MK CH 3

Chemistry: The Central Science
Fifteenth Edition
Chapter 3
Chemical Reactions and
Reaction Stoichiometry
Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

3.1 Chemical Equations
• Chemical equations are how chemists represent chemical
reactions on paper.
• Arrows separate the starting materials (on the left), called
reactants, from the ending materials (on the right), called
products.
• “+” separates multiple starting or ending materials.

Balancing Equations
• Follow the Law of Conservation of Mass, but how?
• Start with an element that is only in one reactant and
product (C below).
• Balance it by changing coefficients, Not subscripts. (Like in
math, a “1” is not written, but it is assumed.)
• Then trial and error. Move on to other elements, without
changing coefficients that are set, until complete, checking
all elements at the end (H, then O here; totals below).

Why Do We Add Coefficients Instead of
Changing Subscripts to Balance?
• Hydrogen and oxygen can make water (H2O ) or hydrogen

peroxide (H2O2 ) . Same elements, but different proportions.
They are two different substances.
2 H2 (g ) + O2 ( g ) → 2 H2 O( l )
H2 (g ) + O2 (g ) → H2 O2 ( l )

Required Symbols in Chemical Equations

CH4 (g ) + 2O2 ( g ) ⎯⎯ → CO2 ( g ) + 2H2 O( g )
• Phases: The states of matter for the reactants and

products are often written in parentheses to the right of
each formula or symbol.
– (g) = gas; (l) = liquid; (s) = solid;
– (aq) = dissolve in aqueous (water) solution
3.2 Simple Patterns of Chemical Reactivity
• There are many different types of chemical reactions.

• After you master this chapter, three broad classes of
reactions can be predicted:
– Combination reactions
– Decomposition reactions
– Combustion reactions

Combination Reactions
• Two or more substances react to form one product.
Table 3.1: Combination and Decomposition Reactions

Blank
Combination Reactions
A +B → C Two or more reactants combine to form a

single product. Many elements react with
C(s ) + O2 (g ) → CO2 (g ) one another in this fashion to form
N2 (g ) + 3 H2 ( g ) → 2 NH3 ( g ) compounds.
A + B yields C. C solid + O 2 gas yields C O 2 gas. N 2 gas + 3 H 2 gas yields 2 N H 3 gas. C a O solid + H 2 O liquid yields C a, O H 2 dissolve in aqueous solution
CaO(s ) +H2O( l ) → Ca(OH)2 (aq )

Combination Reaction Prediction: A
Metal and a Nonmetal
• You should be able to predict the product of a combination

reaction between a metal and a nonmetal, like the one
below. (Hint: Use common charges for Groups)

Decomposition Reactions
• In a decomposition reaction, one
substance breaks down into two or
more substances.
• In the air bag, solid sodium azide
(NaN3 ) releases nitrogen (N2 )
gas quickly on impact.
Table 3.1: Combination and Decomposition Reactions
Blank
Decomposition Reactions
C → A +B A single reactant breaks apart to form two or
2 KCIO3 (s ) → 2 KCI(s ) + 3 O2 ( g ) more substances. Many compounds react this
way when heated.
PbCO3 (s ) → PbO(s ) + CO2 ( g )
C yields A + B. 2 K C I O 3 solid yields 2 K C I solid + 3 O 2 gas. P b C O 3 solid yields P b O solid + C O 2 gas. C U, O H 2 solid + C u O solid + H 2 O gas
Cu(OH)2 (s ) → CuO(s ) + H2O( g )

Predicting Decomposition Reactions:
Heating a Metal Carbonate
• Metal carbonates decompose when heated to give off
carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and a metal oxide.
– CaO is a major raw material for cement production.
• Balancing these equations is based on the charge of the

metal.

CaCO3 (s) ⎯⎯ → CaO(s) + CO2 ( g )

Combustion Reactions
• Combustion reactions
are rapid reactions that
produce a flame.
• Combustion reactions
most often involve oxygen
in the air as a reactant.

Combustion Reaction Predictions
• When burning compounds with C and H in them
(hydrocarbons), the products are CO2 and H2O.
C3H8 (g ) + 5O2 ( g ) → 3CO2 ( g ) + 4H2 O( g )

3.3 Formula Weight (FW)
• A formula weight is the sum of the atomic weights for the
atoms in a chemical formula.
• This is the quantitative significance of a formula.
• For an element like sodium, Na, the formula weight is the
atomic weight (23.0 amu). Found on the periodic table.
• For an ionic compound, use the empirical formula.
• The formula weight of sulfuric acid, H2SO4 , would be
– 2(AW of H) + 1(AW of S) + 4(AW of O)
– 2(1.0 amu) + 32.1amu + 4(16.0 amu)
– FW(H2SO4 ) = 98.1amu
Molecular Weight (MW)
• If the substance is a molecule, the formula weight is also
called its molecular weight.
• A molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights of
the atoms in a molecule.
• For glucose, which has a molecular formula of C6H12O6 ,
the molecular weight is
– 6(AW of C) + 12(AW of H) + 6(AW of O)

– 6(12.0 amu) + 12(1.0 amu) + 6(16.0 amu)
– MW(C6H12O6 ) = 180.0 amu

Percent Composition (1 of 2)
• One can find the percentage of the mass of each element
of a compound from the chemical formula.
• Use each of the elements in the compound with this
equation:
 number of atoms  atomic weight 

 of the element  of the element 
% Element =     100
FW of the substance

Percent Composition (2 of 2)
• The percentage of carbon in glucose ( C6H12 O6 ) is:
C = 12.0 amu
6 carbons in glucose
MW glucose = 180.0 amu [6(12) + 12(1) + 6(16)]
(6)(12.0 amu)
%C =
(180.0 amu)
72.0 amu
=  100
180.0 amu
= 40.0%

3.4 Avogadro’s Number
• In a lab, we cannot work with individual
molecules. They are too small.
• One mole (abbreviated: mol) is the
amount of particles found in exactly 12
g of C-12.
• 6.02  1023 atoms or molecules is the
number of particles in one mole.

Molar Mass
• A molar mass is the mass of
1 mol of a substance (i.e.,
g /mol).
ram e
• The molar mass of an

element is the atomic weight
for the element from the
periodic table. If it is diatomic,
it is twice that atomic weight.
• The formula weight (in amu)
will be the same number as
the molar mass (in g /mol).
ram e

Mole Relationships
Table 3.2 Mole Relationship
Name of Substance Formula Formula Weight Molar Mass (g /mol ) Number and Kind of Particles in
rams e
(amu) One Mole

Atomic nitrogen N 14.0 14.0 6.02  1023 N atoms
6.02 times 10 to the twenty third power N atoms
Molecular nitrogen or  6.02  1023 N2 molecules

N2
N2
28.0 28.0 
left brace, 6.02 times 10 to the twenty third power N 2 molecules, 2 left parenthesis 6.02 times 10 to the twenty third power right parenthesis N atoms
“dinitrogen” 2(6.02  10 ) N atoms

23
Silver Ag 107.9 107.9 6.02  1023 Ag atoms

6.02 times 10 to the twenty third power A g atoms
Silver ions Ag+

Ag +
107.9a
107. 9 superscript a
107.9 6.02  1023 Ag+ ions

6.02 times 10 to the twenty third power A g + ions
 6.02  1023 BaCl2 formula units


BaCl2  6.02  10 Ba ions
23 2+
Barium chloride Ba C l 2
208.2 208.2 6.02 times 10 to the twenty third power B a C l 2 formula units. 6.02 times 10 to the twenty third power B a 2 + ions. 6.02 times 10 to the twenty third power C l minus ions
 −
2(6.02  10 ) Cl ions
23
a
Recall that the mass of an electron is more than 1800 times smaller than the masses of the proton and the neutron;
thus, ions and atoms have essentially the same mass
• One mole of atoms, ions, or molecules contains Avogadro’s number of those particles.
• The number of atoms of an element in a mole is the subscript in a formula (number of
atoms of that element in the formula) times Avogadro’s number.

Converting Amounts Using Moles
• Moles provide a bridge from the molecular scale to the

real-world scale.
• Using equalities, we can convert from mass to atoms or
from atoms to mass.
• How many atoms in 3 g of copper (Cu)?
rams
 Cu   atoms 
• 3 g Cu   1 mol Cu    6.02  10 23  = 3  10 22
atoms
 63.5 g   1 mol Cu 

3.5 Empirical Formulas from Analysis
• One can determine the empirical formula from the percent

composition by following these three steps. Assume the mass
% is based on a 100 g sample.
rams
1. Convert mass% to grams

2. Convert grams to moles
3. Calculate the mole ratio

Determining Empirical Formulas—an
Example (1 of 3)
• The compound para-aminobenzoic acid (you may have
seen it listed as PABA on your bottle of sunscreen) is
composed of carbon (61.31%), hydrogen (5.14%),
nitrogen (10.21%), and oxygen (23.33%). Find the
empirical formula of PABA.
– The four elements are C, H, N, and O
– The % become grams
▪ C = 61.31 g
rams
▪ H = 5.14 grams
▪ N = 10.21 g
rams
▪ O = 23.33 g rams

Example (2 of 3)
• Convert grams to moles assuming the 100.00 g of para- rams
aminobenzoic acid
1 mol
C : 61.31 g  = 5.105 mol C
12.01 g
1 mol
H : 5.14 g  = 5.09 mol H
1.01 g
1 mol
N : 10.21 g  = 0.7288 mol N
14.01 g
1 mol
O : 23.33 g  = 1.456 mol O
16.00 g
Example (3 of 3)
• Calculate the mole ratio for each element by dividing by

the smallest number of moles, i.e., 0.7288 mol:
5.105 mol
C: = 7.005  7
0.7288 mol These become the
5.09 mol subscripts for the
H: = 6.984  7
0.7288 mol empirical formula:
0.7288 mol C7H7NO2
N: = 1.000
0.7288 mol
1.458 mol
O: = 2.001  2
0.7288 mol
Molecular Formulas From Empirical
Formulas
• Remember, the number of atoms in a molecular formula

is a multiple of the number of atoms in an empirical
formula.
• If we find the empirical formula and know a molar mass
(molecular weight) for the compound, we can find the
molecular formula.
Molecular weight (MW)

Whole number multiple =
Empirical formula weight (FW)

Determining a Molecular Formula—an
Example
• The empirical formula of a compound was found to be

CH. It has a molar mass of 78 g /mol. What is its
rams
molecular formula?
• Solution:
C + H = 1(12) + 1(1) = 13 CH
Whole-number multiple = 78/13 = 6 (CH)6
The molecular formula is C6H6 .

Combustion Analysis (1 of 3)
• Compounds containing C, H, and O are routinely analyzed through combustion in a

chamber. Once element mole ratio is known, formula can be determined.
1. Mass of C is determined from the mass of CO2 produced.
2. Mass of H is determined from the mass of H2O produced.
3. Mass of O is determined by the difference of the mass of the compound used

and the total mass of C and H. g(O) = g(sample ) − g(C) − g (H)
▪ Note: The mass of O in the compound cannot be determined from

CO2 and H2O because oxygen is added during the combustion.
• Mass of C is determined from the mass of C O2 produced.

• Mass of H is determined from the mass of H2O produced.

3.6 Quantitative Information from Balanced
Equations
• The coefficients in the balanced equation show

– Relative numbers of molecules of reactants and products
– Relative numbers of moles of reactants and products, which can
be converted to mass

Stoichiometric Calculations
• We have already seen in this chapter how to convert from

grams to moles or moles to grams.
• The new calculation is how to compare two different
materials, using the mole ratio from the balanced
equation. This referred to as using stoichiometry.
• The mole ratio comes from the coefficients in the
balanced equation.
An Example of a Stoichiometric
Calculation (1 of 3)
• How many grams of water can be produced from 1.00 g of rams
glucose?
C6 H12 O6 (𝑠) + 6O2 (𝑔) → 6𝐶O2 (𝑔) + 6H2 O (𝑙)
• There is 1.00 g of glucose to start.

ram
• The first step is to convert grams to moles.

 1 mol C H O 
(
Moles C6H12O6 = 1.00 gC6H12O6 )  6 12 6
 180.0 gC6H12O6


 
• The new calculation is to convert moles of one substance

in the equation to moles of another substance.
• The mole ratio comes from the coefficients in the
balanced equation.
 1 mol C6H12O6  
(
Moles H2O = 1.00 gC6H12O6 ) 
 180.0 gC6H12O6

6molH2O
  1 mol C6H12O6


  

• In the last step, moles of water is converted to grams of

water.
• This gives the answer we wanted.
• You can do each step separately Or you can do them in
one calculation, following the scheme.
18.0
 1 mol C6H12O6   6 molH2O   180.0gH O 
(
Grams H2O = 1.00 gC6H12O6 ) 
 180.0 gC6H12O6

  1 mol C6H12O6
 2
  1 molH2O 

   
= 0.600gH2O

Heat and Stoichiometry
• If heat is involved in a chemical reaction, it does NOT
appear in a balanced equation.
• Often the Greek symbol delta (  ) will appear over the
equation arrow.
• In Chapter 5, we will see how amounts of heat are
related to a balanced equation.
• Those amounts also depend on stoichiometry.

3.7 Limiting Reactants (1 of 3)
• The limiting reactant is the reactant present in the
smallest stoichiometric amount.
– In other words, it is the reactant you will run out of first
– In this example it will be H2 .

• Using this same example, O2 is the excess reagent.
+ O2 ( g ) →
Blank
2H2 (g ) 2 H 2 gas + O 2 gas yields 2 H 2 O, liquid
2H2O(g )
Before reaction: 10 mol 7 mol 0 mol
Change (reaction): −10 mol

negative 10 molecule −5 mol
negative 5 molecule +10 mol
After reaction: 0 mol 2 mol 10 mol

• The limiting reactant principle is used in all stoichiometry
calculations to determine amounts of products that are
produced and amounts of any other reactant(s) that are
used up in a reaction.

Theoretical Yield
• The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product
that can be made.
– It is the maximum amount of product calculated
through the stoichiometry problem.
• This is different from the actual yield, which is the
amount one actually produced and measured.

Percent Yield
• One finds the percent yield by comparing the amount
actually obtained (actual yield) to the amount it was
possible to make (theoretical yield):
actual yield
Percent yield =  100
theoretical yield

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Chemistry: The Central Science

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

• Hydrogen and oxygen can make water (H2O ) or hydrogen

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

• Phases: The states of matter for the reactants and

• There are many different types of chemical reactions.

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Table 3.1: Combination and Decomposition Reactions

A +B → C Two or more reactants combine to form a

CaO(s ) +H2O( l ) → Ca(OH)2 (aq )

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

• You should be able to predict the product of a combination

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Cu(OH)2 (s ) → CuO(s ) + H2O( g )

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

– CaO is a major raw material for cement production.

• Balancing these equations is based on the charge of the

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

C3H8 (g ) + 5O2 ( g ) → 3CO2 ( g ) + 4H2 O( g )

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

– 6(AW of C) + 12(AW of H) + 6(AW of O)

– MW(C6H12O6 ) = 180.0 amu

 number of atoms  atomic weight 

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

• The molar mass of an

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

(amu) One Mole

Molecular nitrogen or  6.02  1023 N2 molecules

“dinitrogen” 2(6.02  10 ) N atoms

Silver Ag 107.9 107.9 6.02  1023 Ag atoms

Silver ions Ag+

107.9 6.02  1023 Ag+ ions

 6.02  1023 BaCl2 formula units

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

• Moles provide a bridge from the molecular scale to the

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

• One can determine the empirical formula from the percent

1. Convert mass% to grams

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

• Convert grams to moles assuming the 100.00 g of para- rams

• Calculate the mole ratio for each element by dividing by

• Remember, the number of atoms in a molecular formula

Molecular weight (MW)

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

• The empirical formula of a compound was found to be

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

• Compounds containing C, H, and O are routinely analyzed through combustion in a

3. Mass of O is determined by the difference of the mass of the compound used

▪ Note: The mass of O in the compound cannot be determined from

• Mass of C is determined from the mass of C O2 produced.

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

• Mass of H is determined from the mass of H2O produced.

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

• The coefficients in the balanced equation show

Copyright © 2023 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

• We have already seen in this chapter how to convert from

• How many grams of water can be produced from 1.00 g of rams