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Simultaneous Differential
Equations and
Multi-Dimensional Vibrations
Mathematics and Physics for Science and Technology
Series Editor: L.M.B.C. Campos
Director of the Center for Aeronautical
and Space Science and Technology
Lisbon University

Volumes in the series:


Topic A – Theory of Functions and Potential Problems
Volume I (Book 1) – Complex Analysis with Applications to Flows
and Fields
L.M.B.C. Campos
Volume II (Book 2) – Elementary Transcendentals with Applications
to Solids and Fluids
L.M.B.C. Campos
Volume III (Book 3) – Generalized Calculus with Applications to Matter
and Forces
L.M.B.C. Campos
Topic B – Boundary and Initial-Value Problems
Volume IV – Ordinary Differential Equations with Applications
to Trajectories and Oscillations
L.M.B.C. Campos
Book 4 – Linear Differential Equations and Oscillators
L.M.B.C. Campos
Book 5 – Non-Linear Differential Equations and Dynamical Systems
L.M.B.C. Campos
Book 6 – Higher-Order Differential Equations and Elasticity
L.M.B.C. Campos
Book 7 – Simultaneous Differential Equations and Multi-Dimensional
Vibrations
L.M.B.C. Campos
Book 8 – Singular Differential Equations and Special Functions
L.M.B.C. Campos
Book 9 – Classification and Examples of Differential Equations and
their Applications
L.M.B.C. Campos

For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.crcpress.


com/Mathematics-and-Physics-for-Science-and-Technology/book-series/
CRCMATPHYSCI
Mathematics and Physics for Science and Technology

Volume IV

Ordinary Differential
Equations with Applications
to Trajectories and Oscillations

Book 7

Simultaneous Differential
Equations and Multi-
Dimensional Vibrations

By
L.M.B.C. Campos
Director of the Center for Aeronautical
and Space Science and Technology
Lisbon University
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 334 87-2742
© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed on acid-free paper
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-367-13721-2 (Hardback)
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Campos, Luis Manuel Braga da Costa, author.


Title: Simultaneous differential equations and multi-dimensional vibrations/
Luis Manuel Braga da Campos.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis
Group, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018049440| ISBN 9780367137212 (hardback : acid-free paper)
| ISBN 9780429030253 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Vibration--Mathematical models. | Oscillations–Mathematical
models. | Differential equations. | Equations, Simultaneous. | Engineering
mathematics.
Classification: LCC TA355 .C28 2018 | DDC 531/.320151535–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018049440

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at


http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
to Leonor Campos
Contents

Contents����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� vii
Diagrams, Notes, and Tables����������������������������������������������������������������������������� xiii
Preface������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ xvii
Acknowledgments���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xix
About the Author������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ xxi
Physical Quantities������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xxiii

7. Simultaneous Differential Equations�������������������������������������������������������� 1


7.1 Reduction of General to Autonomous Systems��������������������������������2
7.1.1 Autonomous System of Differential Equations�������������������2
7.1.2 General System of Simultaneous Differential Equations���3
7.2 Tangents, Trajectories, and Paths in N-Dimensions�������������������������4
7.2.1 N-Dimensional Hypercurve Specified by Tangent
Vectors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 5
7.2.2 Families of Curves in the Plane or in Space�������������������������6
7.2.3 N-Dimensional Curve Lying on the Intersection of
M Hypersurfaces����������������������������������������������������������������������7
7.2.4 Space Curves as the Intersection of Two Surfaces��������������8
7.2.5 Hypersurfaces Orthogonal to a Vector Field��������������������� 10
7.3 Order of a Simultaneous System of Differential Equations���������� 12
7.3.1 Definition of Order for Simultaneous Differential
Equations��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12
7.3.2 Transformation from a Simultaneous to a Decoupled
System�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 14
7.3.3 Constants of Integration and Depression of the
Order���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15
7.4 Linear Simultaneous System with Constant Coefficients������������� 16
7.4.1 Linear Simultaneous System with Variable
Coefficients����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 17
7.4.2 Linear Forced System with Constant Coefficients������������ 18
7.4.3 Characteristic Polynomial of a Simultaneous System������ 19
7.4.4 Non-Degenerate and Degenerate Differential
Systems������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 21
7.4.5 Distinct Roots of the Characteristic Polynomial��������������� 21
7.4.6 Multiple Roots of the Characteristic Polynomial��������������22
7.4.7 General Integral and Linearly Independent
Particular Integrals���������������������������������������������������������������� 23
7.4.8 General Integral for Distinct Roots������������������������������������� 25
7.4.9 Arbitrary Constants and Boundary Conditions��������������� 25

vii
viii Contents

7.4.10 General Integral with Multiple Roots��������������������������������� 27


7.4.11 Natural Integrals and Diagonal or Banded System���������� 28
7.4.12 Block-Banded Diagonal System������������������������������������������� 29
7.4.13 Diagonalization of a Square System�����������������������������������30
7.4.14 Transformation from a Non-Diagonal to a Banded
System�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
7.5 Integrals of Forced and Unforced Systems������������������������������������� 33
7.5.1 Forcing of a Simultaneous System by an Exponential����� 33
7.5.2 Single and Multiple Resonant Forcing�������������������������������34
7.5.3 Non-Resonant and Resonant Forcing by an
Exponential����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35
7.5.4 Forcing by the Product of an Exponential by a Sine
or Cosine��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37
7.5.5 Forcing by Hyperbolic or Circular Cosines or Sines�������� 38
7.5.6 Inverse Matrix of Polynomials of Derivatives������������������� 39
7.5.7 Power Series Expansion of Inverse Polynomial
Operator���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 39
7.5.8 Principle of Superposition and Addition of
Particular Integrals���������������������������������������������������������������� 41
7.6 Natural Integrals for Simultaneous Homogeneous Systems��������42
7.6.1 Linear System of Homogeneous Derivatives���������������������42
7.6.2 Matrix of Polynomials of Homogeneous
Derivatives������������������������������������������������������������������������������44
7.6.3 Unforced System and Characteristic Polynomial������������� 45
7.6.4 Distinct and Multiple Roots of the Characteristic
Polynomial������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 46
7.6.5 Natural Integrals and the General Integral����������������������� 47
7.6.6 Compatibility Conditions for the Dependent
Variables����������������������������������������������������������������������������������48
7.6.7 Arbitrary Constants and Boundary Conditions��������������� 48
7.6.8 Decoupled or Minimally-Coupled Natural
Differential System���������������������������������������������������������������� 49
7.6.9 Block Diagonal-Banded System������������������������������������������� 50
7.7 Forced and Unforced Homogeneous Systems�������������������������������� 51
7.7.1 Analogy of Constant and Homogeneous
Coefficients����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 52
7.7.2 Forcing of a Homogeneous System by a Power����������������� 53
7.7.3 Non-Resonant and Multiply Resonant Particular
Integrals����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 55
7.7.4 Power Forcing and Single Resonance��������������������������������� 55
7.7.5 Double Root and Double Resonance����������������������������������� 56
7.7.6 Cosine and Sine of Multiples of Logarithms��������������������� 57
7.7.7 Forcing by a Power Multiplied by a Double Product������� 59
7.7.8 Inverse Matrix of Polynomials of Homogeneous
Derivatives������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 60
Contents ix

7.7.9
Homogeneous Forcing by a Polynomial of
Logarithms������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 61
7.7.10 Complete Integral of the Forced Homogeneous
Derivatives������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 62
7.8 Simultaneous Finite Difference Equations��������������������������������������64
7.8.1 Non-Linear and Linear Finite Difference
Equations���������������������������������������������������������������������������������64
7.8.2 Operator Forward Finite Difference�����������������������������������65
7.8.3 Matrix of Polynomials of Finite Differences���������������������� 66
7.8.4 Simple and Multiple Roots of the Characteristic
Polynomial������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 68
7.8.5 General Solution of an Unforced System��������������������������� 68
7.8.6 Compatibility Conditions for the Dependent
Variables���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 69
7.8.7 Arbitrary Constants and Starting Conditions������������������� 70
7.8.8 Diagonal or Lower Triangular System������������������������������� 70
7.8.9 Block-Diagonal Lower Triangular System������������������������� 71
7.8.10 Diagonalization of a Finite Difference System������������������ 72
7.9 Unforced and Forced Finite Difference������������������������������������������� 73
7.9.1 Forward, Backward, and Central Differences������������������� 74
7.9.2 Forcing by a Power with Integer Exponent������������������������ 75
7.9.3 Non-Resonant Forcing by Integral Powers������������������������77
7.9.4 Three Cases of Simple Resonance��������������������������������������� 78
7.9.5 Product of Power by Circular and Hyperbolic
Functions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������80
7.9.6 Products of Powers by Cosines of Multiple Angles���������� 82
7.9.7 Complete Integral of Forced Finite Differences���������������� 82
7.9.8 Comparison of Three Matrix Polynomial Systems�����������83
Conclusion 7�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������156

8. Oscillations with Several Degrees-of-Freedom�����������������������������������159


8.1 Balance of Forces, Energy, and Dissipation����������������������������������� 160
8.1.1 Restoring, Friction, Inertia, and Applied Forces������������� 161
8.1.2 Linear Restoring Force and Quadratic Potential������������� 161
8.1.3 Friction Force and Dissipation Function�������������������������� 162
8.1.4 Coupled and Decoupled Equations of Motion���������������� 163
8.1.5 Activity/Power and Work of the Applied Forces������������ 164
8.1.6 Kinetic, Potential, and Total Energies������������������������������� 166
8.2 Modal Frequencies, Damping, Coordinates, and Forces������������ 167
8.2.1 Mass, Damping, and Oscillation Matrices����������������������� 167
8.2.2 Friction, Oscillation, and Dispersion Matrices���������������� 168
8.2.3 Free Undamped Decoupled Oscillations������������������������� 169
8.2.4 Modal Frequencies of Undamped Oscillations��������������� 170
8.2.5 Modal Dampings of Decaying Oscillations��������������������� 171
8.2.6 Modal Coordinates and Oscillation Frequencies������������ 173
x Contents

8.2.7 Relation between the Physical and Modal


Coordinates��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 173
8.2.8 Compatibility Relations and Initial Conditions�������������� 175
8.2.9 Physical/Modal Coordinates and Forces������������������������� 176
8.2.10 Matrix and Diagonal Dispersion Operators�������������������� 177
8.2.11 Decoupled Damped and Forced Oscillations������������������ 178
8.2.12 Forcing with Bounded Fluctuation in a Finite Time
Interval���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 179
8.2.13 Modal Matrix for Sinusoidal Forcing������������������������������� 179
8.2.14 Undamped Multidimensional Sinusoidal Forcing��������� 181
8.2.15 Beats and Resonant and Non-Resonant Forcing������������� 181
8.2.16 Forcing of a Damped Multidimensional Oscillator�������� 183
8.3 Coupled Circuits and Electromechanical Simulations���������������� 185
8.3.1 Two Masses Linked by Three Spring-Damper Units����� 185
8.3.2 Pair of Electrical Circuits with a Common Branch��������� 189
8.3.3 Damped Suspension of a Two-Wheeled Vehicle������������� 190
8.3.4 Three Analogue Mechanical and Electrical
Circuits���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 193
8.3.5 Mass, Friction, and Resilience Matrices���������������������������� 195
8.4 Coupled Natural Frequencies and Dampings������������������������������ 197
8.4.1 Translational/Rotational Oscillations of a Rod��������������� 197
8.4.2 Plane Oscillations of Two Atoms at a Fixed Distance���� 199
8.4.3 Decoupled Rotational and Translational Natural
Frequencies��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 201
8.4.4 Coupled Free Undamped Oscillations of a Rod�������������� 203
8.4.5 Coupled and Decoupled Natural Frequencies of a
Homogenous Rod���������������������������������������������������������������� 204
8.4.6 Compatibility Relations between Modal and
Physical Coordinates����������������������������������������������������������� 205
8.4.7 Amplitudes, Phases, and Initial Conditions�������������������� 207
8.4.8 Displacement, Rotation, and Linear and Angular
Velocities������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 208
8.4.9 Linear Free Oscillations with Dissipation������������������������ 209
8.4.10 Strong Damping of Decoupled Free Oscillations����������� 211
8.4.11 Strong Damping of Coupled Oscillators�������������������������� 212
8.4.12 Weak Damping of Coupled Oscillations�������������������������� 214
8.5 Forced Oscillations, Beats, and Resonance����������������������������������� 214
8.5.1 Undamped Non-Resonant Forcing����������������������������������� 215
8.5.2 Undampled Resonant Forcing������������������������������������������� 216
8.5.3 Forcing in Terms of Modal Coordinates and Forces������ 217
8.5.4 Beats at One of the Normal Coordinates�������������������������� 218
8.5.5 Forced Damped Oscillations���������������������������������������������� 220
8.6 Principle of the Vibration Absorber����������������������������������������������� 221
8.6.1 Primary Damped Forced System with Auxiliary
Undamped Unforced Circuit��������������������������������������������� 221
Contents xi

8.6.2 Suppression of Forced Oscillations in the Primary


System������������������������������������������������������������������������������������223
8.6.3 Transfer of Forced Vibrations to the Secondary
System������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 224
8.6.4 Modal Frequencies and Dampings of the Vibration
Absorber�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 226
8.6.5 Transient and Forced Oscillatory Components��������������� 227
8.6.6 Total Oscillations in the Primary and Secondary
Circuits���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 228
8.7 A Markov Chain: Radioactive Disintegration������������������������������ 229
8.7.1 Sequence of N Elements and N – 1 Distintegration
Rates��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 230
8.7.2 Non-Resonant Radioactive Decay at Distinct Rates������� 232
8.7.3 Single Resonance Due to the Coincidence of the Two
Disintegration Rates������������������������������������������������������������ 233
8.7.4 Sequential Solution of a Chain of Ordinary
Differential Equations���������������������������������������������������������234
8.7.5 Totally Non-Resonant Case for Three Distinct Decay
Rates��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 235
8.7.6 Coincidence of Two Out of Three Decay Rates��������������� 236
8.7.7 Double Resonance for the Coincidence of Three
Decay Rates��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 236
8.7.8 Higher-Order Resonances along the Disintegration
Chain������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 237
8.8 Sequence of Damped and Forced Oscillators������������������������������� 238
8.8.1 Sequence of Coupled Mechanical or Electrical
Circuits���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 238
8.8.2 Oscillations of Three Masses Coupled by Four
Springs����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 239
8.8.3 Limits of Middle Mass Much Larger/Smaller Than
the Others������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 240
8.8.4 Comparison of Sequences of Mechanical and
Electrical Circuits����������������������������������������������������������������� 241
8.8.5 Coupled Modal Frequencies and Dampings������������������� 243
8.8.6 Amplitudes and Phases of the Coupled
Oscillations��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 244
8.8.7 Interactions in Triple/Quadruple Oscillators������������������ 245
8.9 Passing Bandwidth of a Transmission Line���������������������������������� 246
8.9.1 Signals and Spectra in Electrical and Mechanical
Circuits���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 246
8.9.2 Impedances Due to Selfs/Masses, Resistors/
Dampers, and Capacitors/Springs������������������������������������ 247
8.9.3 Transmission Line with Impedances in Parallel and
in Series��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 248
8.9.4 Lossless Transmission or Decay by Reflection���������������� 249
xii Contents

8.9.5
Six Transmission Lines including Two Lossless
Cases�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 251
8.9.6 Frequency Passband and Cut-off Frequency������������������� 251
8.9.7 Five Regimes of Signal Transmission�������������������������������254
Conclusion 8�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������278

Bibliography��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������281

Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������285
Diagrams, Notes, and Tables

Diagrams
D 7.1 Types of equations, (a) algebraic, (b) finite difference,
(c) differential, (d) integral, (e) fractional differential and
(f) delay with some combinations in the Diagram 7.3.......................84
D 7.2 Classification of differential equations according to:
(i)(ii) the number of independent and dependent variables;
(iii) the order; (iv) the non-linear and linear, the latter with
special types of coefficients. The ordinary and partial
differential equations may be combined with up to four
other types of equations from Diagram 7.1.���������������������������������������85
D 7.3 The oscillators (waves) are specified by ordinary (partial)
wave equations (Diagram 7.3) depending only on time (t)
(also on position (x)). In the case of waves in a steady
inhomogeneous medium, whose properties do not depend
on time, the spectrum of a wave of fixed frequency depends
only on position, like a spatial oscillator. The oscillators
with several degrees-of-freedom (waves with several wave
variables) lead to simultaneous systems of ordinary (partial)
differential equations.������������������������������������������������������������������������� 128
D 7.4 The acoustics of ducts includes the cases of uniform and non-
uniform cross-sections. The acoustics of non-uniform ducts or
horns may be considered: (i)/(ii) in the high (low) frequency
approximations of sound rays (scattering); (iii) the intermediate
case of diffraction requires exact solutions of the wave equations,
including the nine duct shapes in the Table 7.5.������������������������������ 132
D 8.1 The classification of oscillations applies both in one (several)
dimensions [chapter 2(8)] and uses the same criteria: (i) free
(forced) in the absence (presence) of external forces; (ii) undamped
(damped) in the absence (presence) of dissipation. The damping
is weak (strong) if much smaller (comparable) to the modal
frequency. Amplification can be seen as negative damping.
The sinusoidal forcing is non-resonant (resonant) if the applied
frequency does not (does) coincide with a modal frequency.
Beats occur at the undamped transition from non-resonant
to resonant response.��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 184

xiii
xiv Diagrams, Notes, and Tables

D 8.2 Considering a radioactive disintegration chain (Figure 8.4a)


the non-resonant (resonant) cases correspond to distinct
(coincident) disintegration rates, leading to two cases 2A – B
for the first disintegration. The second disintegration has five
cases 3A – E, of which one non-resonant, three singly resonant
and one doubly resonant. The N-th disintegration has N!/(N – k)!
distinct k-times resonant cases, including one non-resonant
case k = 0 and one N-times resonant case k = N.������������������������������234
D 8.3 The two most common coordinate systems in the plane are
Cartesian and polar. The polar coordinates yield cylindrical
(spherical) coordinates by translation perpendicular to the
plane (rotation around an axis passing through the center).
The hyperspherical (hypercylindrical) coordinates in N
dimensions add N – 2 rotational coordinates to the spherical
(cylindrical) coordinates.�������������������������������������������������������������������� 279

Notes
N 7.1 Classification of Differential Equations����������������������������������������������84
N 7.2 Difference, Fractional, Delay, and Integral Equations���������������������� 86
N 7.3 Non-Linear Waves in Unsteady and Inhomogeneous Media��������� 86
N 7.4 Linear Waves in Steady Homogeneous Media���������������������������������� 87
N 7.5 Linear Waves in an Inhomogeneous Steady Medium��������������������� 89
N 7.6 Second-Order One-Dimensional Waves in Spatially
Varying Media����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������90
N 7.7 Filtering/Transparency and Reflection/Transmission/
Absorption���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 92
N 7.8 Transverse Vibrations of a Non-Uniform String������������������������������� 92
N 7.9 Propagation Speed and Lengthscale of Inhomogeneity������������������ 94
N 7.10 Torsional Vibrations of an Elastic Rod������������������������������������������������ 95
N 7.11 Longitudinal Oscillations of an Elastic Rod�������������������������������������� 97
N 7.12 Water Waves in a Variable Channel���������������������������������������������������� 98
N 7.13 Channel with Non-Uniform Depth and Width������������������������������� 101
N 7.14 Electromagnetic Waves in an Inhomogeneous Waveguide���������� 102
N 7.15 Non-Uniform Dielectric Permittivity and Magnetic
Permeability������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 104
N 7.16 Sound Waves in an Acoustic Horn���������������������������������������������������� 105
N 7.17 Acoustic Pressure and Velocity Perturbations�������������������������������� 106
N 7.18 Dual Wave Equations in Space Time and Frequency��������������������� 108
N 7.19 Combination of Inertia and Restoring Effects��������������������������������� 109
N 7.20 Acoustic Duality Principle (Pyle, 1967) and Analogues����������������� 110
N 7.21 Duality Principle for Elastic Strings and Rods�������������������������������� 111
Diagrams, Notes, and Tables xv

N 7.22 Horn Wave Equation (Rayleigh, 1916; Webster, 1919)��������������������� 112


N 7.23 Invariant Form of the Horn Wave Equation������������������������������������ 113
N 7.24 Reduced Pressure and Velocity Perturbation Spectra�������������������� 114
N 7.25 Classical Wave Equation in a Uniform Duct����������������������������������� 115
N 7.26 Ray Approximation and Compactness Parameter������������������������� 117
N 7.27 Wave Refraction, Diffraction, and Scattering���������������������������������� 118
N 7.28 Self-Dual Duct: The Exponential Horn (Olson, 1930)��������������������� 119
N 7.29 Filtering Function and Cut-Off Frequency�������������������������������������� 121
N 7.30 Propagating Waves and Monotonic Modes������������������������������������� 122
N 7.31 Effective Filtering Wavenumber in a Catenoidal Horn
(Salmon, 1946)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 123
N 7.32 Acoustic Velocity in an Inverse Catenoidal Horn
(Campos, 1984)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 124
N 7.33 Transparency Function and Sinusoidal Horn
(Nagarkar & Finch, 1971)�������������������������������������������������������������������� 126
N 7.34 Acoustics of the Inverse Sinusoidal Horn (Campos, 1985)������������ 128
N 7.35 Elementary Solutions of the Horn Wave Equation
(Campos, 1986)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 131
N 7.36 Gaussian Horn and Hermite Polynomials��������������������������������������� 134
N 7.37 Elastic Rods as Displacement Amplifiers (Bies, 1962)��������������������� 136
N 7.38 Power Tools with Uniform Stress������������������������������������������������������ 137
N 7.39 Power-Law Duct and Acoustic Rays in the Far Field��������������������� 139
N 7.40 Sound in Power Law Ducts (Ballantine, 1927)��������������������������������� 140
N 7.41 Asymptotic Scaling of Hankel Functions���������������������������������������� 141
N 7.42 Cylindrical Waves in a Two-Dimensional Wedge�������������������������� 141
N 7.43 Audible Range and Geometric Acoustics���������������������������������������� 142
N 7.44 Spherical Waves in a Conical Duct���������������������������������������������������� 143
N 7.45 Wave Equation in Cylindrical/Spherical Coordinates������������������� 144
N 7.46 Ray Approximation and Asymptomatic Exact Waves������������������� 145
N 7.47 Rigid and Impedance and Impedance Boundary Conditions������ 146
N 7.48 Wave Reflection and Surface Adsorption at an Impedance
Wall�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
N 7.49 Standing Modes between Impedance Walls����������������������������������� 149
N 7.50 Amplification or Attenuation of Normal Modes����������������������������� 150
N 7.51 Incident, Reflected, and Transmitted Waves������������������������������������ 151
N 7.52 Reflection and Transmission Coefficients at a Junction of Ducts���� 152
N 7.53 Scattering Matrix for an Abrupt Change of Cross-Section����������� 153
N 7.54 Pairs of Reflection and Transmission Functions����������������������������� 154
N 7.55 Wave Refraction: Ray, Scattering, and Diffraction�������������������������� 155

N 8.1 Isotropic Equation of Mathematical Physics������������������������������������ 255


N 8.2 Laplace, Wave, Diffusion, and Helmholtz Equations��������������������� 256
N 8.3 Separation of Variables in Cartesian Coordinates�������������������������� 256
N 8.4 Cylindrical Coordinates and Bessel Functions������������������������������� 258
N 8.5 Spherical Coordinates and Associated Legendre Functions��������� 259
xvi Diagrams, Notes, and Tables

N 8.6 Multidimensional Hyperspherical and Hypercylindrical


Coordinates������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 261
N 8.7 Direct and Inverse Transformation from Cartesian
Coordinates������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 262
N 8.8 Base Vectors and Scale Factors����������������������������������������������������������� 263
N 8.9 Helmholtz Equation in Hyperspherical Coordinates��������������������� 265
N 8.10 Nested Form of the Helmholtz Equation����������������������������������������� 267
N 8.11 Separation of Variables and Set of Ordinary Differential
Equations����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 268
N 8.12 Dependences on Longitude, Radius, and Latitudes����������������������� 270
N 8.13 Hyperspherical Associated Legendre Functions���������������������������� 271
N 8.14 Hyperspherical Harmonics in Four Dimensions���������������������������� 272
N 8.15 Hypercylindrical Harmonics in Four Dimensions������������������������� 275
N 8.16 Linear Superposition of Hyperspherical Harmonics��������������������� 276
N 8.17 Relation between Hyperspherical and Hypercylindrical
Coordinates������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 277

Tables
T 7.1 Simultaneous Systems of Linear Equations��������������������������������������� 76
T 7.2 Classification of Differential Equations���������������������������������������������� 85
T 7.3 Quasi-One-Dimensional Propagation������������������������������������������������ 91
T 7.4 Comparison of Six Types of Waves��������������������������������������������������� 129
T 7.5 Acoustics of Horns������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 133
Preface

Volume IV (Ordinary Differential Equations with Applications to Trajectories


and Oscillations) is organized like the preceding three volumes of the
series Mathematics and Physics Applied to Science and Technology: (volume III)
Generalized Calculus with Applications to Matter and Forces; (volume II)
Transcendental Representations with Applications to Solids and Fluids; and
­(volume I) Complex Analysis with Applications to Flows and Fields. The first
book, Linear Differential Equations and Oscillators; the second book, Non-Linear
Differential Equations and Dynamical Systems; and the third book, Higher-Order
Differential Equations and Elasticity of volume IV, correspond, respectively, to
books four to six of the series, and consist of chapters 1 to 6 of volume IV.
The present book, Simultaneous Differential Equations and Multidimensional
Vibrations, is the fourth book of volume IV and the seventh book of the series;
it consists of chapters 7 and 8 of volume IV.
Chapters 1, 3, and 5 focus on single differential equations, starting with
(i) linear differential equations of any order with constant or homogeneous
coefficients; and continuing with (ii) non-linear first-order differential equa-
tions, including variable coefficients and (iii) non-linear differential second-
order and higher-order equations. Chapter 7 discusses simultaneous systems
of ordinary differential equations, and focuses mostly on the cases that have
a matrix of characteristic polynomials, namely linear systems with constant
or homogeneous power coefficients. The method of the matrix of character-
istic polynomials also applies to simultaneous systems of linear finite differ-
ence equations with constant coefficients.
Chapters 2 and 4 focus on, respectively, linear and non-linear oscilla-
tors described by second-order differential equations, like the elastic bod-
ies without stiffness in the chapter 6; the elastic bodies with stiffness in
­chapter 6 lead to fourth-order differential equations equivalent to coupled
second-order systems. Chapter 8 considers linear multi-dimensional oscil-
lators with any number of degrees of freedom, including damping, forcing,
and multiple resonance. The discrete oscillators may be extended from a
finite number of degrees-of-freedom to infinite chains. The continuous
oscillators correspond to waves in homogeneous or inhomogeneous media,
including elastic, acoustic, electromagnetic, and water surface waves. The
combination of propagation and dissipation leads to the equations of math-
ematical physics.

xvii
xviii Preface

Organization of the Contents


Volume IV consists of ten chapters: (i) the odd-numbered chapters present
mathematical developments; (ii) the even-numbered chapters contain physi-
cal applications; (iii) the last chapter is a set of 20 detailed examples of (i)
and (ii). The chapters are divided into sections and subsections, for example,
chapter 7, section 7.1, and subsection 7.1.1. The formulas are numbered by
chapters in curved brackets; for example, (8.2) is equation 2 of chapter 8. When
referring to volume I the symbol I is inserted at the beginning, for example:
(i) chapter I.36, section I.36.1, subsection I.36.1.2; (ii) equation (I.36.33a). The
final part of each chapter includes: (i) a conclusion referring to the figures as
a kind of visual summary; (ii) the notes, lists, tables, diagrams, and classifica-
tions as additional support. The latter (ii) appear at the end of each chapter,
and are numbered within the chapter (for example, diagram—D7.2, note—
N8.10, table—T7.4); if there is more than one diagram, note, or table, they
are numbered sequentially (for example, notes—N7.1 to N7.55). The chapter
starts with an introductory preview, and related topics may be mentioned
in the notes at the end. The sections “Series Preface,” and “Mathematical
Symbols” from the first book of volume IV are not repeated. The sections
“Physical Quantities,” “References,” and “Index” focus on the contents of the
present fourth book of volume IV.
Acknowledgments

The fourth volume of the series justifies renewing some of the acknowledg-
ments made in the first three volumes. Thank you to those who contributed
more directly to the final form of this volume: Ms. Ana Moura, L. Sousa, and
S. Pernadas for help with the manuscripts; Mr. J. Coelho for all the drawings;
and at last, but not least, to my wife, my companion in preparing this work.

xix
About the Author

L.M.B.C. Campos w  as born on March 28, 1950, in Lisbon,


Portugal. He graduated in 1972 as a mechanical engi-
neer from the Instituto Superior Tecnico (IST) of Lisbon
Technical University. The tutorials as a student (1970)
were followed by a career at the same institution (IST)
through all levels: assistant (1972), assistant with tenure
(1974), assistant professor (1978), associate professor (1982),
chair of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics (1985).
He has served as the coordinator of undergraduate and
postgraduate degrees in Aerospace Engineering since
the creation of the programs in 1991. He is the coordinator of the Scientific
Area of Applied and Aerospace Mechanics in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering. He is also the director and founder of the Center for Aeronautical
and Space Science and Technology.
In 1977, Campos received his doctorate on “waves in fluids” from the
Engineering Department of Cambridge University, England. Afterwards,
he received a Senior Rouse Ball Scholarship to study at Trinity College,
while on leave from IST. In 1984, his first sabbatical was as a Senior Visitor
at the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics of
Cambridge University, England. In 1991, he spent a second sabbatical as an
Alexander von Humboldt scholar at the Max-Planck Institut fur Aeronomic
in Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany. Further sabbaticals abroad were excluded
by major commitments at the home institution. The latter were always com-
patible with extensive professional travel related to participation in scientific
meetings, individual or national representation in international institutions,
and collaborative research projects.
Campos received the von Karman medal from the Advisory Group
for Aerospace Research and Development (AGARD) and Research and
Technology Organization (RTO). Participation in AGARD/RTO included
serving as a vice-chairman of the System Concepts and Integration Panel, and
chairman of the Flight Mechanics Panel and of the Flight Vehicle Integration
Panel. He was also a member of the Flight Test Techniques Working Group.
Here he was involved in the creation of an independent flight test capability,
active in Portugal during the last 30 years, which has been used in national
and international projects, including Eurocontrol and the European Space
Agency. The participation in the European Space Agency (ESA) has afforded
Campos the opportunity to serve on various program boards at the levels of
national representative and Council of Ministers.
His participation in activities sponsored by the European Union (EU)
has included: (i) 27 research projects with industry, research, and academic

xxi
xxii About the Author

institutions; (ii) membership of various Committees, including Vice-Chairman


of the Aeronautical Science and Technology Advisory Committee; (iii) partici-
pation on the Space Advisory Panel on the future role of EU in space. Campos
has been a member of the Space Science Committee of the European Science
Foundation, which works with the Space Science Board of the National Science
Foundation of the United States. He has been a member of the Committee
for Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) of the United Nations. He has
served as a consultant and advisor on behalf of these organizations and other
institutions. His participation in professional societies includes member and
vice-chairman of the Portuguese Academy of Engineering, fellow of the Royal
Aeronautical Society, Astronomical Society and Cambridge Philosophical
Society, associate fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, and founding and life member of the European Astronomical
Society.
Campos has published and worked on numerous books and articles.
His publications include 10 books as a single author, one as an editor, and
one as a co-editor. He has published 152 papers (82 as the single author,
including 12 reviews) in 60 journals, and 254 communications to sym-
posia. He has served as reviewer for 40 different journals, in addition to
23 reviews published in Mathematics Reviews. He is or has been member
of the editorial boards of several journals, including Progress in Aerospace
Sciences, International Journal of Aeroacoustics, International Journal of Sound
and Vibration, and Air & Space Europe.
Campos’s areas of research focus on four topics: acoustics, magnetohydro-
dynamics, special functions, and flight dynamics. His work on acoustics has
concerned the generation, propagation, and refraction of sound in flows with
mostly aeronautical applications. His work on magnetohydrodynamics has
concerned magneto-acoustic-gravity-inertial waves in solar-terrestrial and
stellar physics. His developments on special functions have used differintegra-
tion operators, generalizing the ordinary derivative and primitive to complex
order; they have led to the introduction of new special functions. His work
on flight dynamics has concerned aircraft and rockets, including trajectory
optimization, performance, stability, control, and atmospheric disturbances.
The range of topics from mathematics to physics and engineering fits with
the aims and contents of the present series. Campos’s experience in univer-
sity teaching and scientific and industrial research has enhanced his ability to
make the series valuable to students from undergraduate level to research level.
Campos’s professional activities on the technical side are balanced by other
cultural and humanistic interests. Complementary non-technical interests
include classical music (mostly orchestral and choral), plastic arts (painting,
sculpture, architecture), social sciences (psychology and biography), history
(classical, renaissance and overseas expansion) and technology (automotive,
photo, audio). Campos is listed in various biographical publications, includ-
ing Who’s Who in the World since 1986, Who’s Who in Science and Technology
since 1994, and Who’s Who in America since 2011.
Physical Quantities

The location of first appearance is indicated, for example “2.7” means


­“section 2.7,” “6.8.4” means “subsection 6.8.4,” “N8.8” means “note 8.8,” and
“E10.13.1” means “example 10.13.1.”

1 Small Arabic Letters


b — width of a water channel: N7.12
c — phase speed of waves: N8.1
ce — speed of transversal waves in an elastic string: N7.9
cem — speed of electromagnetic waves: N7.15
c — speed of longitudinal waves in an elastic rod: N7.11
c s — adiabatic sound speed: N7.16
ct — speed of torsional waves along an elastic rod: N7.10
cw — speed of water waves along a channel: N7.13

ei — non-unit base vector: N8.8
fr — reduced external force: 8.2.1
g — determinant of the covariant metric tensor: N8.8
g  — reduced modal force: 8.1.1
g ij — covariant metric tensor: N8.8
g ij — contravariant metric tensor: N8.8
h — depth of water channel: N7.12
hi — friction force vector: 8.1.1
—scale factors: N8.8
ji — restoring force vector: 8.1.1
k — wavenumber: N7.25, N8.2
krs — resilience matrix: 8.1.2
 — lengthscale for horns: N7.28
mrs — mass matrix: 8.2.1
q — modal coordinates: 8.2.4
z — specific impedance: N7.47

xxiii
xxiv Physical Quantities

2 Capital Arabic Letters


A — cross-sectional area of a horn: N7.16
— admittance: 8.9.1
An — modal amplitudes: 8.8.5
Bmn — terms in the modal matrix: 8.8.5
Ev — kinetic energy: 6.8.5
F — reduced external force: 8.2.1
G — modal forces: 8.2.9
J ± — invariants of acoustic horns: N7.28
K — reduced wavenumber: N7.29

K — enhanced wavenumber: N7.33
LA — lengthscale of variation of the cross-sectional area: N7.17
Lb — lengthscale of variation of the width of a water channel: N7.12
Lc — lengthscale of variation of the torsional stiffness: N7.10
LE — lengthscale of change of the Young modulus: N7.11
LT — lengthscale of change of tension: N7.9
Lε — lengthscale of variation of the dielectric permittivity: N7.15
Lµ — lengthscale of variation of the magnetic permeability: N7.15
Mn— mass of n-th element of a radioactive disintegration chain: 8.7.1
Mrs — modal matrix: 8.2.13
N — number of particles: 5.5.17
N rs — undamped modal matrix: 8.2.14
P — reduced pressure perturbation spectrum: N7.23
P2 N — dispersion polynomial: 8.2.2
Pij — dispersion matrix: 8.2.2
Qr — transformation matrix: 8.2.7
R — electrical resistance: 8.9.2
— reflection coefficient: N7.47
S — surface adsorption coefficient: N7.48
Sij — scattering matrix: N7.53
T — transmission coefficient: N7.51
V — reduced velocity perturbation spectrum: N7.23
Y — inductance: 8.9.1
Physical Quantities xxv

Z — impedance: 8.9.1
Z — overall impedance: N7.52
Z0 — impedance of a plane sound wave: N7.47

3 Small Greek Letters


α — diffusivity: N8.1
β — amplification/attenuation factor: N7.50
—potential: N8.1
δ ij — identity matrix: 8.1.4
λ  — modal dampings: 8.2.5
λ rs — damping matrix: 8.2.1
µ rs — kinematic friction matrix: 8.1.3
νn — disintegration rate of the mass of the n-th element in a chain: 8.7.1
σ — mass density per unit length: N7.8
ω  —modal frequencies: 8.2.4
ω  — oscillation frequency of modes: 8.2.6
ω 2rs — oscillation matrix: 8.2.1

4 Capital Greek Letters


Φ — primal wave variable: N7.19
Φ m — mechanical potential energy: 8.1.2
Ψ — dual wave variable: N7.19
Ψ m — dissipation by mechanical friction: 8.1.2
7
Simultaneous Differential Equations

An ordinary differential equation of order N relates one independent and


one dependent variable, with a set of derivatives of the latter with regard to
the former up to and including the order N. In the case of a system of simul-
taneous differential equations, there are M dependent variables and only one
dependent variable (section 7.1). The derivatives of the former with regard to
the latter appear in a set of simultaneous equations, which cannot be sepa-
rated for each dependent variable (at least without some manipulation).
The simplest case of a system of M simultaneous ordinary differential
equations is an autonomous system (section 7.1) in which the first-order
derivative of each of the M dependent variables is an explicit function of all
the dependent variables, and does not involve any derivatives. The auton-
omous system of ordinary differential equations is related to the problem
of finding the family of curves tangent to a given continuous vector field
(section 7.2), which always has a solution. In contrast, the problem of find-
ing a family of hypersurfaces orthogonal to a given continuous vector field
leads to a differential of first order in M variables, which has (does not have)
a solution (sections 3.8–3.9 and notes 3.1–3.15) if the differential is exact or
has an integrating factor (is inexact and has no integrating factor). Any sys-
tem of M simultaneous ordinary differential equations can be transformed
to an autonomous system (section 7.1); this leads to a method to eliminate a
system of M simultaneous ordinary differential equations in M dependent
variables into a single ordinary differential equation of order N for one of
the dependent variables (section 7.3). This specifies the order N of the system
of M simultaneous ordinary differential equations that equals (is less than)
the sum of the higher-order derivatives in all M equations if the system is
independent (redundant).
The most important class of single (simultaneous) ordinary differential
equation(s) is the linear case with constant coefficients [sections 1.3–1.5
(7.4–7.5)] to which can be reduced the case of power coefficients [sections
1.6–1.8 (7.6–7.7)]. In all of the cases, the solution is determined by the roots
of a single characteristic polynomial. For a single linear ordinary differen-
tial equation with constant coefficients, the characteristic polynomial is the
differential operator acting on the dependent variable (section 1.3). In the
case of a simultaneous system of M equations with M dependent variables,
there is (section 7.4) an M × M matrix of linear operators with constant coef-
ficients, and its determinant specifies the characteristic polynomial of the

1
2 Simultaneous Differential Equations and Multi-Dimensional Vibrations

system of simultaneous differential equations, whose order N is the degree


of the characteristic polynomial. The solutions corresponding to single or
multiple, real or complex roots, are similar for a single (set of simultaneous)
differential equation(s), and each dependent variable is a linear combination
of them, with coefficients determined by the initial conditions; the number
of independent and compatible initial conditions needed to specify a unique
solution is equal the order of the single (set of simultaneous) differential
equation(s). This implies that in the solution of a linear simultaneous system
of M ordinary differential equations with constant (homogeneous) coeffi-
cients without forcing [section 7.4 (7.5)]: (i) each of the M dependent variables
is a linear combination of N linearly independent particular integrals speci-
fied by the roots of the characteristic polynomial; (ii) there are N arbitrary
constants of integration, for example, those in the first dependent variable;
(iii) the coefficients in all other dependent variables involve the same N arbi-
trary constants of integration, in a way that is compatible with substitution
back into the system of simultaneous ordinary differential equations.
The case of a single (set of simultaneous) linear ordinary differential
equation(s) with constant coefficients and a forcing term, can be considered
using [sections 1.4–1.5 (7.5)] the characteristic polynomial directly or as an
inverse operator. A characteristic polynomial also exists for a single (set of
simultaneous) linear ordinary differential equation(s) with power coeffi-
cients, leading to similar methods of solution [sections 1.6–1.8 (7.6–7.7)]. The
characteristic polynomial also exists for a single (set of simultaneous) linear
finite difference equation(s), again leading to similar methods of solution
[section(s) 1.9 (7.8–7.9)].

7.1 Reduction of General to Autonomous Systems


A general system of M simultaneous ordinary differential equations (subsec-
tion 7.1.2) can be reduced to an autonomous system of differential equations
(subsection 7.1.1).

7.1.1 Autonomous System of Differential Equations


A generalized autonomous system of order M of ordinary differential equa-
tions (standard CXXI) has one independent variable x, and M dependent
variables (7.1a) whose first-order derivatives (7.1b) depend explicitly only on
all the dependent variables and the dependent variable:

dy m
m = 1,..., M: y m′ ( x ) ≡ = Ym ( x ; y1 ,...., y M ) ; (7.1a, b)
dx
Another random document with
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lot set apart for the purpose on the southern extremity of his
premises. This log schoolhouse stood about thirty years, and
beside Joshua Foulke, we had for teachers William Coggins,
Hannah Foulke, Benjamin Albertson, Hugh Foulke (my
brother), John Chamberlain, Christian Dull, Daniel Price, and
Samuel Jones. I have probably not named all or given them in
the order in which they came.[489]

Merion seems to have left no written records of [Sidenote: Merion]


educational activity. There is a possibility that
Marmaduke Pardo[490] may have been connected with a school
there, soon after his coming from Wales, but this is little better than a
conjecture.[491] In the loft of the present building (which, however,
does not date back so early as this study) there is a school room in
which are rude tables and benches. One of them bears the date,
1711, rudely cut with a jackknife. If, in the early eighteenth century,
the meeting house still sufficed for school, it is quite probable that
the same was true much earlier; at any rate, no search thus far has
revealed anything concerning an early schoolhouse. The Radnor
Monthly Meeting Minutes in 1791 state:
[Sidenote: School,
At Merion and Valley we have not discovered at least not
any progress in laying a foundation for schools according to plan
of yearly meeting]
in the way proposed by the yearly meeting.[492]

which would favor still further the idea that any school held there at
that time was perhaps in the meeting house.
The earliest mention made of Horsham Meeting [Sidenote:
is that in the Abington Minutes of 1777, stating: Horsham]

It is agreed that there be two overseers chosen for


Horsham Meeting, viz., John Michener and Thomas Iredell.
[493]
This was doubtless very near the time of its first establishment as
a preparative meeting. The earliest preparative minutes accessible
are those beginning 1757.[494] We may feel certain, however, that
there was a school before this time, for in the Gazette for 1753 there
appeared an advertisement which stated:

Any person well qualified for keeping a school and comes


well recommended by applying to John Lukens, surveyor,
Abraham Lukens, or Benjamin Cadwalader, living in Horsham
township, near the meeting house, may meet with proper
encouragement.[495]

This may have been the same stone house in [Sidenote:


which Isaac Comly of Byberry taught in 1799, we Assistance by
cannot say. In the records of the preparative donations]
meeting on the first page there is an account of
donations concerning schools, but the page is so badly mutilated
that no straight account can be made of it.[496] It will be recalled from
the account given of Abington schools that Horsham members were
also benefitted by Carter’s legacy and others.[497]
A committee appointed to investigate the conditions of schools in
Horsham Meeting reported (1779):
[Sidenote: Report
We, the committee appointed, report as on Horsham
follows: That upon inquiry we found that the schools, 1779]
schoolhouse on the meeting house land is [Sidenote: Four
wholly the property of Friends, and the schools
subscribers generally Friends; we also find that mentioned]
there has been a schoolhouse lately built on a
piece of land held in trust for that purpose between John
Parry’s and John Walton’s wholly by the Friends, and
generally Friends subscribers; there is also one other
schoolhouse near the Billet on a piece of land held in trust for
that purpose by Friends and others, and one other
schoolhouse near John Jarret’s upon sufferance; the two last
mentioned schools being made up by subscribers of different
societies; which, after being considered, the same Friends are
continued with John Parry, Samuel Shoemaker (mason), John
Conrad, and John Jarrett added to them as a committee, to
have the oversight of such schools as may be properly under
the notice of this meeting.[498]

And again in 1783 that, [Sidenote: Rules


drawn for the
conduct of
The committee on schools report they have schools]
several times visited the schools of Friends
belonging to this meeting since their appointment, and that
there appears an improvement in them, they having drawn up
an essay of rules for the government of said schools, which
were read and approved by this meeting....[499]

From 1782 onwards Horsham was a regularly constituted monthly


meeting.[500] Almost the first thing performed by this newly
constituted body was to order a report on schools which was brought
into the monthly meeting in 1784,[501] the text of which is reproduced
below.
[Sidenote: Report
We, the committee on schools, having met made to Horsham
and examined into the situation of such within monthly on
schools]
the compass of this meeting find them as
follows, viz.: that within the verge of Byberry [Sidenote: Four
meeting there is a school kept in a part of the schools named;
meeting house under the inspection of part of others, where the
houses belong to
the same committee, by Christopher Smith, a Friends]
member of our society, whose number of
scholars are about thirty at 10/ a scholar, per [Sidenote: No
funds established]
quarter, raised by subscription; also another
school taught a small distance from said meeting house by
Isaac Carver in his own house who formerly was a member
among us, to which some Friends send their children, and
within the compass of Horsham Particular Meeting there is a
school taught on the meeting land near the meeting house by
Byran Fitzpatrick, who is not a member, the number of
scholars about twenty-five at 10/ a scholar per quarter; there
is also one other schoolhouse built by Friends on a piece of
land given for a term of years for that purpose in which there
is no school kept at present. There are several other schools
within the compass of said meeting, the houses of which are
the property of Friends and others to which some Friends
send their children. There are no funds belonging to any of
the aforesaid schools, but there is a donation left to Horsham
Particular Meeting, which if it were not for some
circumstances attending it, might be of an advantage in
establishing schools within the limits of that meeting which we
think demands the attention of this meeting.
Signed on behalf of the committee by
Daniel Thomas.

After this there was no report for nearly two [Sidenote: Each
years, when the meeting, taking cognizance of the particular meeting
fact, urged all the preparatives to appoint individual to name its own
committee]
committees of their own to attend to school affairs.
In 1787 the committee of the monthly meeting [Sidenote: Three
made report that within the compass of the monthly schools in the
preparatives]
meeting there were three schools under the care of
the preparative meetings, in all of which the masters were members
of the society of Friends.[502]
The value of the organization of meetings for [Sidenote: Value
getting something accomplished can hardly be of the
overestimated. The directing power of the quarterly organization cited]
meeting must have often been the cause which
produced a conscious activity in the lower meetings. The quarterly
meetings were at all times feeling the educational pulse of their
constituents and making suggestions, requiring reports, etc., which
did not fail to keep up the local interest. The quarterly meeting at
Abington in 1792 made the following suggestions:

At a quarterly meeting held at Abington, November 8, 1792,


the subject of schools coming under consideration, it is
thought expedient that the meetings be earnestly requested to
take that matter into solid consideration and send up in their
reports next quarter how far the advice of the yearly meeting
has been complied with in that respect. The clerk is requested
to furnish each member with a copy of this minute extracted
from the minutes of the quarterly meeting.
Nathan Cleaver, Clerk.
The clerk is directed to furnish the preparatives with a copy
of the above minute, and they are desired to inform this
meeting of their situation in the above respects.[503]

The report of the monthly meeting in 1792 [Sidenote: The


indicates that that meeting’s concern for the poor educated;
education of the poor was comparable to others 1792]
mentioned; they state that all of the children
“partake of learning freely” and their and other Friends’ children “are
placed among Friends” as apprentices.
The earliest Quaker settlements in Warrington [Sidenote:
were in 1735,[504] and their first meetings for Warrington]
worship were held with the Friends at Newberry. [Sidenote: Youths’
Warrington Preparative Meeting was organized in meetings]
1745;[505] while the monthly meeting records date
to 1747.[506] For nearly thirty years there is no notice in the records
concerned with education, saving those which refer to the settling of
youths’ meetings. Those were very frequent.[507] The report on the
youths’ meetings in 1779 was as follows:

Some of the Friends appointed to attend the Youths’


Meeting report that four of them attended it and gave it as
their sense that it was a good meeting, and that if it should be
as well attended in the future, it might be of use.[508]

Three years later, 1782, it was considered [Sidenote:


necessary to leave off holding the youths’ Committees of
meetings, for what reasons it is not known, but on a men and women
named on
protest from some members it was concluded that schools]
it might be continued for at least another meeting.
[509] In 1778 the yearly meeting extract was received, in which the
establishment of schools was recommended; committees of both
men and women were at once named for the service and desired to
report.[510] In the year following, the report was made on the part of
Warrington Preparative Meeting:

Warrington Meeting informs us that they have made choice


of William Underwood, Peter Cleaver, Benjamin Walker, and
Joseph Elgar for trustees and overseers of a school, with
which this meeting concurs.[511]

The trustees thus appointed, it seems, were not so successful as


might have been desired, if we may judge by their report made in
1780.
[Sidenote: No
William Underwood, on behalf of the progress reported
committee appointed to have under their care 1780]
and labor to promote the education of the youth,
as well as a reformation with that respect to other deficiencies
in our society, informed this meeting that they have several
times met and conferred together on the occasion, but have
not proceeded any further in that service, neither have any
prospect at this time of proceeding therein, etc.[512]

The tone of the next report of 1782 is more encouraging.


The Friends appointed to the care of schools report they
have made some progress therein, some of them having
attended each of our preparative meetings and endeavored to
encourage Friends in setting up of schools agreeable to the
intention of the Yearly Meeting and find there is a willingness
in the minds of Friends to endeavor to have schools set up
amongst us agreeable thereto, as nearly as the
circumstances of the several Meetings will admit of. They are
continued and desired to assist where there may be
occasions and report to this Meeting in the third month next.
[513]

In 1784 it was reported that the committee had [Sidenote: School


attended at York and that there appeared to be a to be at York]
good prospect for a school to be established there
according to the desires expressed in the yearly meeting’s advices.
[514] It was also stated that some provision was made at each
particular meeting for the same, and it was expected a particular
report would be rendered thereof.[515] This report, however, did not
come into the monthly meeting as it appears.
The conditions at York seem to have been the most promising as
presented in a committee’s report of 1784 which is here submitted:
[Sidenote:
The committee appointed to promote the Schoolhouse at
establishment of schools report that they have York;
paid some attention to the service; most of them subscriptions
started]
attended a meeting at York, and find that
Friends there have a house nearly finished and have entered
into some subscriptions to encourage such a school, of which
it is agreed that the Quarterly Meeting be informed, as well as
of houses being built for that purpose at Newbury and
Warrington, and that the committee be released from the
service.[516]
The statements of the monthly meeting in the [Sidenote: Same
above report are corroborated by a later report of statement by
the Warrington and Fairfax Quarterly, which was quarterly meeting]
made a few months later, though it appears the
schoolhouse at Warrington was not yet completed.[517]
The progress that had been made by Westland Monthly
Meeting[518] is indicated by the following report of that date:

The minutes of the school committee for several seasons


past being read, and they have proposed a reappointment,
William Wilson, Matthew Heald, Jonas Cattell, William Dixon,
Joshua Dixon, and Eleazar Brown are appointed to have the
general care of schools and admission of Tutors. And it
appears requisite that a few Friends be appointed by each
Preparative Meeting to have the immediate oversight of the
school or schools within the limits of such meetings; said
committee to unite and confer together as they see occasion,
and the clerk is desired to notify each preparative meeting by
a copy of this Minute.[519]

A still later report of 1797 is no more definite than [Sidenote: Later


the former; this is very generally characteristic of reports still
the reports, and even at a late date when other indefinite]
meetings were making very definite ones, indicates
that a very unsatisfactory state existed in the schools of Westland.
Many other reports examined, which were sent in before the
committee, of the century, made no improvement in regard to
definiteness.

SUMMARY
The schools in the limits of Abington, Gwynedd, [Sidenote: The
Horsham, Warrington, and Westland meetings are meetings]
discussed in this chapter.
Probably the first schoolmaster at Abington, who [Sidenote:
was connected with a regularly established school, Abington]
was Jacob Taylor. Land for the meeting and school
uses was deeded by John Barnes in 1696, and a meeting house
built by 1700. Assistance was also afforded by a legacy granted by
William Carter for educating poor children. Such funds were in
charge of, and expended by, trustees appointed for that purpose.
Fox’s and Crisp’s Primers are mentioned for use in the schools.
Mention is made of a schoolhouse near [Sidenote:
Gwynedd in 1721, but no records of the school are Gwynedd]
discovered. Marmaduke Pardo, an experienced
teacher, came to Gwynedd from Wales, and being [Sidenote:
Morristown
well recommended as such, it is likely that he was schoolhouse
employed in school teaching; but nothing explicit to mentioned]
that effect is found. Late in the century Joseph [Sidenote: Three
Foulke states he attended school in Gwynedd. A regular schools]
schoolhouse at Morristown is mentioned in 1766.
Committees on schools and funds followed the procedure noticed in
other meetings. School land, schoolhouse funds, and a house for a
master were provided in Montgomery township in 1793. Another
school in the compass of Plymouth is mentioned, and another one,
“adjoining the meeting house at Plymouth.” Other temporary schools,
used under varying circumstances, are said to be maintained.
Merion and the Valley do not appear to have met the yearly
meeting’s requirements in any way.
No explicit mention is made of a school at [Sidenote:
Horsham in the early minutes, but the Horsham]
advertisement for a teacher in 1753 indicates they
were supplied with a school. A report of Horsham Preparative in
1729 mentions four schools, kept “nearly agreeable to direction.” In
1783 a list of rules was adopted for their government. Each
preparative meeting was directed in 1787 to have its own committee
on schools.
Judging from the minutes of their transactions, [Sidenote:
the schools of Warrington and Westland meetings Warrington
seem to have been organized and carried on in a Westland]
very desultory fashion. Those at York and [Sidenote:
Warrington were the best situated. There were Probably twelve
probably as many as twelve regularly established regularly
established
schools in the above meetings by the end of the schools]
century.
CHAPTER VII
SCHOOLS OF CHESTER COUNTY

The several monthly meetings, which are [Sidenote: The


discussed in this chapter, were, for the period of meetings
this study (before 1800) members of Chester (or considered]
Concord Quarterly) Meeting, until the
establishment of Western Quarterly Meeting in 1758,[520] when a
number of them were included in that quarter. In 1800 a new
Quarterly Meeting (Caln) was established from those formerly
constituting Western Quarterly.[521] The monthly meetings with which
we are to deal, the dates of their establishment, and the order of
their presentation here, are as follows: (1) Kennett, known as
Newark till 1760, 1686, or before; (2) New Garden, set off from
Kennett in 1718; (3) Goshen, set off from Chester, 1722; (4)
Bradford, 1737; (5) Uwchlan, set off from Goshen, 1763; (6) London
Grove, set off from New Garden, 1792.[522] Those just named were
situated within the limits of present Chester County.[523] The last
meeting to be considered in this chapter, (7) Sadsbury, established
in 1737, was situated in Lancaster County.[524]
In the records of Kennett (Newark) Meeting, the [Sidenote:
writer has been unable to find any early explicit Kennett]
reference to education. Among the early references
to children, are the minutes of 1715 in regard to [Sidenote: Early
care for children]
those of the widow Howard at the time of her
remarriage.[525] The meeting appointed a committee to look after the
affairs of her children to see that the will of the deceased father was
entirely complied with. Again in 1727 the meeting appointed a
committee to see that the provision for the orphan children be
fulfilled before allowing the widow to remarry.[526] These two cases
serve to point out that an early care and interest in the affairs of
children was manifested on the part of the meeting.
Local historians have very little to offer in the way [Sidenote: Local
of clews to the education of the Quakers in the last history credits
part of the seventeenth and early eighteenth Quakers with
furnishing the
century, though they all agree that the Quakers foundation of
furnished the foundations of education, and it was schools]
begun very early, even from the first establishment
in the various counties.[527] Some of the early schools have already
been discussed, in cases where it was possible to state the earliest
beginnings.[528]
In 1777 those who had attended the Western [Sidenote: Yearly
Quarterly Meeting reported they had received the recommendations
recommendations of the yearly meeting requiring received]
the monthly meetings to have particular charge of [Sidenote: School
the education of the children, with especial committee
reference to the employment of schoolmasters who appointed]
were Friends.[529] The same concern being
mentioned a month later, with emphasis on the school education, a
committee of six Friends was appointed to join with a committee of
the quarterly meeting to confer on the matter.[530] In 1779, their
action appears to be just a little more definite, but from the records it
is difficult to say whether it meant very much or not; the minutes at
that time stated:

John Way, John Marshall, James Bennett, Caleb Pierce,


David Greame, Samuel Nichols, and Thomas Carlton, Jr., are
appointed to unit together and endeavor to promote such
schools as (are) recommended.[531]

From that date (1779) to 1781, there appears no [Sidenote: Union


comment on the subject, save the usual periodic school of Kennett,
announcements that the Advices of the Yearly Bradford, and
New Garden]
Meeting “have been regularly received.” In 1781,
however,
Caleb Pierce on behalf of the committee on schools,
reports there is a school made up by some of the members of
this, Bradford, and New Garden monthly meetings; John
Parker and Caleb Pierce are appointed to join with the
Friends of those meetings in the oversight thereof, and report
to this meeting when necessary.[532]

In the seventh month thereafter, in the same [Sidenote: The


year, John Parker reported that the school which school
he and Caleb Pierce had been appointed to discontinued]
oversee was discontinued.[533] They were released [Sidenote: New
from their service in the care of schools. The committee has
former committee on that subject, appointed in more specific
duties]
1779, seems, however, from the minute of the tenth
month, 1781, to have been continued as a standing committee on
the subject.[534] The following extract implies that the committee of
1779 was replaced by another which, by the way, had more
specifically named duties. The implication of the minute is that there
were at least two schools, perhaps more.

The concern for the promotion of schools, under the


directions of Friends revived, Samuel Harlan, John Way,
Aaron Hollingsworth,—John Swain, Amos Harvey, Samuel
Pennock, and James Jackson are appointed to have the care
and oversight of schools, also promote the establishment of
schools where there is yet want of assistance, and report to
this meeting when necessary.[535]

In the same year it was also recommended to the preparative


meetings that each appoint a committee of their own to represent
them and act with the committee of the monthly meeting in the
concern of schools.[536] The intervening years, from 1783 to 1785,
offer nothing beyond the usual general reports concerning the
appointment of committees and the like. In 1785, the committee on
schools produced this report:
We have lately had a conference on the [Sidenote:
subject, and do find that there are several Several schools
schools in the compass of our monthly meeting, reported; some
according to
kept by Friends and under the care of this demand of yearly
committee, and may inform that they are kept to meeting]
a good degree of satisfaction, yet there are
some that employ teachers, not members of our society,
without the advice of the committee or the monthly meeting.
We, likewise, agree to lay before the monthly meeting the
reappointment of a committee for this service in future as the
members of this committee have been long on the
appointment and desire to be released, which we submit to
the meeting. Signed—John Way (and five others).[537]

The answer to the fifth query of the same year likewise informs us
that care has been taken in the education of the poor children, and
Friends’ children “are generally placed among Friends.”[538]
The request for the appointment of a new [Sidenote: New
committee on schools, made by the old committee, school committee
does not seem to have received consideration till appointed]
1788. In the meantime we must assume that the
old committee continued to serve, since occasional reports were
sent in. The men appointed on the new committee were: Jacob
Greave, Samuel Nichols, Amos Harvey, Samuel Harlan, Moses
Pennock, Robert Lambourn, Jr., Christopher Hollingsworth, John
Way, and William Phillips, Jr.[539] In 1790 the monthly meeting
ordered a special committee to recommend a deeper educational
concern to the particular meetings.[540]
The desired results, in the shape of a more perfected organization
and permanent foundation to be provided for schools, did not come
until about 1792 and thereafter. In that year, the committee reported
its past activity in respect to schools established, and made certain
valuable suggestions to guide future action, as the following extract
witnesses:
The committee, appointed at last meeting, [Sidenote: Ground
report: We, the committee appointed by the purchased]
monthly meeting at the request of Kennett
[Sidenote: Rules
Preparative Meeting, respecting the adopted for the
establishment of schools within the verge school]
thereof, agree to report, we have attended
thereto, and find they have purchased a piece of ground, with
the approbation of the committee of this meeting, of Abraham
Taylor, about two miles and a half westernly from Kennett
Meeting House, adjoining the public road, leading to
Nottingham, and obtained his conveyance to Jacob Pierce,
Samuel Pennock, Townsend Lambourn, Thomas Pierce,
William Parker, and David Pierce, trustees for the same,
meted and bounded as mentioned in the said conveyance
and recorded ... and as it appears to us necessary in order for
a fixed object whereon to lay a foundation for establishing a
fund agreeable to the Yearly Meeting, that the monthly
meeting should appoint some Friends as trustees to have the
care of the said school, and that it should have a name to be
distinguished by; we therefore propose it to be called by the
name “Number One,” within the verge of Kennett Preparative
Meeting. We have likewise agreed on some general rules to
be observed by the scholars of the said school. Signed by
Caleb Pierce, Wm. Lambourn, Caleb Kirk, and Jonathan
Greave. 12-24-1790.

The above report, being read, is agreed to be further considered at


our next meeting.[541] Unfortunately for the satisfaction of our
curiosity about the internal organization of the schools, the rules
which they state were drawn up were not incorporated in the minutes
of the monthly meeting. They were probably similar, however, to
those adopted by the Horsham School Committee at a slightly earlier
date.[542]
In consideration of the recommendations made in the above
report, the meeting assembled in the seventh month, appointed nine
of their members as trustees, to receive all donations for the purpose
of schools.[543] About a year thereafter, a report signed by Joshua
Pusey and John Jones was submitted by the monthly meeting to the
quarterly meeting, which was in substantial accord with all that had
already been done.[544] It may be well to summarize briefly their
recommendations.
1. We have considered the relative situation of [Sidenote:
the members in our compass. Summary of
committee’s
2. The affairs of education have not yet received report]
the attention they deserve.
3. We find several school houses have been erected, but
4. The demands made by the yearly meeting are not met,
therefore,
5. Friends must subscribe funds, either in monthly or preparative
meetings.
6. The funds must be available for application for meetings.
Friends are so scattered and few that they cannot support a school
alone and have been forced to patronize “mixed schools.”
7. Those laboring under difficulties should be taught gratis, or at
least, at low rates.
In 1795 the committee on schools produced a plan for
subscriptions to a permanent school fund,[545] which was referred to
the next meeting. A report was then made, but it was thought that
since all of the committee had not collaborated it should be, and
accordingly was, postponed for the time being.[546] In the fifth month
a report was made, but still some changes were thought to be
necessary.[547]
Not until the twelfth month (1785) was the report [Sidenote:
finally produced, which is given below. There has Question of a plan
been some reference made by local historians of for school funds
prior to 1795]
Chester County, stating that Kennett Monthly
Meeting had as early as 1787 provided a plan for subscription for the
provision of permanent funds.[548] The rule “number 5,” which is
quoted by them, is exactly the same rule as the fifth one which is
mentioned below. The writer has found no such reference to a plan
for funds at the earlier date (1787). It seems quite probable that the
statement made in Mr. Cope’s work is an oversight, perhaps an error
in setting up an eight in place of a nine. The entire list of nine rules is
given.
[Sidenote:
1. A plan for raising fund for the benefit of Scheme for funds
schools within the bounds of Kennett Monthly reported in 1795]
Meeting, whereby Friends may have an
opportunity of manifesting their benevolent intentions by
subscribing thereto.
1st. That each subscriber to this plan pay at the time of
subscription, or give his or her note to the treasurer or clerk of
the trustees, or their successors appointed by Kennett
Monthly Meeting, to have the care of this fund, for a sum of
money payable at any time, not exceeding three years after
date, with the interest of five per cent. per annum paid
annually for the same.
2d. The treasurer shall have a book for that purpose, and
keep fair entries of all money due and received; likewise of all
money expended and his receipts shall be a sufficient
discharge for any money paid to him for the use of schools.
3rd. Whenever the treasurer may receive any new
subscription or any money for the benefit of schools, he shall
report the same at the next meeting of the trustees of the said
schools.
4th. When the trustees receive any money for the use of
schools, they shall as soon as they can conveniently put the
same to interest upon good security; or they may purchase
land or ground rent therewith as shall appear best for the time
being.
5th. The trustees shall, as soon as they see occasion, apply
the interest arising from this fund to securing the schooling of
the children of such poor people, whether Friends or others,
as live within the verge of the aforesaid monthly meeting,
provided such children comply with their rules.
6th. We recommend it to each other as often as we find an
increase of property and openness of heart to add something
to our subscription whereby it is hoped the monthly meeting
may in time be enabled more fully to comply with the advice
of the Yearly Meeting in 1778, respecting schools.
7th. As a variety of circumstances may in future occur
which the human eye can not foresee, nor understanding
conceive, therefore the trustees shall from time to time
manage this fund as shall appear to them best, to promote
the welfare of the said schools and the poor thereunto
belonging; also if the interest may be to spare, they may
assist therewith in keeping the schoolhouse in repair and in
paying the salaries of schoolmasters or mistresses within the
verge of said meeting, provided the principal be not thereby
lessened.
8th. If at any time the trustees may not all judge alike how
they ought to proceed in such cases, they are to apply to the
aforesaid monthly meeting for assistance.
9th. The trustees shall from time to time be accountable to
the monthly meeting of Kennett for their management of this
fund, as directed in the minute of their appointment. Signed
by order of Kennett Monthly Meeting, held the 15th of the 12th
month, 1796.[549]

The condition of the schools in Kennett Monthly [Sidenote: State


Meeting was made known in 1798 in the report of schools in
presented by Robert Lambourn for the committee. 1798]

A digest of that report is as follows:

1. They have had the subject “under care.”


2. There are two schools “within their compass.”
3. The town’s schools are taught by Friends’ members.[550]
4. They are under the charge of the meeting’s committee.

The New Garden Meeting in 1773 made record [Sidenote: New


of having placed £4/11/9 in the hands of Jacob Garden]
Wright, to be applied at the further directions of the
meeting to the placing out of poor Friends’ children [Sidenote: Care
for the indigent]
or the relief of indigent Friends.[551] Between that
time and 1778, we learn no more of this educational philanthropic
interest. In that year the usual reminder sent out by the yearly
meeting came to them, calling attention to educational needs.[552] A
committee was appointed which stated in a report, 1779, “some care
is taken therein, and more appearing necessary, they are
continued.”[553] An extract of a few months later is as follows:
[Sidenote: Two
The committee respecting schools, having schools; another
the matter under care, two schools being under proposed]
their notice, and another proposed to be
established, they are continued and desired to report when
necessary, and the clerk to enter the substance of the case in
their report.[554]

Following the report of 1779, which showed there were two


schools in charge of the meeting, there is furnished no further
information until 1785. In the third month, 1785, a large committee of
thirteen members was appointed to take charge of the “weighty
affairs” recommended.[555] This committee produced a report in the
eighth month of the same year, which is gratifying in that it is more
substantial than many others brought in. It is given herewith.
[Sidenote: Report
The committee in the care of schools report of 1785]
that they have had several conferences
together since last meeting, and are of the mind that concern
for the right education of our youth rather increases among
Friends, and that a new school house has been lately built
near Jeremiah Barnard’s on a small piece of land conveyed
by him for that purpose, which account is satisfying to this
meeting. The committee is continued for further service and
desired to report as they may see occasion.[556]

In 1786, George Gawthrop and Thomas Richards were added to


the committee.[557] From the first to the fourth month of that year, the
committee reported they had visited one school,[558] but their report
indicates nothing performed, more than the visit. Four months later it
is reported they had attended to the subject of schools somewhat,
but that it still required much greater attention; and they were
advised to meet with the monthly meeting’s clerk that he might
prepare his report on schools for the quarterly meeting.[559]
Though that report and the one of the quarterly meeting really tell
us nothing, we are better rewarded in one produced just a year later,
which points plainly to some of the difficulties the early school
trustees had to face.
[Sidenote: Report
The committee in the care of schools of 1787]
reported as follows: the substance whereof the
clerk is directed to insert in our report of the quarterly
meeting.

The care of schools has been under our care [Sidenote:


and attention and on conferring together, we Mistresses
agree to report—under the present employed in
summer; some
circumstances of things amongst us, it is found schools not
most convenient to employ mistresses, as the according to
teachers in our schools most generally in the advice]
summer season, several of which are now
under the care of Friends to pretty good satisfaction, and we
hope the concern is in a reviving way amongst us, though
there are discouragements by some Friends encouraging or
promoting schools taught by persons not agreeable to the
advice of the society.[560]

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