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Textbook Simulators For Transportation Human Factors Research and Practice 1St Edition Mark S Young Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Simulators For Transportation Human Factors Research and Practice 1St Edition Mark S Young Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Simulators For Transportation Human Factors Research and Practice 1St Edition Mark S Young Ebook All Chapter PDF
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Simulators for
Transportation Human
Factors
Research and Practice
The Human Factors of Simulation and Assessment
Series Editors
Michael G. Lenné
Monash University Accident Research Centre, Australia
Mark S. Young
Loughborough Design School, Loughborough University, UK
Mark S. Young
Loughborough Design School, Loughborough University, UK
FORTHCOMING
Integrating Human Factors Methods and Systems Thinking for Transport
Analysis and Design: Integrating Human Factors Methods and Systems Thinking
for Transport Analysis and Design
Michael G. Lenné, Paul M. Salmon, Neville A. Stanton, Vanessa Beanland,
and Gemma Read
ISBN 9781409463191 • (2017)
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Simulators for
Transportation Human
Factors
Research and Practice
Edited by
Mark S. Young
Michael G. Lenné
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers
have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to
copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has
not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmit
ted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright
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Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and
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a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Preface.......................................................................................................................ix
Acknowledgements................................................................................................xi
Editors.................................................................................................................... xiii
Contributors............................................................................................................xv
Section I Introduction
1. Prologue.............................................................................................................3
Mark S. Young, Michael G. Lenné and Alex W. Stedmon
Section II Road
3. Driver Training.............................................................................................. 47
Andrew Parkes and Nick Reed
vii
viii Contents
Section IV Air
Section V Maritime
Section VI Conclusions
Index...................................................................................................................... 329
Preface
ix
x Preface
applications (including driver training and rail research). The material focuses
on simulator use rather than simulator development, but there is informa-
tion in here that can help those looking to develop a functional requirements
specification for a simulator. It is not intended as a handbook, but as a source
of literature and case studies as well as a means for sharing experiences and
lessons across the transport domains. By bridging research and practice in
all of the transport modes, readers will have an accessible overview of the
latest simulator techniques and studies across the gamut of transportation
human factors.
Acknowledgements
We owe our gratitude to several people for making this book happen: first
and foremost, to Guy Loft, the original publisher of this series and the one
who kicked off this book project; Cindy Carelli, executive editor; and Renee
Nakash, editorial assistant at Taylor & Francis, who have made sure that
we finished it; and, secondly, of course, to all the chapter authors for their
patience and tenacity throughout the whole process. Finally, we would like
to thank both our families for indulging us whilst this book occupied so
many evenings of our lives. It is done now.
xi
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Editors
xiii
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Contributors
xv
xvi Contributors
Introduction
http://taylorandfrancis.com
1
Prologue
CONTENTS
1.1 Advance of Transport Simulators................................................................. 3
1.2 What Is a Simulator?....................................................................................... 4
1.3 Simulator Fidelity and Validity....................................................................5
1.4 Benefits of Simulators.....................................................................................8
1.5 Current Trends in Transport Simulators................................................... 11
1.6 Structure of This Book................................................................................. 13
References................................................................................................................ 14
3
4 Simulators for Transportation Human Factors
developments in the way that simulators are designed and used. In rail,
for instance, there was a rapid growth in driver training and signal-
ling simulators following the recommendations of Lord Cullen after the
Ladbroke Grove accident in the United Kingdom (Stedmon et al. 2009).
Meanwhile, simulators in the automotive sector are more typically used
for researching various aspects of driver behaviour and performance.
Within the maritime domain, simulators are regularly used to train
bridge operations and navigation in and out of busy ports and also in fire
and flood responses aboard a ship.
We will return to these applications later in the chapter, as a prelude to
the rest of this book. Before we get there, though, let us consider some of the
more generic aspects of, and issues with, transport simulators.
1.2 What Is a Simulator?
For anyone looking for a simple definition of a simulator, it is easy to assume
that it means a high-fidelity replica of the real system. However, as we shall
see, simulators cover an extensive range of different tools. At a generic level,
simulators offer a level of abstraction from the real world by providing an
artificial environment in which users can experience the characteristics of
a real system. With this in mind, any of the following could be classed as a
simulator (cf. Stedmon et al. 2009):
* The chapters in this book tend, on the whole, to refer to simulators, but the term may be used
interchangeably with simulation. In this chapter, we use simulator as meaning the tool itself
(be it a computer system, mock-up or full replica), whilst simulation refers to the environment
being reproduced (which may, for instance, be achieved during a role-play exercise).
6 Simulators for Transportation Human Factors
Amongst the various aspects of simulator fidelity, three key areas emerge
(Stanton 1996):
1.4 Benefits of Simulators
The previous discussion has already alluded to the healthy debate in many
areas of applied investigation (and transportation human factors is no
exception) over the relative merits of laboratory and field research. From a
methodological perspective, there are both advantages and disadvantages
to laboratory and field research. Whilst data derived from real-world con-
texts can be extremely valuable for investigating aspects of human–machine
interaction and user behaviour (Stedmon et al. 2009), simulators offer several
advantages for both research and training applications.
First and foremost is the fact that simulators can be used to put people in
safety-critical situations which would be unethical or dangerous to repro-
duce in the real world. Examples may be testing the effects of distraction
on driver performance (e.g. Young and Mahfoud 2007), investigating poten-
tial performance impairments (such as fatigue or workload) or training for
abnormal or emergency events (e.g. aircraft evacuation, engine fires, train
malfunctions).
Indeed, even collecting data in a live environment can incur some risk
to personal or public safety, which can be avoided by using a simulator.
Research into driver mental workload has often used secondary-task para-
digms with participants dividing their attention between driving and an
additional task (e.g. Young and Stanton 2004, 2007). Methods such as this
and the use of head-mounted eye-tracking equipment are inadvisable in
real road studies for safety reasons. Real-world methods often have to take
a non-invasive approach so that the driver is not unduly distracted from
the task of safe driving. For this reason, pre- and post-trial comparisons or
non-intrusive measures are often used (e.g. psychophysiological or remote
monitoring using video analysis), which can raise issues associated with
retrospective data collection and lengthy post-trial analyses. Simulators
therefore provide a means for investigating fundamental human factors
questions and collecting crucial data that would be difficult or impossible
to conduct in the field.
Simulators are also a safer option when there is a need to expose untrained
or semi-experienced users to a system (with or without supervision) within a
Prologue 9
safe environment. In a simulator, users are able (and sometimes even encour-
aged) to make mistakes that would not be practical in a real situation. This
allows users to gain experience and familiarity with a system, to repeat
actions in order to learn from their mistakes and to practice their skills
before working in a live environment.
Another key advantage to using a simulator is the high degree of con-
trol over the environment. The real world is highly dynamic, making it
extremely difficult to control more than a few variables with which the
user interacts. The myriad of extraneous factors that can influence perfor-
mance may confound training, data collection and analysis. In the simula-
tor, it is possible to hold all of these variables constant to minimise such
confounds and isolate the factors of interest. Differences in performance
can then be attributed to the manipulated variables with a high degree of
confidence.
Similarly, the simulator offers repeatability, in that a given scenario will be
experienced in exactly the same way by all users, time and time again. In the
real world, no two journeys are the same, subject as they are to the vagaries
of factors such as weather, traffic, lighting and other conditions. The ability
to repeat the same scenario facilitates extensive data collection for research
as well as consistency and reliability in training and assessment.
Timescales can also be compressed in a simulator, so that specific (rare)
events can be presented on demand and in a short period, without wait-
ing for the right conditions to arise. It is also possible to model hazards and
conditions in simulators that are not easy to recreate or capture in the real
world due to their infrequency and unpredictability (Stedmon et al. 2009).
This capability may be useful to address specific research questions or in
training (and refresher training) for infrequent or abnormal events.
A major advantage is that simulators offer a data-rich environment; the
software used to develop scenarios often provides the basis for collecting a
vast array of data, which is usually not possible in the real world. The perfor-
mance recording and assessment capabilities of the simulator can be used for
later statistical analysis in research or for objective comparison of a trainee’s
performance against set criteria. Meanwhile, ancillary equipment (such as
eye tracking) can be used to supplement data collection.
Simulators can also offer practical benefits, as it is possible to run trials
regardless of the external weather, time of day or other conditions, and trials
can be aborted relatively easily. A simulator can also be used as the environ-
ment within which to test and train participants on new equipment, proto-
types or procedures, in order to understand the impacts of such changes and
facilitate their smooth introduction into service.
From an economic and ecological perspective, simulator studies typically
consume fewer resources than real-world research does (although the capi-
tal, operating and maintenance costs of a simulator can be considerable, espe-
cially when taking into account space and facilities requirements). In most
cases, the costs and logistical challenges of running a study in a simulator
10 Simulators for Transportation Human Factors
would be far lower than conducting the same study out in the field, where
as well as the impact of using operational equipment, it might also involve
disruptions to the transport network. Simulators are therefore an attractive
option where the system itself is a valuable resource that is needed for opera-
tional purposes and cannot be spared for research or training activities (e.g.
using a full aircraft, occupying the rail network, highways and even mari-
time access).
The availability and consistency of the simulated environment allow for a
much higher throughput of participants as well. A simulator can be operated
around the clock, if needs be, whereas real-world testing depends on the
availability of operational equipment. For training and assessment in partic-
ular, this facilitates extended practice of procedural or psychomotor skills –
skills which are best learned by doing rather than studying the theory and
rules in the classroom. Finally, there is the potential for simulator training to
increase the efficiency of training courses and potentially reduce the amount
of training time required on live assets.
Nevertheless, simulators are not a panacea for research or training. There
is still debate about the transfer of training from a simulator to the real world,
with particular concerns over negative transfer whereby actions learned in
the simulator prove inappropriate or unsafe in the live environment (e.g.
where part-task simulation does not provide a holistic understanding for the
user). It therefore seems unlikely that simulators will completely replace on-
the-job training any time soon (see Chapter 9 for further discussion on this
point).
With any simulation experience, participants usually recognise that they
are not operating a real system with its associated consequences if they make
a mistake (i.e. they know that they are safe from harm regardless of their
actions). Some simulators, particularly those including movement, can have
adverse physiological consequences in the form of simulator sickness, as dis-
cussed earlier in this chapter and elsewhere in this book (see Chapters 2, 3, 5
and 11). In addition, there will be limits as to the degree of realism that can be
achieved in a simulator, even with modern computing power. Some elements
of the visual scene (such as glare and contrast) are notoriously difficult to
simulate, although advances in software and display technology are leading
to improvements in these areas.
It is therefore important to maintain a balanced perspective on the relative
merits of real-world trials against laboratory-based simulator testing. The
final decision is usually based on the requirements and the complexity of
the investigation. In some cases, that may mean choosing real-world studies
or quasi-experimental trials over simulator studies. If the solution is to use
a simulator, its specification should be developed to meet the purpose for
which it is intended (e.g. training, research, product development), based on
a fundamental understanding of user requirements, user expectations and
the intended user experience (Stedmon et al. 2009). Ultimately, it is a case of
using the right tool for the job.
Prologue 11
Language: Finnish
Kirj.
Ellen Wester
Suomennos
Tammikuu.
Helmikuu.
Huoneessani riippuu rokokoopeili, kullatussa, kaareilevassa
kehyksessä, ja peilin alla kullatulla hyllyllä seisoo pieni porsliininen
pari, puuteroittuine irtonaishiuksineen ja rintaröyhelyksineen. Heillä
on sirosti teeskentelevä ryhti — tyttö ottaa povestaan kirjeen ja
ojentaa sitä pojalle ja tämä kumartaa, käsi sydämellään, ja näyttää
vakuuttavan pettämätöntä jumaloimistansa kylliksen ihanuudelle ja
sulolle. Tuo pieni, huolettomasti hymyilevä pari johtaa ajatukset
menneisiin aikoihin jolloin ihmiset — niin kuvittelemille — kulkivat
tanssien elämänsä läpi.
Kun laskin ikkunaverhoni alas, välähti pääni läpi ajatus, että nyt
tunnen ainakin yhden, jonka jokapäiväinen tie käypi pitkää, pimeätä
katua pitkin.
Huhtikuu.
Ilma oli lauha ja maa oli niin kostea, että vesi pursui esiin siitä,
mihin jalka vaan tallasi. Pensaitten silmikot paisuivat suurina;
sopessa pilkisteli krookuspäitä esiin, ja nurkassa, minne
etelänaurinko paistoi, kukkivat lumipisarat vihertävän valkeina ja
täyteläisinä.
Jos hän vielä olisi kysynyt, niin olisi hän mielellään saanut tietää,
mitä olin ommellut ja mitä sen ohella olin ajatellut, mutta hän alkoikin
puhua puutarhasta, keväästä ja ilmasta ja sitten elämästäni.
Nyt tiedän, kenen lamppu se on, joka palaa niin myöhään illalla.
Katu ei enää ole tyhjä ja autio — mutta pimeys tuolla puolen
valonsäteen on niin musta.
Toukokuu.
»Kiitos, että tulette tänne alas; te olette hyvä», ja sitten suuteli hän
kättäni, jota omassaan piteli.
Kesäkuu