DMU Technology College Dep’t of Civil-engineering

CHAPTER ONE
Mechanical Properties of Materials
1.1 Introduction
Statics, covered in Chapters 2 through 4, is essentially force analysis: the determination of the total
internal forces produced in members of a structural framework by externally applied loads. Statics in
itself is not the design of any member, but it is a first step leading to structural design. The primary
objective for a course of study in strength (mechanics) of materials is the development of the
relationship between the loads applied to a non-rigid body and the resulting internal forces and
deformations induced in the body. These internal forces, together with predetermined allowable unit
stresses (usually expressed in newton per square meter), are then used to determine the size of a
structural element required to safely resist the externally applied loads. This forms the basis of structural
design. Before we proceed further, we should understand the following terms
a. Tensile Strength: - this is the ability of a material to withstand stretching loads without breaking.
The applied load P is trying to stretch the rod. Therefore the rod is said to be in
tension, so the material from which the rod is made needs to have sufficient
tensile strength to resist the pull of the load.
Rod

b. Compressive strength: - this the ability of a material to withstand compressive (squeezing) loads without being
crushed or broken.

This component needs to be made from material with adequate compressive

P strength to resist the load P.

c. Shear strength: - this is the ability of a material to withstand offset loads, or transverse cutting (shearing actions)

rivet P
P
P
P

a. A rivet joining two metal bars together. b. Shear failure

Because the loads are not exactly in line, they are said to be off-set and, therefore, the load on the rivet is
called a shearing load, i.e., the rivet is said to be in shear. If the rivet material does not have sufficient shear
strength to resist the loads, the rivet will break (shear off) as shown in fig.b and the loads acting on them will move
apart. The same effect can be caused by loads pushing on the ends of the two metal bars joined by the rivet.

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d. Toughness (impact resistance): - this is the ability of a material to withstand shatter. If a material shatters it is brittle
(eg. Glass). Rubbers and most plastic materials do not shatter, therefore they are tough.

If the spread of surface cracks does not occur or only occurs to small

extent, the material is said to be tough.

e. Rigidity (stiffness): -this is the measure of the ability not to deflect under an applied load.
Eg. Under a light load cast iron deflects less than steel since cast iron is more rigid. But steel is much stronger than
cast iron. Thus a material which is rigid is not necessarily strong.
f. Brittleness: -materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of strain (deformation per unit length) are classified
as brittle materials.
g. Elasticity:-the ability of a material to deform under load and return to its original shape and size when the load is
removed.
If it is made from an elastic material it will be the
Same length before and after the load is applied,
despite the fact that it will be longer whilst the
rod rod load is being applied. This is only true for most
materials, if the load is relatively small and within
the elastic range of the material being tested.
P Elastic extension

P
h. Plasticity: -this property is the exact opposite to elasticity. It is the state of a material that has been loaded beyond
the elastic state. Under a load beyond that required to cause elastic deformation the material deforms permanently. It
takes a permanent set and will not return to its original shape and size when the load is removed.
Ductility and Malleability are particular cases of the property of plasticity.
Example of plasticity
Bending force

Strip before bending force is applied Strip bent beyond the elastic limit so that plastic
deformation occurs.

Since
plastic flow has occurred during bending the strip remains bent after the
bending force has been removed.
 Ductility: -this is the term used when plastic deformation occurs as a result of applying a tension force. It is
property of a material to sustain large strains at fracture.
 Malleability: -this is the term used when plastic deformation occurs as a result of applying a compressive load.
A malleable material is required for processes as rolling and rivet heading.

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Example In forming the head of a rivet by hammering the rivet needs

head of rivet to be made from a malleable material to withstand this
treatment.

i. Hardness: -this is defined as the ability of a material to withstand scratching (abrasion) or indentation by another
hard body. It is an indication of the wear resistance of the material.

Example:
Contact loads acting on
The figure shows a hardened steel ball being pressed first
hard steel balls.
in to a hard material and then in to a soft material by the
same load.

Hard material Soft material

The ball only makes a small indentation in the hard material, but it makes a very much deeper indentation in the softer
material. Hardness is often tested in this manner.

1.2 Stress and strain

1.2.1 Normal stress
A stress can be classified according to the internal reaction that produces it. As shown in Figures 1.1 and
1.2, axial tensile or compressive forces produce tensile or compressive stress, respectively. This type of
stress is classified as a normal stress, because the stressed surface is normal (perpendicular)to the load
direction.

The stressed area a-a, is perpendicular to the load.

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Figure 1.1 Normal compressive stress

across section a-a. Figure 1.2 Normal tensile stress through section a-a.

In normal compressive stress, In normal tensile stress,

Where:-

1.2.2 Shear stress

Shear stress, the second classification of stress, is caused by a tangential force in which the stressed area
is a plane parallel to the direction of the applied load. (Figures 1.3 through1.4). Average shear stress
may be represented mathematically as

.
Figure 1.3 Shear stress between two glued blocks

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Consider the pinned connection shown in Fig 1.4. This joint consists of a clevis A, a bracket B, and a pin C. As the force P is
applied, the bracket and the clevis press against the rivet in bearing, and a non uniform pressure develops against the pin (Fig.
1.4b). The average value of this pressure is determined by the projected area of the pin into the bracket (or clevis). This is
called the bearing stress. The bearing stress in the bracket then equals ζ b=P/ (t1d). Here t1 is the thickness of the bracket and d
is the diameter of the pin. Similarity, the bearing stress in the clevis is given by ζb=P/ (2td).

Fig. 1.4 Bolted Connection in which the bolt is loaded in double shear
The force transferred as bearing on the pin is resisted by the stress developing on sections b-b and c-c of the pin. This stress
developed on a surface created due to a force tangential or parallel to the surface (eg. V in Fig.1.4c) is called shear stress.
Shear stress acts parallel to the surface. In this example since we have two planes resisting shear the pin is said to be in
double shear.
Since the pin as a whole is in equilibrium, any part of it is also in equilibrium. At each cut section, a shear force V equivalent
to P/2, as shown in Fig. 1.4c, must be developed. Thus the shear occurs over an area parallel to the applied load. This
condition is termed direct shear.
Unlike normal stress, the distribution of shearing stresses η across a section cannot be taken as uniform. By dividing the total
shear force V by the cross sectional area A over which it acts, we can determine the average shear stress in the section:

V
 avg 
A
The figure below shows a rivet connection in which the rivet is under single shear.

Fig.1.5 Rivet in single shear

Consider a small element of a material in the form of a rectangular parallelepiped having sides a, b, and
c in the x, y, and z directions, respectively.

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Fig. 1.6 Shear stress and strain

As is shown on the above figure the front and rear faces are assumed to be free of any stresses. Suppose
a shear stress is η is distributed uniformly over the top face of the element. For the element to be in
equilibrium in the x direction, equal but oppositely directed shear stresses must act on the bottom face.
Therefore, the shear force: On the top face, Vtop= ac
Similarly, on the bottom face, Vbottom = - ac
These two forces form a couple having a moment about the z axis of magnitude abc , clockwise in the
figure. Equilibrium of the element requires that this moment be balanced by an equal and opposite
moment resulting from shear stresses acting on the side faces of the element.
Denoting thee stresses on the side faces as η1:
The vertical shear forces are, V =  1bc
The counterclockwise couple becomes, V*a =  1abc
From moment equilibrium:
Clock wise couple = Counter clock wise couple
acb =  1abc
  1
Hence the magnitudes of the shear stresses on the four faces of the element are equal.
Conclusions: -
1. Shear stresses on opposite faces of an element are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
2. Shear stresses on perpendicular faces of an element are equal in magnitude and direction such
that both stresses point toward or both away from, the line of intersection of the faces.
In Fig. 1.6, since only shear stresses are acting on the faces of the element, it is said to be in pure shear.
The above conclusions concerning the shear stresses are valid even when normal stresses also act on the
faces of the element.

1.2.3 Bearing Stress

The third fundamental type of stress, bearing stress (Figure 1.1 & 1.2), is actually a type of normal
stress, but it represents the intensity of force between a body and another body (i.e., the contact between
beam and column, column and footing, footing and ground). The stressed surface is perpendicular to the

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direction of the applied load, the same as normal stress. Like the previous two stresses, the average
bearing stress is defined in terms of a force per unit area.

Figure 1.7 Bearing stress-footing/ground

1.2.4 Torsional Stress

The fourth type of stress is called tensional stress (Figure 1.5).Members in torsion are subjected to
twisting action along their longitudinal axes caused by a moment couple or eccentric load (see Figures
1.5 and 1.6). One of the most common examples of a building member subjected to torsional moments is
a spandrel (edge) beam. Most building members subjected to torsional effects are also experiencing
either bending, shear, tensile, and/or compressive stresses; therefore, it is relatively uncommon to design
specifically for torsion. On the other hand, designs involving machinery and motors with shafts are
extremely sensitive to the stresses resulting from torsion.

Figure 1.8 Member subjected to torsion.

1.2.5 Normal Strain

An axially loaded bar undergoes a change in length, becoming larger when in tension and shorter when
in compression. The change in length is denoted by the Greek letter  (delta). This elongation is the
cumulative result of the stretching of all elements of the material throughout the length L of the bar. The
deformation of different bodies subjected to a particular load is a function of size, and therefore

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comparisons are made by expressing deformation as a non-dimensional quantity given by the change in
dimension per unit of original dimension. The non-dimensional expression of deformation is termed
strain.
For the prismatic bar in Fig 2.1 the strain ε is given by:

 
L
Compressive strains are negative and tensile strains are positive

1.2.6 Shearing Strain

Due to the shear stresses the lengths of the sides of the element do not change. Instead, the shear stresses
produce a change in the shape of the element, as shown in Fig. 1.6(b). The angles between the faces at
points q and s, which were /2 before deformation, are reduced by a small angle  to /2- (Fig. 1.6b).
At the same time, the angles at p and r are increased to /2+. The angle  is a measure of the distortion,
or change in shape, of the element and is called the shear strain. The unit of shear strain is radian. For
the given coordinate system the shearing strain is positive if the right angle between the reference lines
decreases as shown in the figure 1.6b; otherwise, the shearing strain is negative.
The properties of material in shear can be determined experimentally from direct-shear tests or torsion
tests. From the results of these tests, stress strain diagrams in shear may be plotted. These diagrams of η
versus  are similar in shape to the tension test diagrams (ζ versus ε). From the shear diagrams, we can
obtain shear properties such as the proportional limit, the yield stress, and the ultimate stress. These
properties in shear are usually about half as large as those in tension.
For many materials, the initial part of the shear stress strain diagram is a straight line, just as in tension.
For this linearly elastic region the shear stress and strain are directly proportional, and we have the
following equation for Hooke’s law shear.
  G
The constant G is termed the modulus of rigidity, or shear modulus of elasticity, of the material and is
expressed in the same SI units as E- that is Pascals (Pa) (N/m2).
The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear (E and G) are related by the following equation:
E
G
21    in which ν is Poisson’s ratio.

Key Equations
 Normal stress in a tensile or compressive member is the load divided by the cross-sectional area:
ζ=P/A
 Normal strain is the change in length parallel to the load divided by initial length: ε=ΔL/L =δ/L

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 Young's modulus is the ratio of stress over strain within the elastic zone of the stress-strain
diagram: E=ζ/ε
 The change in length of a tensile or compressive member is derived from the three previous
equations: δ= PL/AE
 Shear stress is the load divided by the area parallel to the load: η= P/A
 Shear strain is the deformation parallel to the load divided by initial length perpendicular to the
load: γ= δ/L .

1.3 Stress – Strain relations

The mechanical properties of materials used in engineering are determined by tests performed on small
specimens of the material. To understand the relation between stress and strain a structural steel
specimen is installed between the two large grips of a tensile- test machine and then loaded in tension.
The normal stress ζ in the test specimen is calculated by dividing the load P by the cross-sectional area
A. The average axial strain in the bar is found from the measured elongation  between the gage marks
by dividing  by the gage length L. Compression tests of metals are customarily made on small
specimens in the shape of cubes or circular cylinders. Both the load applied by the machine and the
shortening of the specimen may be measured. After performing a tension or compression test and
determining the stress and strain at various magnitudes of the load, we can plot a diagram of stress
versus strain. Such a stress-strain diagram is characteristic of the material and conveys important
information about the mechanical properties and type of behavior.
Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression-testing machine. As the axial load is
gradually increased in increments, the total elongation over the gauge length is measured at each
increment of the load and this is continued until failure of the specimen takes place. Knowing the
original cross-sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal stress and the strain can be obtained.
The graph of these quantities with the stress along the y-axis and the strain along the x-axis is called the
stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs in form for various materials. The diagram
shown below is that for a medium-carbon structural steel.
Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile or brittle materials. A ductile material is
one having relatively large tensile strains up to the point of rupture like structural steel and aluminum,
whereas brittle materials has a relatively small strain up to the point of rupture like cast iron and
concrete. An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as the dividing line between these two
classes.

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Fig 1.8 Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel

1. Proportional limit. The proportional limit is that stress beyond which the ratio of stress to strain
no longer remains constant. It is the greatest stress that a material is capable of developing
without deviation from Hooke’s law of stress-strain proportionality.
2. Elastic limit. Located close to the proportional limit, yet of entirely different meaning, is the
elastic limit. The elastic limit is that maximum unit stress that can be developed in a material
without causing a permanent set (deformation).A specimen stressed to a point below its elastic
limit will assume its original dimensions when the load is released. If the stress should exceed its
elastic limit, the specimen will deform plastically and will no longer attain its original
dimensions when unloaded. It is then said to have incurred a permanent set.
3. Yield point. When the load on the test specimen is increased beyond the elastic limit, a stress
level is reached where the material continues to elongate without an increase of load. This point,
called the yield point, is defined as the stress at which a marked increase in strain occurs without
a concurrent increase in applied stress. After the initial yielding (upper yield point) is reached,
the force resisting deformation decreases due to the yielding of the material. The value of stress
after initial yielding (the lower yield point) is usually taken to be the true material characteristic
to be used as the basis for the determination of allowable stress (for design purposes).
4. Ultimate strength. The ultimate strength of a material is defined as the stress obtained by
dividing the maximum load reached before the specimen breaks by the original cross-sectional
area. The ultimate strength (often called the tensile strength) of the material is sometimes used as
a basis for establishing the allowable design stresses for a material.
5. Rupture strength (breaking strength, fracture strength). In a ductile material, rupture does not
usually occur at the ultimate unit stress. After the ultimate unit stress has been reached, the
material will generally “neck down,” as shown in Figure 1.7, and its rapidly increasing
elongation will be accompanied by a decrease in load. This decrease becomes more rapid as the
rupture point is approached. The rupture strength, obtained by dividing the load at rupture by the
original area (indicated rupture), has little or no value in design. Amore correct evaluation of the
variation of stress following attainment of the ultimate unit stress is obtained by dividing the
loads by the simultaneously occurring decreasing areas (true rupture strength).
6. Elongation. Elongation is a measure of the ability of a material to undergo deformation without
rupture. Percentage elongation, defined by the equation below, is a measure of the ductility of a

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material. Ductility is a desirable and necessary property, and a member must possess it to prevent
failure due to local overstressing.

7. Reduction of area. As the load on the material undergoing testing is increased, the original
cross-sectional area decreases until it is at a minimum at the instant of fracture. It is customary to
express this reduction in area as the ratio (as a percentage) of the change in area to the original
specimen cross-sectional area

8. Modulus of Toughness: Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as
the force is gradually increased from O to R, in N.m/m3. This may be calculated as the area
under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to
absorb energy without causing it to break.
9. Modulus of Resilience: Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as
the force is gradually increased from O to P, in N.m/m3. This may be calculated as the area
under the stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the
figure). The resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent
distortion.
Hooke’s Law and Basic Elastic Theory
The slope of the straight line from 0 to A is called the modulus of elasticity or Young's, modulus E.
Because strain is non dimensional, this slope has the same units as stress. i.e E=ζ/ε. This relation is
known as Hooke’s law.
With an increase in the load beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase more rapidly for
each increment in stress. The stress-strain curve then has a smaller and smaller slope, until, at point B,
the curve becomes horizontal. Beginning at this point, considerable elongation occurs, with no
noticeable increase in the tensile force (from B to C in Fig 1.8).This phenomenon is known as yielding
of the material, and point B is called the yield point. The corresponding stress is known as the yield
stress of the steel. In the region from B to C, the material becomes perfectly plastic, which means that it
can deform without an increase in the applied load.
After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC, the steel begins to strain
harden. During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its atomic and crystalline structure,
resulting in increased resistance of the material to further deformation. Additional elongation now
requires an increase in the tensile load, and the stress-strain diagram has a positive slope from C to D.
The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the corresponding stress (at point D) is called the
ultimate stress. Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by a reduction in the load, and

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fracture finally occurs at a point such as E in Fig. 1-8.Lateral contraction of the specimen occurs when it
is stretched, resulting in a decrease in the cross-sectional area. The reduction in area is too small to have
a noticeable effect on the calculated value of stress up to about point C, but beyond that point the
reduction begins to alter the shape of the diagram.
In the vicinity of the ultimate stress, the reduction in area of the bar becomes clearly visible and a
pronounced necking of the bar occurs.

Poisson’s Ratio and Volumetric Strain

Poisson’s Ratio:
When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied by lateral contraction
(normal to the direction of the applied load), the final shape being dotted in Fig. 1.9.below.

Fig 1.9 Axial elongation and lateral contraction of a bar in tension.

It is found that for an elastic material the lateral strain is proportional to the longitudinal strain, and is of
the opposite type.
The ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to the strain in the axial direction is known as Poisson's
ratio and is denoted by the Greek letter ν (nu); thus

Lateral strain
  
Axial strain

The value of ν fluctuates for different materials over a relatively narrow range. Generally, it is on the
order of 0.25 to 0.35. In extreme cases, values as low as 0.1 (some concretes) and as high as 0.5 (rubber)
occur. The latter value is the largest possible.
Volumetric Strain:
Because the dimensions of a bar in tension or compression are changed when the load is applied, the
volume of the bar changes too. The change in volume can be calculated from the axial and lateral
strains. Consider a small rectangular parallelepiped element of isotropic material cut from a bar in
tension. The element has side lengths a, b, and c in the x, y, and z directions, respectively. The dashed
line in the fig below shows the shape of the element after the load is applied.

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Fig. 1.10. Change of shape of an element taken from a bar in tension

The elongation of the element in the direction of loading is aε, where ε is the axial strain. Because the
lateral strains are - νε the lateral dimensions decrease by bνε and cνε in the y and z directions
respectively. Thus, the final dimensions of the element are a (1 + ε), b (1 - νε), and c (1 - νε), and the
final volume is
V f  abc1   1  1  
Expanding this expression will give:-
Vf = abc [1 +ε- 2 νε - 2 νε 2 + v2ε2 + ν2ε3]
As ε is very small compared to unity, its square and cube are negligible in comparison to ε itself.
Therefore, the final volume of the element is.
Vf = abc (1+ε - 2 νε)
The change in volume is, V = Vf - Vo
= abc (1 +ε- 2 νε) - abc
= abc ε (1 - 2ν)
Where the original volume, Vo = abc
Changein volum e
e
The unit volume change, i.e. volumetric strain, Orginal volum e

abc  (1  2 )
e   ( 1  2 )
abc

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But
 
  e  ( 1  2 )
E E
1.4 Allowable Stress and Factor of Safety
A working stress or allowable stress is defined as the maximum stress permitted in a design
computation. It is the stress derived from the results of many tests and the accumulated experience
obtained from many years of firsthand observation in the performance of members in actual service.
The factor of safety may be defined as the ratio of a failure producing load to the estimated actual load.
The ratio maybe calculated as the ultimate stress (or yield-point stress) to the allowable working stress.
factor of safety is normally defined as;
Ultim atestress 
Factor of safety with respect to ultimate stress, n =  u
Workingstress  allow

Yieldstress y
Factor of safety with respect to yield stress, n= 
Workingstress  allow

Ultim ateload
Factor of safety with respect to ultimate load, n=
Workingload
The factor of safety is normally much greater with respect to the ultimate stress than with respect to the
yield stress.
1.5 Axially loaded members
Axially loaded member: structural components subjected only to tension or compression, such as
trusses, connecting rods, columns, etc. change in length for prismatic bars, non-uniform bars are
determined, it will be used to solve the statically indeterminate structures, change in length by thermal
effect is also considered.

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1.6 Changes in length of Axially loaded members

consider a coil spring with natural length L subjected to an axial load P
if the material of the spring is linear elastic, then
P = k or = f P
k : stiffness (spring constant)
f : flexibility (compliance)with k f = 1some cross-

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1.7 Changes in length under non-uniform conditions

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1.8 Statically Indeterminate Members

 Structures for which internal forces and reactions cannot be determined from statics alone are
said to be statically indeterminate.
 Deformations due to actual loads and redundant reactions are determined separately and then
added or superposed.
 Redundant reactions are replaced with unknown loads which along with the other loads must
produce compatible deformations.
 A structure will be statically indeterminate whenever it is held by more supports than are
required to maintain its equilibrium.

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1.9 Thermal Effects

Most structural materials increase in volume when subjected to heat and contract when cooled.
Whenever a design prevents the change in length of a member subjected to temperature variation,

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internal stresses develop. Sometimes these thermal stresses may be sufficiently high to exceed the elastic
limit and cause serious damage. Free, unrestrained members experience no stress changes with
temperature changes, but dimensional change results. For example, it is common practice to provide
expansion joints between sidewalk pavements to allow movement during hot summer days. Prevention
of expansion on a hot day would undoubtedly result in severe buckling of the pavement.
The dimensional change due to temperature changes is usually described in terms of the change in a
linear dimension. The change in length of a structural member L is directly proportional to both the
temperature change and the original length Ló of the member Thermal sensitivity, called the coefficient
of linear expansion(α)has been determined for all engineering materials. Careful measurements have
shown that the ratio of strain to temperature change is a constant:

Table 1.1 Linear coefficients of thermal expansion (contraction).

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