and policy implications of technology.

Religion
The subject of religion and technology is an interesting one. In Chapter 17, ‘Religion and Technol-
ogy’, Professor Erna Oliver, who is Professor of Church History in the Department of Christian
Spirituality, Church History, and Missiology at the University of South Africa, reviews the evolu-
tion of technology in the dissemination of religious ideas over many centuries. The chapter also
discusses how technology has brought about revolutions in human self-understanding with major
implications to religion.

Theatre
Technology is widely used in theatrical performances. Professor Thomas Luk Yun-tong, formerly
of Hong Kong Chu Hai College, in Chapter 18, ‘Integration of Technology and the Theatre: a
Hong Kong Case Study’, looks at the ways technology integrates into the theatres in Hong Kong
and the changes it has resulted. A major observation that the author makes is that the incorporation
of technology into the theatre is closely related to the political, cultural, and economic conditions
of Hong Kong, which helps the city to maintain its cultural identity.

Theology
In Chapter 19, ‘Being Human in a Technology-Driven World: Checkmate or Opportunity for So-
cial Responsibility?’, Professor Anita L. Cloete of Stellenbosch University in South Africa de-
scribes a vision of life that is increasingly altered by technology and compares it with the vision of
Christian theology. This chapter considers the complex relationship between technology and being
human from an especially Christian theological perspective. It concludes with some suggestions
on theological and spiritual practices in everyday living.

Translation
The final chapter of this encyclopedia is on translation technology, which has been around for
more than seven decades. In Chapter 20, ‘Translation and Technology’, Professor Zhang Xiaojun
of Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University in China first gives a review of computer-based translation
systems and tools since the mid-20th century and discusses their positive and negative impact on
the society. He then presents some future trends in translation technology in which AI-powered

5
 Chan Sin-wai et al.

machine translation would play a prominent role in a likely transition from computer-assisted hu-
man translation to human-assisted computer translation.

Concluding Remarks
A common thread of all the chapters in this volume has been the profound impact of technology
on various subjects in the humanities. We all know that the scope of humanities is immensely large
and it is impossible for an encyclopedia of the present size to embrace even its essential areas. It is
hoped that more topics could be included in an enlarged and updated edition in the future.

6
 1
ADVANCING ARCHAEOLOGICAL
RESEARCH
The Contribution of Spatial Technologies

Giacomo Landeschi

Spatial Technologies in Archaeology

There is a vast literature describing the application of digital technologies and quantitative meth-
ods to the study and the investigation of archaeological data, in a multiscalar and multitemporal
perspective (Daly and Evans 2004; Wheatley and Gillings 2002; Forte and Campana 2016). In this
context, the past 20 years have marked an important turning point due to the dramatic advances
that have been occurring in the field of computer graphics, where very sophisticated tools have
enabled archaeologists to deal with spatial information in an innovative way.
Spatial data is a crucial component of archaeological investigations as the discipline typically
deals with the study of the human past and the context in which such past human activity has
taken place. It is therefore crucial for archaeologists to rely on analytical methods that consider the
spatial dimension of the context under investigation. Back in the 1960s, statistical and inferential
methods were introduced and adopted in connection with the development of the first computers
and applied to the study of past human phenomena (settlement patterns, artifact distribution, etc.)
and this has led to the introduction of the first database management systems that soon became a
standard toolkit for handling archaeological field documentation. In this context, Geographical In-
formation Systems (GISs) represented an important tool that was developed to locate and analyze
archaeological data in a spatial perspective. Among the non-destructive prospecting techniques,
several methods were introduced as early as the 1940s (Wynn 1986), and these included geophysi-
cal techniques, aerial photography, and satellite remote sensing, just to name some of the most
widespread ones. It comes not as a surprise that an increasing interest has been devoted to a vast
array of techniques that could have helped archaeologists detect new archaeological material, col-
lect and store data in a more rigorous way, and made them available to an increasing number of
stakeholders, including professional archaeologists, heritage management boards, museum cura-
tors, and of course, the general public. The purpose of this chapter is thus to provide an overview
of the most widespread techniques and the more remarkable advances that have occurred in the
field of archaeology. For the sake of brevity and clarity, this contribution will mainly focus on the
practices of field documentation and landscape analysis, where multiple methods and techniques
have been introduced and integrated during the past 40 years.

7 DOI: 10.4324/9781003195269-2
 Giacomo Landeschi

In the first part, field documentation methods will introduce the reader to a set of tools, devices,
and software packages that have now become a common standard in archaeological practice, help-
ing archaeologists keep track of all the stratigraphic unit information along with related artifacts/
ecofacts. These instruments include measurement/positioning tools, such as total stations, Global
Positioning Systems (GPSs), drawing tools for the documentation of the spatial entities recorded
in the field, database management systems, archiving platforms, and Cloud-based devices for the
dissemination and sharing of the collected data. On the other hand, the second part will be focused
more on the application of tools in the analysis and interpretation of archaeological landscapes,
with an introduction to the most advanced methods for non-destructing prospection of vast areas
considered of archaeological interest. These instruments include geophysical prospection, satellite
remote sensing, aerial photography, LiDAR sensors, and all those methods for acquiring data as
three-dimensional objects, defined by independent x, y, z coordinates.

Field Archaeology
An interesting area of applications for digital methods is field archaeology, where an increasing
number of techniques are being applied to generate a deeper insight into the stratigraphic sequence
under scrutiny. When it comes to the documentation process, it is crucial for archaeologists to rely
on a robust workflow for the collection and visualization of information that can eventually lead
to a better interpretation of the material evidence. In terms of documentation strategies, stratig-
raphy poses significant challenges because of its very nature of being a four-dimensional entity,
where layers correspond to chronological phases superimposed as a result of anthropic and natural
events. Traditional drawing techniques often fail in their attempt to represent the verticality of the
stratigraphic layers as well as the temporal dimension of the actions recorded in the sequence.
This is why advanced methods of 3D data representations recently had an astonishing boost in the
discipline, becoming in many countries a de facto standard for archaeological field documenta-
tion. Yet, the process of 3D data collection is far from being straightforward and requires a lot of
training as the techniques in use must be handled by specialists who are aware of the settings and
parameters to be employed during the different phases of data collection and post-processing. In
general, it is pretty common nowadays to manage archaeological field data in a georeferenced
space, and for this purpose, GISs have long been a standard for data documentation (whereas a sig-
nificant community of practitioners still prefer using Computer Aided Drawing [CAD] programs)
(Lieberwirth et al. 2015; Buna et al. 2014). It is clear then that geolocation is an essential attribute
of any digital object/model made for representing archaeological information and the techniques
in use for georeferencing are a primary component of an ideal workflow of field archaeology data
documentation. In this context, two main categories of devices are in use among field archaeolo-
gists and these are respectively total stations and GPSs. Both of the techniques provide users with
the possibility of defining the spatial location of an object according to a triplet of coordinates
defined by a geographic coordinate system. Nevertheless, there are still substantial differences
that characterize the use of these two categories of instruments, making it necessary for archae-
ologists to know the advantages and limitations of both. As will be described more thoroughly
in the next paragraph, the total station typically reaches a high spatial accuracy, quantifiable in a
few millimeters, which makes this instrument particularly suited for measuring object position on
a large-scale map (i.e. when very small details on the ground must be represented). On the other
hand, GPS is typically used for smaller-scale surveys and data collection, due to a coarser spatial
accuracy, ranging from 1 to 3 cm. There is no unique solution when it comes to field surveying,

8
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Robespierre, 178
Rochambeau, 164, 166, 170
Rochefort, 174, 192
Rodney, Admiral, in battle with De Guichen, 155, 159–164
Roman Empire, 301
Rooke, British Admiral, 156, 157
Rosily, French Admiral, 199, 208, 221
Rotterdam, 336
Royal Sovereign, British ship, 123–217
Rozhestvensky, Russian Admiral, 66, 70, 82–84, 257, 265, 270, 274,
276–282
Russia, trade of, 25;
alliance of, 53;
in Asia, 76–78, 153, 300;
in Seven Years’ War, 147;
in Napoleonic Wars, 184–190, 192, 224–226;
a member of the Entente, 305, 317–318;
decreased strength of, 322;
her need of a navy, 327, 355–356.
See Russo-Japanese War
Russo-Japanese War, 56–57, 64, 66, 82–84, 88, 256–282, 355

Sackett’s Harbor, 232, 239

St. George’s Channel, 37
St. Helena, 20, 152
St. Lawrence, Gulf of, 20;
river, true frontier in 1812, 230 ff.
St. Thomas, 103
St. Vincent, Lord, policy of, 5, 193
Saint-André, French Commissioner, 173, 179
Saints’ Passage, battle of, 160, 169
Samana Bay, 103
Sampson, Admiral, #$1#, 241, 249, 250–255
Santa Lucia, 74, 103, 105, 108
Santiago de Cuba, 71, 103, 104, 107, 241, 243, 246, 247;
blockade and battle of, 250–255
Santisima Trinidad, Spanish ship, 214, 215, 217, 218, 220
Sardinia, 37
Scheldt River, 30, 248
Schleswig Holstein, 349
Schley, Admiral, 241, 246
Sea Power, dependence on, a British policy, #$1#;
scope of history of, 3;
elements of, 16–47;
conditions affecting, 21;
growth of British, 141–146, 151–152;
controls communications, 77–78;
decisive in warfare, 98, 99;
an important element in national growth, 154, 286–287;
in Napoleonic Wars, 191–197, 221–224;
a protection against aggressions by land powers, 306–308;
interest in, 326–327
Secession, War of. See Civil War
Semenoff, Russian Captain, quoted, 280
Seven Years’ War, 85–86, 142–144, 147–154, 307
Shafter, General, 269
Sherman, General, quoted, 335
Ship design, unity of purpose in, 61–62
Sicily, 37, 38, 39, 42
Situation, determines strategic value of a point, 69–70, 110
Smith, Sir Sidney, 126
Socotra, 152
Sound, between North and Baltic Seas, 51, 185, 186, 190
South Africa, 290;
war in, 293–295, 347
South America, unstable political conditions in, 148–149;
application of Monroe Doctrine to, 290
Spain, position of, 26;
dependence on sea power, 38, 39;
colonial policy of, 45;
in 18th century, 141–142, 143–144, 151–152;
in Napoleonic Wars, 81, 221, 226;
colonial empire of, lost, 291, 342.
See Spanish-American War
Spanish-American War, strategy of, #$1#, 59–60, 88–90;
Cervera’s fleet in, 241–249;
Santiago blockade, 250–255;
strengthened Anglo-American unity, 291–295;
could not have been avoided by arbitration, 342, 348–349
Speed, of battleships, 61, 246–248
Strasburg, 71, 137
Strategic Lines and Positions, in the Caribbean, 65–78, 100–112;
in the War of 1812, 238–240
Strategy, defined, 4, 12, 49;
value of study of, 5;
in War of 1812, 229–240;
must take into account political conditions, 250–253, 320–327;
illustrated by mistakes, 257;
must be exercised in time of peace, 274;
chief aim of, 311
Submarines, 70, 99
Suez Canal, 26, 28, 51, 70, 77, 152, 252, 261, 289, 290
Suffren, French Admiral, 86, 153
Sully, French Minister, 38
Suvarof, General, 262
Sweden, trade of, 25;
in Thirty Years’ War, 53;
in 1800, 184–190

Tactics, defined, 4, 49;

illustrated in history, 5–7;
in naval combats, 62–64;
formalism in, 155–158;
changes in, at close of 18th century, 159 ff., 168;
chief aim of, 311
Territory, extent of, affecting sea power, 39–42
Texel, 193
Tobago, 160
Togo, Japanese Admiral, 60, 66, 82–84, 90, 270, 276–280
Torbay, 24
Toronto, 231, 236
Torpedo craft, 130–134
Torrington, British Admiral, 242, 248
Toulon, 57, 58, 154, 174, 192, 193, 196, 248
Tourville, French Admiral, 80, 81, 155, 159, 207
Trade. See Commerce
Trafalgar, battle of, 5, 62, 192, 194, 196–223, 248
Trieste, 306
Trincomalee, 86
Triple Alliance, 53, 304–306, 317–318
Triple Entente. See Entente
Tsushima, battle of, 64, 70, 82–84, 88, 265, 276–282
Turkey, 33, 148, 150

Ulm, 50, 71, 76, 191

United States, merchant marine of, 18, 35;
geographical position of, 22;
and Panama Canal, 27–29;
seacoasts of, inadequately protected, 34–36;
exposed only by sea, 39;
deficient in seafaring population, 44;
colonial policy of, 46;
seacoasts of, regarded as a line, 65–67;
naval requirements of, 133–134;
community of interests with Great Britain, 291–295, 306–308,
318–327;
expansion of, 297–298;
and the Open Door Policy, 299;
political ideals of, 302;
policy of, regarding commerce warfare, 331–333.
See Navy, United States
Utrecht, peace of, 141–142

Vengeur, French ship, 180–182

Venice, 306
Victory, Nelson’s flagship, 213–214
Vigo Bay, 157
Villaret-Joyeuse, French Admiral, 178
Villeneuve, French Admiral, quoted, 173;
in Trafalgar campaign, 196, 199, 202, 210–223
Vistula River, 12, 78
Vladivostok, 66, 73, 82, 83, 88;
squadron based on, 256–261, 265, 266, 270, 274;
objective of Rozhestvensky, 276–282
Von der Goltz, General, quoted, 321
War, principles of, 6;
causes of, 148;
preparedness for, 128–134;
beneficial results of, 292–295, 342–354
War of 1812, commerce warfare in, 91–99, 226–228;
strategy of, 229–240
Washington, General, 164;
quoted, 169, 170
Washington, city of, 31
Waterloo, battle of, 82, 239
Weapons, changes in, 6
Wellington, Duke of, 82, 234, 239
West Indies, a source of wealth for Spain, 37;
Nelson in, 196–197, 202.
See Caribbean Sea
William II, of England, 81, 277, 281
Wilkinson, General, 238
Windward Passage, 102
Wireless, in war, 84, 85

Yalu River, 268

Yang-tse River, 276
Yeo, British Commodore, 235
Yucatan Passage, 102, 104

Zuyder Zee, 34
 1. “From Sail to Steam,” p. xiv.
2. “From Sail to Steam,” p. 55.
3. See pp. 328–341.
4. Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske, U. S. Naval Institute, January–February,
1915, p. 2.
5. “La Maîtrise de la Mer,” Auguste Moireau, Revue des Deux Mondes,
October, 1902.
6. “Of Kingdoms and Estates.”
7. “The Revival of Naval History,” Contemporary Review. November, 1917.
While the term “political pamphlet” suggests the influence of the book abroad, it is
obviously inappropriate in describing its purpose and method of treatment.
8. “The Kaiser’s Dreams of Sea Power,” Archibald Hurd, Fortnightly Review,
August, 1906.
9. “From Sail to Steam,” p. 303.
10. “Captain Romeo Bernotti,” letter to the editor, April 25, 1918.
11. “A Great Public Servant,” The Outlook, January 13, 1915.
12. “From Sail to Steam,” p. 288.
13. “The Influence of Sea Power upon History,” pp. 1–2, 8–10.
14. “Naval Administration and Warfare,” Objects of the Naval War College
(1888), pp. 193–194, 233–240.
15. In a preceding passage the author shows that American naval thought has
been preoccupied with problems of material.—Editor.
16. “The Influence of Sea Power upon History,” pp. 25–59. Mr. S. G. W.
Benjamin has pointed out (N. Y. Times Book Review, Feb. 2, 1902) that it was in
the preface and opening chapter of this book, “comprising only eighty-nine pages,
that Captain Mahan brought forward his famous presentation of the theory about
the influence of sea power on empire.” The present selection includes the major
part of the first chapter.—Editor.
17. For the author’s later opinion on the need of a navy, see pp. 355–357.—
Editor.
18. Written before 1890.—Editor.
19. By a base of permanent operations “is understood a country whence come
all the resources, where are united the great lines of communication by land and
water, where are the arsenals and armed posts.”
20. “Naval Administration and Warfare,” pp. 199, 206. For the distinction
drawn, see also pp. 4, 12.—Editor.
 21. “Naval Strategy,” pp. 31–53.
22. An interesting instance of the method and forethought which cause
German naval development of all kinds to progress abreast, on parallel lines, is
found in the fact that by the time the three Dreadnoughts laid down in 1911 are
completed, and with them two complete Dreadnought squadrons of eight each,
which probably will be in 1914, the Kiel Canal will have been enlarged to permit
their passage. There will then be a fleet of thirty-eight battleships; including these
sixteen, which will be stationed, eight in the North Sea, eight in the Baltic, linked
for mutual support by the central canal. The programme contemplates a
continuous prearranged replacing of the present pre-Dreadnoughts by
Dreadnoughts.
23. See map on page 278.
24. “Naval Strategy,” pp. 130–163.
25. “Naval Strategy,” pp. 166–167. For illustration and further discussion of
strategic lines, see “General Strategy of the War of 1812,” in this volume, pp. 229–
240.—Editor.
26. “The Problem of Asia” (1900), pp. 124–127.
27. “Naval Strategy,” pp. 266–272.
28. “Naval Strategy,” pp. 277–280.
29. “Sea Power in its Relations to the War of 1812,” Vol. I, pp. 284–290.
30. “History of the United States,” Vol. VIII, chap. VIII.
31. “The Influence of Sea Power upon History,” p. 138.
32. This immunity of enemy property in neutral ships, guaranteed by the
Declaration of Paris in 1856, has been to a large extent nullified in recent practice
by extension of the lists of contraband, to say nothing of the violations of all law in
submarine warfare.—Editor.
33. “Naval Strategy,” pp. 303–304, 356–367, 381–382.
34. “Naval Administration and Warfare” (1903), pp. 5–11.
35. “Naval Administration and Warfare” (1903). pp. 26–31.
36. “Naval Administration and Warfare” (1903), pp. 46–48.
37. These bureaus are seven in number: Yards and Docks, Navigation,
Ordnance, Construction and Repairs, Steam Engineering, Supplies and Accounts,
and Medicine and Surgery. The Chief of Naval Operations, whose office was
created in 1915, stands second to the Secretary and acts as his expert professional
adviser, with the specific task of co-ordinating the work of the navy, preparing
plans, and directing operations in war. He is, ex officio, a member of the General
Board of the Navy, created in 1900, which serves as an expert advisory body.—
Editor.
 38. “Retrospect and Prospect,” pp. 258–259, 270–272.
39. “The Interest of America in Sea Power” (1896), pp. 192–200.
40. Bombardment of undefended ports, towns, etc., is forbidden by
Convention IX of the Hague conference of 1907, with the broad concession,
however, that depots, store houses, and all constructions that serve military
purposes may be destroyed.—Editor.
41. “The Influence of Sea Power upon History” (1660–1783), pp. 197–200.
Admiral Mahan’s major historical works treat consecutively the history of naval
warfare from 1660 to 1815; and his essays and shorter studies cover subsequent
wars. The selections in Part II are arranged in chronological order.—Editor.
42. “The Influence of Sea Power upon History,” pp. 63–67.
43. An interesting proof of the weight attributed to the naval power of Great
Britain by a great military authority will be found in the opening chapter of
Jomini’s “History of the Wars of the French Revolution.” He lays down, as a
fundamental principle of European policy, that an unlimited expansion of naval
force should not be permitted to any nation which cannot be approached by land,—
a description which can apply only to Great Britain.
44. “The Influence of Sea Power upon History,” pp. 323–329. By the Treaty of
Paris, 1763, England secured Canada, all French possessions east of the
Mississippi, and Florida; she also retained Gibraltar and Minorca, and gained
ascendancy in India.—Editor.
45. See Annual Register, 1762, p. 63.
46. Campbell, “Lives of the Admirals.”
47. These remarks, always true, are doubly so now since the introduction of
steam. The renewal of coal is a want more frequent, more urgent, more
peremptory, than any known to the sailing-ship. It is vain to look for energetic
naval operations distant from coal stations. It is equally vain to acquire distant
coaling stations without maintaining a powerful navy; they will but fall into the
hands of the enemy. But the vainest of all delusions is the expectation of bringing
down an enemy by commerce-destroying alone, with no coaling stations outside
the national boundaries.
48. “Types of Naval Officers,” pp. 14–17.
49. A celebrated French admiral, in command at the battles of Beachy Head
(1690) and La Hogue (1692).—Editor.
50. The most famous of these were issued in 1665 by the Duke of York,
afterward James II, who was then Lord High Admiral. They were revised but not
greatly altered in 1740 and again in 1756.—Editor.
51. Byng’s offense, for which he was sentenced to be shot, occurred in an
action with a French squadron off Minorca in 1756.—Editor.
 52. “The Influence of Sea Power upon History,” pp. 377–380.
53. De Grasse, whose victory over Graves off the Chesapeake forced the
surrender of Cornwallis, was afterward defeated by Rodney in the famous battle of
the Saints’ Passage, April 12, 1782. Three days earlier, De Grasse had neglected an
opportunity to attack in superior force.
While the battle of the Saints’ Passage is more celebrated, the action here
described better illustrates Rodney’s merits as a tactician. In his later years Rodney
wrote that he “thought little of his victory of the 12th of April,” and looked upon
this earlier action as “one by which, but for the disobedience of his captains, he
might have gained immortal renown.”—Mahan, “Types of Naval Officers,” p. 203.
—Editor.
54. The black ships, in position A, represent the English ships bearing down
upon the French center and rear. The line v r is the line of battle from van to rear
before bearing down. The positions v´, r´ are those of the van and rear ships after
hauling up on the port tack, when the French wore.—Editor.
55. In a severe reprimand addressed to Captain Carkett, commanding the
leading ship of the English line, by Rodney, he says: “Your leading in the manner
you did, induced others to follow so bad an example; and thereby, forgetting that
the signal for the line was at only two cables’ length distance from each other, the
van division was led by you to more than two leagues distance from the center
division, which was thereby exposed to the greatest strength of the enemy, and not
properly supported” (Life, Vol. I, p. 351). By all rules of tactical common-sense it
would seem that the other ships should have taken their distance from their next
astern, that is, should have closed toward the center. In conversation with Sir
Gilbert Blane, who was not in this action, Rodney stated that the French line
extended Your leagues in length, “as if De Guichen thought we meant to run away
from him” (Naval Chronicle, Vol. XXV, p. 402).
56. “The Influence of Sea Power upon History,” pp. 387–391, 397.
57. Now Cape Haitien, Haiti.—Editor.
58. Bancroft, “History of the United States.”
59. With the reinforcement brought by De Grasse, Lafayette’s army numbered
about 8,000; the troops brought by Washington and Rochambeau consisted of
2,000 Americans and 4,000 French.—Editor.
60. The action itself is more fully described in Mahan’s “Major Operations of
the Navies in the War of American Independence,” from which the diagram on
page 167 is taken. In the diagram, a a indicates the positions of the two fleets when
De Grasse came out of the bay; b b, the positions when the order to engage was
given; f, Graves’s flagship, and h, Hood. Having approached the enemy with his
twelve leading ships, Graves gave the order to bear down and engage, though he
still kept the signal for “line ahead” flying. Whether through inability or
misinterpretation of orders, the rear under Hood failed to get in range.
 Hood afterward criticised his superior severely on the grounds, (1) that the
fleet was not brought into proper position to engage, and (2) that, upon engaging,
the “line ahead” signal should have been hauled down. He interpreted this signal
as meaning that no ship could close beyond a line through the flagship and parallel
to the enemy line.
Graves next day issued a memorandum to the effect that the line ahead was a
means to an end, not an end in itself, and “that the signal for battle should not be
rendered ineffective by strict adherence to the former.” The confusion was such as
frequently arose in this period of transition from one system of tactics to another.
—Editor.
61. “Types of Naval Officers,” pp. 35–37, 41.
62. Chevalier, “Mar. Fran, sous la République,” p. 49.
63. Nap. to Decrès, Aug. 29, 1805.
64. Troude, “Batailles Nav.,” Vol. III, p. 370.
65. Commodore de Rions, a member of the nobility, who was imprisoned at
Toulon and afterward fled from the country.—Editor.
66. “Types of Naval Officers,” pp. 308–317. The “Glorious First of June” is one
of the most important naval actions in the wars of the French Revolution, and
illustrates the work of an officer who stood in his own day conspicuously at the
head of his profession. The selection is interesting also as showing that, when it
suited his purpose, Admiral Mahan could write with notable ease and pictorial
vigor.—Editor.
67. “The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire,”
Vol. II, pp. 42–47. The campaign is treated more fully in “The Life of Nelson,” Vol.
II, p. 70 ff.—Editor.
68. Nelson’s Letters and Dispatches, Vol. IV, p. 295.
69. Nelson’s Dispatches, Vol. IV., p. 355.
70. Nelson’s Dispatches, April 9, 1801, Vol. IV, pp. 339, 341.
71. “The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire,” Vol.
II, pp. 117–120.
72. Ibid., p. 106.
73. See “Naval Chronicle,” Vol. X, pp. 508, 510; Vol. XI, p. 81; Nelson’s
Dispatches, Vol. V, p. 438.
74. Pellew’s “Life of Lord Sidmouth,” Vol. II, p. 237.
75. Nelson’s Dispatches, Vol. IV, p. 452.
76. “The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire,”
Vol. II, pp. 184–197, 199–202, 356–357.
 77. “The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire”,
Vol. II, p. 181.
78. Napoleon to St. Cyr, Sept. 2, 1805.
79. Napoleon to Decrès, Sept. 15.
80. Ibid., Sept. 4.
81. Nelson’s Dispatches, Vol. VII, p. 80.
82. The following account of Nelson’s arrival and his plan of battle is taken
from the fuller narrative in “The Life of Nelson,” Vol. II, pp. 339–351.—Editor.
83. Inserted by author.
84. Here the narrative is resumed from “The Influence of Sea Power upon the
French Revolution and Empire.”—Editor.
85. Fyffe’s “History of Modern Europe,” Vol. I, p. 281.
86. To the King of Wurtemburg, April 2, 1811; “Corr.,” Vol. XXII, p. 19.
87. “Sea Power in its Relations with the War of 1812,” Vol. I, pp. 295–308; Vol.
II, pp. 121–125.
88. Kingsford’s “History of Canada,” Vol. VIII, p. 111.
89. Drummond to Prevost, Oct. 20, 1814. Report on Canadian Archives, 1896,
Upper Canada, p. 9.
90. Ibid., Oct. 15.
91. Prevost to Bathurst, Aug. 14, 1814. Report on Canadian Archives, 1896,
Lower Canada, p. 36.
92. “Travels,” J. M. Duncan, Vol. II, p. 27.
93. “Life of Brock,” p. 193.
94. Smyth, “Précis of the Wars in Canada,” p. 167.
95. The United States Secretary of War.—Editor.
96. December 17, 1813. Captain’s Letters, Navy Department.
97. “Lessons of the War with Spain” (1899), pp. 75–85.
98. Ibid., p. 157.
99. In this number is included the Emperador Carlos V, which, however, did
not accompany the other four under Cervera.
100. “Lessons of the War with Spain” (1899), pp. 184–191.
101. “Naval Strategy,” pp. 383–401.
102. The Kobe Chronicle, February 25, 1904; an English newspaper published
in Japan.
 103. “Naval Administration and Warfare,” Retrospect upon the War between
Russia and Japan (March, 1906) pp. 167–173.
104. “Naval Strategy,” pp. 416–420.
105. “The rise or fall of the Empire depends upon to-day’s battle. Let every
man do his utmost.”—Editor.
106. “The Interest of America in Sea Power,” Hawaii and Our Future Sea
Power (1893), pp. 51–54.
107. “The Problem of Asia” (1900), pp. 133–144.
108. “The writer has been assured, by an authority in which he entirely trusts,
that to a proposition made to Great Britain (at the time of the Spanish-American
War) to enter into a combination to constrain the Use of our power,—as Japan was
five years ago constrained by the joint action of Russia, France, and Germany,—the
reply was not only a passive refusal to enter into such combination, but an
assurance of active resistance to it, if attempted.”—Mahan, “The Problem of Asia”
(1900), p. 187.—Editor.
109. “Retrospect and Prospect” (1902), pp. 15–17.
110. “The Interest of America in International Conditions,” The Open Door
(1910), pp. 198–202.
111. “The Interest of America in International Conditions” (1910), pp. 38–46.
112. The Mail, April 20, 1910.
113. “The Interest of America in International Conditions” (1910), pp. 161–164.
114. “Retrospect and Prospect,” Considerations Governing the Disposition of
Navies (1902), pp. 151–170.
115. “Naval Strategy” (1911), pp. 104–112.
116. Since this was written, a new Treaty of Alliance between Great Britain and
Japan, operative for ten years, has been signed—July 13, 1911. By its terms either
Power will be released from its military obligation to the other, as against a third
with which it may have a treaty of general arbitration, such as that framed between
Great Britain and the United States.
117. Since these words were written such formal announcement has been
made by a member of the British Cabinet, Sir Edward Grey, the Secretary for
Foreign Affairs, on May 23, 1911. The Mail, May 24, 1911.
118. “Some Neglected Aspects of War” (1907), pp. 171–191.
119. The Napoleonic Wars, the War of 1812, and the American Civil War. For
the effect of commerce warfare in these struggles, see pp. 91–99.—Editor.
120. Vol. I, pp. 146–148.
121. The “Times” of October 14, 1905.
 122. Indirect, I presume.
123. “Some Neglected Aspects of War,” The Peace Conference and the Moral
Aspect of War (1899), pp. 45–52.
124. Lest this be misunderstood to be an allusion to the recent measures of
Japan in Korea, I renew here the caution that in this article all references to the
Peace Conference are to that of 1899.
125. “Some Neglected Aspects of War,” The Hague Conference and the
Practical Aspect of War (1907), pp. 75–80, 90–93.
126. “Naval Strategy,” pp. 445–447.
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
1. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and
variations in spelling.
2. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings
as printed.
3. Re-indexed footnotes using numbers and collected
together at the end of the last chapter.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAHAN ON
NAVAL WARFARE ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions

will be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright
in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and
distribute it in the United States without permission and without
paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General
Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and
distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the
PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if
you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the
trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the
Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such
as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and
printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in
the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright
law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially
commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the

free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this
work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase
“Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of
the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or
online at www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand,
agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual
property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to
abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using
and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for
obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™
electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms
of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only

be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by
people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.
There are a few things that you can do with most Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the
full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There
are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™
electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and
help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright
law in the United States and you are located in the United
States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying,
distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works
based on the work as long as all references to Project
Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will
support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free
access to electronic works by freely sharing Project
Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this
agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name
associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms
of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with
its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it
without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside
the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to
the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying,
displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works
based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The
Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright
status of any work in any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project

Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project
Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed,
viewed, copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United

States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it
away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg
License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United
States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is

derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to
anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges.
If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of
paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use
of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth
in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is

posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and
distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder.
Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™
License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright
holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files
containing a part of this work or any other work associated with
Project Gutenberg™.