Subhash Nagar, Ph: +91 87663 38574

History Chapter-1
NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

1. Fredreric Sorrieu was a French artist who in 1848 prepared a series of four
prints visualizing his dream of a world made up of ‘Democratic & Social
Republics.’
2. The first print of the series, shows the people of Europe & America -men &
women of all ages & social classes -marching in a long train, & offering homage to
the Statue of Liberty as they pass by it which holds the torch of enlightenment in
one hand & the Charter of Rights of Man in the other.
3. On the Earth in the foreground of the image lie the shattered remains of the
symbols of absolutist institutions.
4. In Sorrieu’s Utopian vision, the people of the world are grouped as distinct
nations, identified through their flags & national costume.
5. Leading the procession, way past the Statue of Liberty, are the United States &
Switzerland, which by this time were already nation states. France has just

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reached the statue & is followed by the people of Germany, people of Austria, the
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, etc.
6. From the heavens above, Christ, Saints & angels gaze upon the scene which
symbolize fraternity among the nations of the world.

MODERN STATE: It refers to a state in which a centralized power exercised sovereign

control over a clearly defined territory.

NATION STATE: It refers to a nation state in which the majority of its citizens along
with the rulers develop a sense of common identity & shared history.

FACTORS THAT CREATED A SENSE OF COMMON IDENTITY AMONG THE FRENCH

PEOPLE:

1. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) & le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized on
the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a Constitution.
2. A new tricolour French flag, was chosen to replace the royal flag.
3. The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens & renamed as the
National Assembly.
4. A Centralised administrative system was established & it made uniform laws for
all citizens within its territory.
5. French became the common language of the nation.
6. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of
weights & measures was adopted.

NAPOLEONIC CODE/CIVIL CODE OF 1804:

1. It abolished all privileges based on birth.

2. It established equality before law.
3. It secured the Right to Property.
4. Napoleon simplified administrative divisions & abolished the feudal system.
5. Transport & Communication systems were improved.
6. Standardised weights & measures were adopted.
7. In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed.
8. Transport and communication systems were improved.
9. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom.

ARISTOCRACY AND NEW MIDDLE CLASS:

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ARISTOCRATS – They were the socially and politically dominant class. The members of
this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions. They
owned estates in the countryside and also town-houses. They spoke French for
purposes of diplomacy and in high society. Their families were often connected by ties
of marriage.

1. Western and Central Europe were more developed as compared to the Eastern
Europe due to Industrialisation.
2. Industrialisation began in England in the second half of the eighteenth century.
Came in France and Germany in 19th century.
3. It led to birth of NEW MIDDLE CLASS (industrialists, businessmen,
professionals).

LIBERAL NATIONALISM:

1. Ideas of national unity in early 19th century Europe were closely allied to the
ideology of liberalism. The term ‘Liberalism’ derives from the Latin word Liber,
meaning free.
1. For the new middle classes, liberalism stood for freedom of all individuals &
equality of all before the law.
2. Politically, it emphasized on the concept of government by consent.
3. Since the French Revolution, liberalism has stood for the end of autocracy &
clerical privileges.
4. In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets & the
abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods & capital.

ZOLLVEREIN:

ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE 39 GERMAN STATES IN THE 19th CENTURY:

1. Napoleon’s administrative measures had created a Confederation of 39 states.

2. Each of these possessed its own currency & weights & measures.
3. Duties (tax) were often imposed according to the weight or measurement of
goods.
4. As each region had its own system of weights & measures, this involved time
consuming calculation.
5. Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic growth & exchange by the
new commercial classes, who argued for the creation of a unified economic
territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people & capital.

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BIRTH OF ZOLLVEREIN:

1. In 1834, a customs union or Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia &
was joined by most of the German states.
1. The Union abolished tariff barriers & reduced the number of currencies from
over 30 to 2.
2. The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing
economic interests to national unification.

NEW CONSERVATISM AFTER 1815

1. Napoleon was defeated at the battle of Leipzig in 1815, it led to rise of

Conservatism in Europe.
2. Conservatives believed that traditional institutions like the monarchy, the
Church, social hierarchies, property and the family – should be preserved.
3. But most conservatives did not propose a return to the society of pre-
revolutionary days.
4. They realised that the changes of modernisation proposed by Napoleon can
strengthen the monarchy.

CONGRESS OF VIENNA 1815:

1. In 1815, representatives of the European powers—PRUSSIA, RUSSIA, AUSTRIA &

BRITAIN—who had collectively defeated Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up a
settlement for Europe.
2. The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor-Duke Metternich.
3. The delegates drew up the Treaty of Vienna 1815 with the aim of undoing most
of the changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic Wars.

FEATURES OF THE TREATY OF VIENNA 1815:

1. The Bourbon Dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution,
was restored to power, & France lost the territories it had annexed under
Napoleon.
2. A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French
expansion in future.
3. Austria was given the control of northern Italy.
4. Russia was given a part of Poland.
5. Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.

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6. But the German Confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was
left untouched.
7. The main intention was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by
Napoleon & create a new conservative order in Europe.

FEATURES OF CONSERVATIVE REGIMES IN 1815:

1. Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic.

2. They did not tolerate criticism against the monarchy.
3. Most of them imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers,
books, plays and songs and reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom.
4. The freedom of press was a major issue.

THE REVOLUTIONARIES:

1. After 1815, many secret societies were formed by revolutionaries spread their
nationalist ideas.
2. Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary.
1. Born in Genoa in 1807, he became a member of the Secret Society of Carbonari.
2. At the age of 24, he was sent into exile for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
3. He founded 2 underground societies –
a. YOUNG ITALY in Marseilles
b. YOUNG EUROPE in Berne.
4. Mazzini believed that God wanted nations to be the natural units of mankind.
5. Mazzini’s continuous opposition to monarchy & his vision of democratic
republics frightened the Conservatives.
6. DUKE METTERNICH described him as ‘THE MOST DANGEROUS ENEMY OF OUR
SOCIAL ORDER.’

THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS (1830-1848)

JULY REVOLT IN FRANCE (JULY 1830):

1. The 1st upheaval took place in France in July 1830.

2. The Bourbon dynasty who had been restored to power during the Conservative
reaction after 1815, were overthrown by Liberal Revolutionaries who installed a
Constitutional Monarchy with Louis Philippe as the head.
3. Metternich said, “When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold”

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REVOLT IN BELGIUM:

The July Revolution in France sparked a revolt in BRUSSELS which led to Belgium
breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

1. Greece had been a part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century.
2. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for
independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821.
3. Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile & also from
many west Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.
4. Poets & artists mobilized public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim
Empire.
5. The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war,
where he died of fever in 1824.
6. Finally, the TREATY OF CONSTANTINOPLE of 1832 recognised Greece as an
independent nation.

ROMANTICISM:

1. Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular

form of nationalist sentiment.
2. Romantic artists & poets generally criticized the glorification of reason & science
& focused instead on emotions, intuition & mystical feelings.
3. Their effort was to create a sense of shared collective heritage of common
cultural past.
4. They thought that through folk songs, folk poetry & folk dances, the true spirit of
the nation can be popularized.
5. Eg. KAROL KURPINSKI celebrated the national struggle through his operas &
music, turning folk dances like Polonaise & Mazurka into nationalist symbols.
6. Other Romantics such as the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder said
that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people
through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances.

ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN DEVELOPING NATIONALIST SENTIMENTS

1. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools & the
Russian language was imposed everywhere.

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2. Many members of the Clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of

national resistance.
3. Polish was used for Church gatherings & all religious instructions.
4. As a result, a large number of priests & bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia
by the Russian authorities as punishment.
5. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian
dominance.

1830s - YEARS OF GREAT ECONOMIC HARDSHIP IN EUROPE:

1. An enormous increase in population all over Europe.

2. There were more seekers of jobs than employment.
3. Population from rural areas migrated to cities to live in overcrowded slums.
4. Small producers in towns faced stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-
made goods.
5. Peasants were over burdened with feudal dues and obligations.

SILESIA REVOLT

1. In 1845, weavers in Silesia revolted against the contractors who supplied them
raw material & gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced
their payments.
2. A large group of weavers marched towards the mansion of their contractor
demanding higher wages.
3. The contractor fled with his family to a neighbouring village which, however,
refused to shelter such a person.
4. He returned 24 hours later with the support of the army in which 11 weavers
were shot.

PARIS REVOLT

1. Paris Revolt again took place in 1848.

2. Food shortages & widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris
out on the roads.
3. Barricades were erected & Louis Philippe was forced to flee.
4. A National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males
above 21 & guaranteed the Right to work.
5. National Workshops were set up to provide employment.

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1848: REVOLUTION OF LIBERALS

1. In 1848, there were uprisings of poor peasants and unemployed workers in

various European countries.
2. At the same time, an educated middle-class revolution was taking place.
3. In France, the monarchy abdicated and a republic based on universal male
suffrage was established.
4. In countries without independent nation-states like Germany, Italy, Poland, and
the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the middle classes sought both constitutionalism
and national unification.
5. They capitalized on the growing popular unrest to push for the creation of a
nation-state based on parliamentary principles.
6. Their demands included a constitution, freedom of the press, and freedom of
association.

STRUGGLES OF GERMANY:

1. In the German regions, many middle-class professionals, businessmen, and

prosperous artisans formed political associations in Frankfurt.
2. They decided to hold an all-German National Assembly and elected 831
representatives.
3. On May 18, 1848, the elected representatives marched to the Frankfurt
parliament in a celebratory procession.
4. They drafted a constitution for a German nation with a monarchy under
parliamentary control.
5. When offered the crown under these conditions, King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of
Prussia rejected it and joined other monarchs in opposing the elected assembly.
6. As opposition from the aristocracy and military grew, support for the parliament
declined.
7. The parliament was primarily controlled by the middle class, who resisted the
demands of workers and artisans, leading to a loss of their support.
8. Eventually, troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.

ROLE OF WOMEN:

1. Extending political rights to women was a controversial issue within the liberal
movement.
2. Despite active participation by women in political activities, including forming
associations and newspapers, they were denied suffrage rights during the
Assembly election.

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3. Women were only allowed to observe the Frankfurt parliament from the visitors'
gallery in the Church of St Paul.
4. Women had played a significant role in the liberal movement over the years, but
their political inclusion was limited.

CHANGES AFTER 1848:

1. Conservative forces suppressed liberal movements in 1848, but couldn't fully

restore the old order.
2. Autocratic monarchies in Central and Eastern Europe began adopting changes
seen in Western Europe before 1815.
3. Serfdom and bonded labor were abolished in Habsburg dominions and Russia.
4. The Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.

UNIFICATION OF GERMANY:

1. Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle class Germans, who in

1848 tried to unite different regions of the German confederation into a
nationstate governed by an elected parliament.
2. This initiative towards nation building was suppressed by the combined
forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners
(called JUNKERS) of Prussia.
3. From then on, Prussia led the movement of German unification.
4. Its Chief Minister, Ottovon Bismarck, was the architect of this process which was
carried out with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy.
5. Three wars were fought over 7 years with Austria, Denmark and France
which ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of German
unification.
6. In January 1871, the Prussian King, WILLIAM I, was declared as German
Emperor in a ceremony held at the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles.

IMPACT/EFFECT:

1. The nation building process in Germany showed the dominance of Prussian

state power.
2. The new state emphasised strongly on modernising currency, banking, legal
and judicial systems in Germany.
3. Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of
Germany.

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UNIFICATION OF ITALY

REASONS/CAUSES:

1. During the mid-19th century, Italy was divided into 7 states of which only
one, SARDINIA PIEDMONT, was ruled by an Italian Princely house.
2. The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the
Pope and the southern part was controlled by the Bourbon kings of Spain.
3. Even the Italian language did not have one common form and still
had many regional and local variations.

PROCESS:
Role of GIUSEPPE MAZZINI:

1. He aimed towards creating a Unitary/unified Italian Republic.

2. He also formed a secret society called YOUNG ITALY for achieving his goal.
3. There were two revolutionary uprisings in 1831 and 1848 for unification of Italy
but both failed.
4. This meant that the responsibility to unify Italy fell on Sardinia Piedmont under
its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II.
5. Ruling elites of this region believed that a unified Italy would offer a great
possibility of economic development and political dominance.

Role of COUNT CAVOUR:

1. Chief Minister Count Cavour , who led the unification movement was neither a
revolutionary nor a democrat but he was known as the REAL MAKER OF ITALY.
2. He designed a tactful diplomatic alliance with France due to which Sardinia
Piedmont defeated Austrian forces in 1859.

Role of GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI:

1. Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under

the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the movement.
2. In 1860, they marched into south Italy and the Kingdom of the two Sicilies and
won the support of local peasants to drive out the Spanish rulers.
3. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed the King of united Italy.

MAKING OF THE BRITISH NATION:

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1. In Britain the formation of the nation state was not the result of a sudden
revolution. It was the result of a long drawn out process. There was no British
nation prior to the 18th century.
2. There were ethnic groups that inhabited the British Isles such as English, Welsh,
Scot or Irish.
3. All these ethnic groups had their own cultural & political tradition. But as English
nation slowly grew in wealth, power & importance, it influenced the other nation
of the island.
4. The Act of Union 1707 between England & Scotland resulted in the formation of
the “United Kingdom of Great Britain “.
5. The growth of the Britain meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture & political
institution was systematically suppressed.

IRELAND was a country deeply divided between Catholic and Protestants.

6. The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a
largely Catholic country.
7. Catholic revolt against British dominance were suppressed. After a failed revolt
led by WOLFE TONE & his United Irishmen, Ireland was forcibly incorporated
into the United Kingdom in 1801.
8. The symbol of the new Britain: -
a) The British flag (Union Jack)
b) The National Anthem (God save our Noble King)
c) The English language—were actively promoted &the older nation
survived only as subordinate partner in this union.

ALLEGORY:

1. When an abstract idea is expressed in the form of a person or a thing, it is called

an allegory.
2. Artists in 18 and 19 centuries personified nations i.e. they represented a country
as if it was a person. Nations were then portrayed as female figures i.e. the
female figures became an allegory of the nation.
a. In France, she was christened MARIANNE, a popular Christian name,
which depicted the idea of a people’s nation.
b. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic-
the red cap, the tricolour and the cockade.

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c. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public

of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with
them.
d. Marianne images were also marked on coins and stamps.
3. GERMANIA became an allegory of the German nation.
b. Germania wears the crown of oak leaves as the German oak stands for
heroism.

NATIONALISM AND IMPERALISM

1. During this period nationalist groups became increasingly intolerant of each

other and ever ready to go to war.
2. Major European powers manipulated people’s feelings to establish their power.
3. Nationalism, combined with imperialism, caused a disaster in Europe in 1914.
4. In the late nineteenth century, many colonized countries around the world
started opposing European imperial domination.
5. These anti-imperial movements were nationalist, aiming to establish
independent nation-states and driven by a shared sense of national unity.
6. Each region developed its own unique form of nationalism, distinct from
European ideas.
7. However, the concept of organizing societies into nation-states became widely
accepted as natural and universal.

THE BALKANS:
REGION:
The Balkans comprised modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia,
Croatia, etc. whose inhabitants were called SLAVS.

CAUSES FOR BEING A SOURCE OF NATIONALIST TENSION IN EUROPE:

1. A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. But
with the weakening and disintegration of the Ottoman empire, nationalist
tensions emerged in the area.
2. Its European subject nationalities broke away and declared themselves
independent.
3. People of the Balkans argued that they were once independent before the foreign
powers controlled them. So they wanted to regain their lost independence.

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4. Nationalist tensions emerged due to rivalries of the European powers i.e. Russia,
England, Austria, and Hungary.
5. All these powers wanted to establish their control for one reason or the other.

RIVALRIES AMONG THE BALKAN STATES:

The Balkan states were very jealous of each other and each one of them wanted to
extend their territory at the expense of the others.

RESULT:

Rivalry among the European powers and the Balkan states led to a series of wars and
finally the First World War.

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