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PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS
ANALYSIS
TRADITIONAL, LATEST, AND SMART VIEWS
Susmita Bandyopadhyay
Production and Operations
Analysis
Production and Operations
Analysis
Traditional, Latest, and Smart Views
Susmita Bandyopadhyay
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
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Preface xxxv
Author xxxvii
vii
3.3 Technological Requirements .................................................................. 30
3.3.1 Radio Frequency Identification Technology ........................... 30
3.3.2 Sensor Technology .......................................................................31
3.4 Various Frameworks as Discussed in Existing Literature ..................32
3.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................33
References ..............................................................................................................33
4 Forecasting 37
4.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................37
4.2 Classification of Forecasting Techniques ............................................. 39
4.3 Qualitative Forecasting Techniques ......................................................41
4.4 Quantitative Forecasting Techniques ................................................... 42
4.4.1 Constant/Level Models .............................................................. 43
4.4.1.1 Simple Average............................................................. 43
4.4.1.2 Weighted Simple Average........................................... 44
4.4.1.3 Moving Average (MA) ................................................ 45
4.4.1.4 Exponential Smoothing (ES) ..................................... 48
4.4.2 Trend Models ............................................................................... 50
4.4.2.1 Linear Trend..................................................................51
4.4.2.2 Quadratic Trend ...........................................................55
4.4.2.3 Logarithmic Trend ...................................................... 56
4.4.3 Seasonal Models .......................................................................... 58
4.4.3.1 X-11 and X-12 Seasonal Adjustments ........................59
4.4.4 Forecasting Using Winter’s Model ............................................59
4.4.5 Cyclic Model .................................................................................61
4.4.6 Causal Model ................................................................................61
4.4.7 Other Time Series Models and Box Jenkin’s Models .............62
4.5 Goodness of Fit ........................................................................................ 65
4.6 Various Nontraditional Approaches as Applied ................................. 68
4.7 Forecasting in Smart Manufacturing Context .................................... 69
4.8 Summary of Recent Research Ideas on Forecasting............................70
4.9 Relevant Software Packages ................................................................... 72
4.10 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 72
Exercise ................................................................................................................. 73
References ............................................................................................................. 73
5 Aggregate Planning 77
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 77
5.2 Types of Aggregate Plans .........................................................................78
5.2.1 Level Aggregate Plan ...................................................................78
5.2.2 Chase Aggregate Plan ................................................................. 79
5.2.3 Hybrid Aggregate Plan................................................................ 80
5.3 Method of Aggregate Planning ..............................................................81
5.4 Aggregate Planning Models ................................................................... 82
5.4.1 Linear Programming .................................................................. 82
5.5 Recent Research Studies on Aggregate Planning................................ 85
5.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 86
Exercise ................................................................................................................. 86
References ............................................................................................................. 87
viii Contents
6 Facility Location 89
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 89
6.2 Types of Distances ....................................................................................91
6.3 Single Facility Location Problem .......................................................... 96
6.4 Multifacility Location Problem ........................................................... 100
6.4.1 MiniSum Model ........................................................................ 100
6.4.2 MiniMax Model ........................................................................ 100
6.4.3 Rectangular Multiproduct MFLP............................................101
6.4.4 MFLP with Rectangular Regions ............................................101
6.4.5 Stochastic MFLP ........................................................................101
6.5 Location-Allocation Problem .............................................................. 102
6.5.1 General Location-Allocation Model ...................................... 102
6.5.2 Location-Allocation Model—Each Customer Supplied
by One Facility ........................................................................... 102
6.6 Covering Problem ...................................................................................103
6.6.1 Binary Programming Problem ................................................103
6.7 Median Location Problem .................................................................... 105
6.7.1 1-Median Problem .................................................................... 105
6.7.2 P-Median Problem .................................................................... 107
6.8 Center Problem .......................................................................................110
6.9 Summary of Recent Research Studies .................................................110
6.10 Voronoi Diagram ....................................................................................113
6.11 Conclusion ...............................................................................................114
Exercise ................................................................................................................114
References ............................................................................................................114
7 Facility Layout 117
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................117
7.2 Types of Facility Layout .........................................................................117
7.2.1 Process Layout ............................................................................118
7.2.2 Product Layout ...........................................................................119
7.2.3 Combination Layout ..................................................................119
7.2.4 Fixed Position Layout ................................................................119
7.2.5 Group Layout ............................................................................. 120
7.3 Required Tools for Facility Layout ...................................................... 120
7.3.1 Relationship Chart .....................................................................121
7.3.2 From–To Chart ...........................................................................121
7.4 Computerized Facility Layout Techniques ........................................ 122
7.4.1 Computerized Relative Allocation of Facilities
Technique ..............................................................................123
7.4.2 COmputerized RElationship LAyout Planning
(CORELAP) ............................................................................. 136
7.4.3 Automated Layout DEsign Program (ALDEP) .................... 139
7.4.4 COmputerized FAcilities Design (COFAD) ......................... 144
7.4.5 Plant Layout ANalysis and Evaluation Technique
(PLANET) ................................................................................ 144
7.4.6 MULTI-floor Plant Layout Evaluation (MULTIPLE).......... 146
7.4.7 BLOCPLAN ................................................................................149
Contents ix
7.5 Summary of Research Studies on Facility Layout .............................151
7.6 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 154
Exercise ............................................................................................................... 154
References ........................................................................................................... 154
8 Master Production Scheduling 159
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 159
8.2 Basic Techniques of Master Production Scheduling.........................162
8.2.1 Time-Phased Record ...............................................................163
8.2.2 Rolling through Time .............................................................165
8.2.3 Order Promising ......................................................................165
8.2.3.1 Lead Time ................................................................. 166
8.2.3.2 Safety Stock ...............................................................167
8.3 MPS in Various Manufacturing Environments ................................167
8.4 Latest Techniques of MPS .....................................................................171
8.5 Conclusion ...............................................................................................171
Exercise ................................................................................................................172
References ............................................................................................................172
9 Material Requirement Planning 173
9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................173
9.2 Various Inputs for MRP ........................................................................176
9.2.1 Bill-Of-Material (BOM) ......................................................... 177
9.2.1.1 Generic BOM ............................................................181
9.2.2 Lot-Sizing ..................................................................................183
9.2.3 Master Production Schedule (MPS)......................................187
9.2.4 Demand Forecast .....................................................................187
9.3 Basic Technique ......................................................................................187
9.4 Advanced and Recent Techniques .......................................................191
9.4.1 Cover-Time Planning (CTP) ..................................................191
9.4.2 Line Requirement Planning (LRP)....................................... 192
9.4.3 Continuous MRP .................................................................... 192
9.4.4 Stochastic and Fuzzy MRP .................................................... 194
9.4.5 Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRPII) ..................... 194
9.5 Various Nature-Based Optimization Approaches ........................... 197
9.6 Material Requirement Planning in Smart Manufacturing
Context.................................................................................................... 198
9.7 Softwares for Material Requirement Planning ................................. 199
9.8 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 200
Exercise ............................................................................................................... 200
References ........................................................................................................... 200
10 Just-in-Time and Kanban 203
10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 203
10.2 Different Types of Waste ...................................................................... 204
10.2.1 5MQS Waste and Production Factor Waste ....................... 205
10.2.2 JIT 7 Waste ............................................................................... 207
x Contents
10.3 5S Approach ......................................................................................... 209
10.4 Tools Used in Just-in-Time (JIT) .......................................................212
10.4.1 Arrow Diagram ......................................................................212
10.4.2 Value Stream Mapping .........................................................213
10.5 Kanban...................................................................................................216
10.6 Additional Concepts ........................................................................... 221
10.6.1 Production Smoothing Methods........................................ 222
10.6.2 Minimization of Setup Times ............................................. 224
10.6.3 Standardization..................................................................... 225
10.6.4 Autonomation ....................................................................... 225
10.6.5 Deciding Over Machine Layout and Use of
Multifunction Workers........................................................ 225
10.6.6 Developing Small Interdisciplinary/Interdepartmental
Group for Suggestions .......................................................... 228
10.7 Implementing Visual Control ........................................................... 228
10.7.1 Just-in-Time Logistics .......................................................... 228
10.8 Recent Research Studies on JIT ........................................................ 230
10.9 Just-in-Time in Smart Manufacturing Context ............................. 232
10.10 JIT Software ......................................................................................... 233
10.11 Conclusion............................................................................................ 234
Exercise ............................................................................................................... 235
References ........................................................................................................... 235
11 Capacity Planning 237
11.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 237
11.2 Methods of Rough-Cut Capacity Planning..................................... 242
11.2.1 Capacity Planning Using Overall Planning Factors
(CPOF) ................................................................................... 242
11.2.2 Capacity Bills ......................................................................... 243
11.2.3 Resource Profiles................................................................... 247
11.3 Capacity Requirement Planning ....................................................... 248
11.3.1 Integration Definition (IDEF0) ...........................................251
11.4 Dynamic Capacity Planning ............................................................. 252
11.4.1 Brief Introduction to Simulation........................................ 253
11.5 Summary of Recent Research Ideas ................................................. 256
11.6 Benchmark Techniques Applied ....................................................... 259
11.6.1 System Dynamics ................................................................. 259
11.6.1.1 Causal Loop Diagram ........................................ 261
11.6.1.2 Stock and Flow Diagram .................................... 263
11.6.2 Markov Chain ....................................................................... 265
11.7 Capacity Planning in Smart Manufacturing Context ................... 265
11.8 Relevant Software Packages ............................................................... 266
11.9 Conclusion............................................................................................ 268
Exercise ............................................................................................................... 268
References ........................................................................................................... 268
12 Inventory Control Systems 273
12.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 273
12.2 Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) .................................................... 275
Contents xi
12.2.1 EOQ Model with Instantaneous Replenishment and
No Shortage ...............................................................................276
12.2.2 EOQ Model with No Shortage and with Finite
Replenishment ......................................................................... 280
12.2.3 EOQ Model with Instantaneous Replenishment and
Shortage of Inventory ............................................................. 282
12.2.4 EOQ Model with Shortage and Finite Replenishment ...... 285
12.2.5 EOQ under Price Break .......................................................... 289
12.2.6 Other Constraints for EOQ ................................................... 292
12.2.6.1 Space Constraint in Warehouses ......................... 292
12.2.6.2 Constraint on Level of Inventory in
Warehouses ............................................................. 294
12.2.6.3 Constraint on Level of Investment in
Warehouse .............................................................. 296
12.3 Stochastic Models .................................................................................. 298
12.4 Classification of Inventory ................................................................... 303
12.4.1 ABC Classification .................................................................. 303
12.4.2 VED Classification .................................................................. 306
12.4.3 SDE Classification ................................................................... 307
12.4.4 FSN Classification ................................................................... 307
12.5 Summary of Recent Research Ideas .................................................... 307
12.6 Inventory Control in Smart Manufacturing Context .......................310
12.7 Conclusion ...............................................................................................310
Exercise ................................................................................................................310
References ............................................................................................................310
13 Materials Management 311
13.1 Introduction ............................................................................................311
13.2 Purchasing ...............................................................................................313
13.3 Inventory Fundamentals ...................................................................... 320
13.4 Different Types of Code Reading ........................................................ 328
13.4.1 Barcode ..................................................................................... 328
13.4.2 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)................................332
13.4.2.1 RFID Tag .................................................................333
13.4.2.2 RFID Antenna ........................................................333
13.4.2.3 RFID Reader .......................................................... 334
13.5 Recent Research Ideas ............................................................................335
13.6 Materials Management in Smart Manufacturing Context ............. 336
13.7 Software Packages ...................................................................................337
13.8 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 338
References ............................................................................................................339
14 Material Handling Systems 341
14.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 341
14.2 Unit and Bulk Material Handling ....................................................... 345
14.3 Warehouse Management ...................................................................... 348
14.4 Material Handling Equipments ............................................................352
14.4.1 Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV) .......................................353
14.4.2 Industrial Robots .................................................................... 354
xii Contents
14.4.3 Conveyor ...............................................................................355
14.4.4 Casters and Wheels ............................................................ 357
14.4.5 Industrial Truck .................................................................. 357
14.4.6 Crane .................................................................................... 359
14.5 Summary of Recent Research Ideas ................................................. 360
14.6 Material Handling in Smart Manufacturing Context .................. 362
14.7 Conclusion............................................................................................ 363
References ........................................................................................................... 363
15 Production Planning and Control 365
15.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 365
15.2 Importance of Effective Production Planning and
Control (PPC) ................................................................................366
15.3 Framework of PPC .............................................................................. 367
15.4 Conclusion............................................................................................ 368
References ........................................................................................................... 368
16 Scheduling 369
16.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 369
16.2 Single Machine Scheduling ................................................................371
16.2.1 Exhaustive Enumeration ................................................... 372
16.2.2 Branch and Bound Method .............................................. 372
16.2.3 Earliest Due Date (EDD) ....................................................376
16.2.4 First-Cum-First-Serve (FCFS) .......................................... 377
16.2.5 Shortest Processing Time (SPT) ....................................... 377
16.2.6 Cost OVER Time (COVERT) ........................................... 377
16.2.7 Largest Penalty per Unit Length (LPUL) .........................381
16.2.8 SPT and LPUL Rule ............................................................381
16.2.9 Shortest Weighted Processing Time (SWPT) .................381
16.2.10 Largest Weight and LPUL Rule ........................................ 382
16.2.11 Critical Ratio (CR) Rule..................................................... 382
16.3 Flow Shop Scheduling ........................................................................ 384
16.4 Parallel Processing and Batch Processing ....................................... 389
16.4.1 Procedure I .......................................................................... 389
16.4.2 Procedure II ......................................................................... 393
16.5 Network-Based Scheduling................................................................ 396
16.6 Finite Loading...................................................................................... 398
16.7 Assembly Line Balancing ................................................................... 401
16.8 Role of Meta-Heuristics and Other Methods in Scheduling ........ 404
16.9 Scheduling in the Context of Smart Manufacturing ..................... 405
16.10 Conclusion............................................................................................ 405
Exercise ............................................................................................................... 406
References ........................................................................................................... 407
17 Project Scheduling 409
17.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 409
17.2 Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) and
Critical Path Method (CPM) ..............................................................410
Contents xiii
17.3 Crashing ...................................................................................................419
17.4 Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique (GERT)..................... 424
17.5 Milestone Chart ..................................................................................... 426
17.6 Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling ........................................ 427
17.6.1 A Heuristic ............................................................................... 434
17.7 Summary of Recent Research Studies ................................................ 436
17.8 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 439
Exercise ............................................................................................................... 439
References ........................................................................................................... 440
18 Quality Management 443
18.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 443
18.2 Basics of Control Charts ....................................................................... 446
18.2.1 X Chart and R Chart ............................................................. 448
18.2.2 p Chart, np Chart, c Chart, and u Chart............................. 451
18.2.3 c Chart and u Chart................................................................ 455
18.3 Acceptance Sampling ............................................................................ 458
18.3.1 Single Sampling Plan .............................................................. 460
18.3.2 Double Sampling Plan............................................................ 463
18.3.3 Sequential Sampling Plan ...................................................... 463
18.4 Other Aspects of Quality Management ............................................. 464
18.5 ISO Standards......................................................................................... 466
18.5.1 ISO 9001:2008.......................................................................... 467
18.5.2 ISO 14001:2004........................................................................ 468
18.6 Recent Research Studies on Quality Management ........................... 468
18.7 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 469
References ........................................................................................................... 469
19 Reliability and Maintenance Management 471
19.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 471
19.2 Types of Maintenance Management Techniques.............................. 475
19.2.1 Preventive Maintenance .........................................................476
19.2.2 Computerized Maintenance Management Systems
(CMMS) .................................................................................... 479
19.2.3 Predictive Maintenance ......................................................... 481
19.2.3.1 Thermography........................................................ 481
19.2.3.2 Vibration Analysis................................................. 482
19.2.3.3 Ultrasonics ............................................................. 484
19.2.3.4 Lubricant Condition Monitoring, Oil
Analysis, Wear Particles ....................................... 485
19.2.4 Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM).......................... 487
19.2.5 Total Productive Maintenance.............................................. 489
19.3 Basic Concept Related to Maintenance of Complex Systems ......... 492
19.3.1 Failures ..................................................................................... 492
19.4 Recent Research Studies on Maintenance Management ................. 501
19.5 Maintenance Management in Smart Manufacturing Context ......... 503
19.6 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 505
Exercise ............................................................................................................... 505
References ........................................................................................................... 506
xiv Contents
20 Total Quality Management 509
20.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 509
20.2 Contributions of Quality Maestros ...................................................511
20.2.1 Quality Planning ...................................................................512
20.2.2 Quality Control .....................................................................512
20.2.3 Quality Improvement ...........................................................513
20.3 TQM Elements......................................................................................514
20.4 Teams for TQM ....................................................................................515
20.5 Some Other Traditional Concepts.....................................................517
20.5.1 Taguchi Method of Quality Engineering ..........................517
20.5.2 Poka-Yoke ...............................................................................518
20.6 Recent Research Studies on Total Quality Management ...............518
20.7 Conclusion.............................................................................................519
References ........................................................................................................... 520
21 Work Study and Method Study 521
21.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................521
21.2 Work Study........................................................................................... 523
21.3 Method Study ...................................................................................... 526
21.3.1 Selecting a Job ....................................................................... 526
21.3.2 Recording the Information on the Selected Job .............. 528
21.4 Techniques for Method Study ........................................................... 529
21.4.1 Process Charts ...................................................................... 529
21.5 Various Charts and Diagrams .......................................................... 530
21.5.1 Outline Process Chart (OPC) ..............................................532
21.5.2 Flow Process Chart (FPC)—Material Type ....................... 533
21.5.3 Flow Process Chart (FPC)—Man Type .............................535
21.5.4 Flow Process Chart—Equipment Type ............................. 536
21.5.5 String Diagram ..................................................................... 536
21.5.6 Travel Chart .......................................................................... 538
21.5.7 Multiple Activity Chart (MAC) ......................................... 538
21.5.8 Two-Handed Process Chart (THPC) .................................539
21.6 Critical Examination .......................................................................... 540
21.6.1 Micro-Motion Study ............................................................ 541
21.6.2 SIMO Chart........................................................................... 543
21.6.3 Memo-Motion Photography (MMP) ................................ 544
21.6.4 Cyclegraph ............................................................................. 544
21.6.5 Chronocyclegraph ................................................................ 545
21.7 Principle of Motion Economy ........................................................... 547
21.8 Work Measurement ............................................................................ 548
21.8.1 Time Study ............................................................................ 549
21.8.2 Time Study Observation Sheet ........................................... 550
21.8.3 Time Study Board .................................................................551
21.8.4 Time Study Procedure ..........................................................551
21.9 Research Studies on Work Study and Method Study .....................553
21.10 Conclusion............................................................................................ 554
Exercise ............................................................................................................... 554
References ............................................................................................................555
Contents xv
22 Supply Chain Management 557
22.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 557
22.2 Distribution.......................................................................................... 560
22.3 Transportation ..................................................................................... 561
22.3.1 Road Transport ..................................................................... 562
22.3.2 Rail Transport....................................................................... 562
22.3.3 Pipeline Transport ............................................................... 562
22.3.4 Maritime Transport ............................................................. 563
22.3.5 Air Transport ........................................................................ 563
22.3.6 Intermodal Transport .......................................................... 563
22.3.7 Electronic Transport ............................................................ 564
22.4 Information .......................................................................................... 564
22.5 Supply Chain Performance Measure................................................ 566
22.6 Recent Research Studies on Supply Chain ...................................... 568
22.6.1 Supply Chain Network Design ........................................... 568
22.6.2 Supply Chain Performance Measure................................. 569
22.7 Conclusion............................................................................................ 569
References ........................................................................................................... 570
23 Enterprise Resource Planning 573
23.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 573
23.2 Introduction of ERP Packages .......................................................... 577
23.3 Recent Research Studies on ERP ...................................................... 577
23.4 Conclusion............................................................................................ 578
References ........................................................................................................... 578
24 Miscellaneous Topics 581
24.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................581
24.2 Supplier Selection Problem .................................................................581
24.3 Vendor Scheduling and Follow-Up .................................................. 585
24.4 Distribution Requirements Planning (DRP) .................................. 585
24.5 Business Process Reengineering (BPR) ........................................... 586
24.6 Conclusion............................................................................................ 588
References ........................................................................................................... 589
25 Production Management Methods 591
25.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................591
25.2 Concurrent Engineering .................................................................... 592
25.3 Cellular Manufacturing ..................................................................... 594
25.4 Commonsense Manufacturing ......................................................... 597
25.5 Agent-Based Manufacturing ............................................................. 598
25.6 Holonic Manufacturing ..................................................................... 600
25.7 Agile Manufacturing .......................................................................... 601
25.8 Lean Manufacturing ........................................................................... 603
25.9 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) .................................. 605
25.10 Collaborative Manufacturing ........................................................... 606
25.11 Cooperative Manufacturing .............................................................. 607
25.12 Cycle Time Management ................................................................... 608
25.13 Bionic Manufacturing ........................................................................ 608
xvi Contents
25.14 E-Manufacturing ................................................................................ 609
25.15 Flexible Manufacturing System .........................................................610
25.16 Virtual Manufacturing .......................................................................612
25.17 World-Class Manufacturing ..............................................................613
25.18 Conclusion.............................................................................................614
References ............................................................................................................614
26 Theory of Constraints 621
26.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................621
26.2 Drum-Buffer-Rope (DBR) Model ..................................................... 622
26.3 Relevant Research Studies ................................................................. 623
26.4 Conclusion............................................................................................ 624
References ........................................................................................................... 624
27 Conclusion 625
27.1 Introduction and Sustainability........................................................ 625
27.2 Glimpse of Future Manufacturing System and Research ............. 626
Index 629
Contents xvii
List of Figures
xix
Figure 7.4 An example of relationship chart ....................................................121
Figure 7.5 An example of from–to chart ...........................................................121
Figure 7.6 Layout for example of CRAFT ........................................................ 124
Figure 7.7 Layout modified by CRAFT ............................................................ 136
Figure 7.8 An example of relationship chart ....................................................137
Figure 7.9 Partial alternative layouts with departments A, H and C .......... 138
Figure 7.10 Partial layout with departments A, C, F, G, H ............................. 138
Figure 7.11 Final layout for example on CORELAP ........................................ 139
Figure 7.12 Proximity ratings for example on ALDEP .................................... 140
Figure 7.13 Results of ALDEP layout alternative I: (a) insertion of ‘C’,
(b) insertion of ‘D’, (c) insertion of ‘B’, (d) insertion of ‘A’,
(e) insertion of ‘E’, and (f) insertion of ‘F’ ......................................141
Figure 7.14 Remaining alternatives of example on ALDEP: (a) layout
starting with department ‘A’, (b) layout starting with
department ‘B’, (c) layout starting with department ‘D’,
(d) layout starting with department ‘E’, and (e) layout starting
with department ‘F’.............................................................................. 143
Figure 7.15 An example of spacefilling curve ................................................... 146
Figure 7.16 Method of MULTIPLE: (a) placement of department A,
(b) placement of department B, (c) placement of
department C, (d) placement of department D, Method of
MULTIPLE: (e) placement of department E, (f) placement of
department F, (g) placement of department G, (h) placement
of department H, (i) placement of department I, and
(j) placement of department J.......................................................... 147
Figure 7.17 Result of exchanging departments B and H ..................................149
Figure 8.1 Position of master production scheduling in manufacturing ....161
Figure 8.2 MPS and other functions in a manufacturing environment ......162
Figure 8.3 Division of time horizon into zones ...............................................162
Figure 8.4 Production structure and master scheduling................................170
Figure 9.1 Position of material requirement planning ...................................175
Figure 9.2 An EBOM............................................................................................178
Figure 9.3 An MBOM ..........................................................................................178
Figure 9.4 An example of product structure tree ............................................179
Figure 9.5 Example of indented BOM ...............................................................181
Figure 9.6 Product structure diagram for generic BOM example ................182
Figure 9.7 An example of a BOM ...................................................................... 188
xx List of Figures
Figure 9.8 Manufacturing resource planning (MRPII) ............................... 196
Figure 10.1 Steps for flow of goods .................................................................... 207
Figure 10.2 Relation among four wastes .......................................................... 208
Figure 10.3 Symbols used in value stream mapping .......................................215
Figure 10.4 Example of simple production system ..........................................215
Figure 10.5 Food ordering example for a restaurant .......................................216
Figure 10.6 Basic classification of Kanban ........................................................216
Figure 10.7 Procedure for Kanban .....................................................................217
Figure 11.1 Position of capacity planning activity ......................................... 240
Figure 11.2 Bill of material for Example 11.2 .................................................. 244
Figure 11.3 Operation setback charts for three products P1, P2, and P3 .... 247
Figure 11.4 Symbols used by IDEF models ...................................................... 252
Figure 11.5 An example of IDEF0 modeling ................................................... 252
Figure 11.6 An example of feedback loop ........................................................ 260
Figure 11.7 Example of positive and negative feedback loop ........................ 260
Figure 11.8 An example of reinforcing loop .................................................... 260
Figure 11.9 An example of balancing loop ...................................................... 261
Figure 11.10 Causal loop diagram for Example 11.7 ........................................ 263
Figure 11.11 Symbols used in stock and flow diagram .................................... 264
Figure 11.12 An example of stock and flow diagram ....................................... 264
Figure 12.1 Economic order quantity (EOQ) .................................................. 275
Figure 12.2 EOQ model with instantaneous replenishment and no
shortage .............................................................................................276
Figure 12.3 Reorder point ................................................................................... 279
Figure 12.4 EOQ model with finite replenishment and no shortage ........... 281
Figure 12.5 EOQ model with shortage and instantaneous replenishment .... 283
Figure 12.6 EOQ model with shortage and finite replenishment................. 286
Figure 12.7 Stochastic demand and discrete units ......................................... 299
Figure 12.8 ABC classification of items ............................................................ 306
Figure 13.1 Direction of flow of materials in a supply chain .........................312
Figure 13.2 Purchasing cycle ...............................................................................314
Figure 13.3 Analysis of purchase requisition....................................................316
Figure 13.4 Honeycombing: (a) situation 1 and (b) situation 2 .................... 324
xxvii
Table 5.2 Calculation of Number of Units Produced per Worker ................... 84
Table 5.3 Summary of Recent Research Studies ............................................... 86
Table 6.1 Truth Table for XOR Operation ......................................................... 95
Table 6.2 Possible Combination of Values of x1 , x2 , x3 ................................... 104
Table 6.3 First Tableau of Stage I of Two-Phase Method............................... 106
Table 6.4 Second Tableau of Stage I of Two-Phase Method .......................... 107
Table 6.5 First Tableau of Stage II of Two-Phase Method ............................. 107
Table 6.6 Second Tableau of Stage II of Two-Phase Method ........................ 107
Table 6.7 Distance Matrix .................................................................................. 108
Table 6.8 Summary of Various Research Studies on Facility Location .......112
Table 6.9 Examples of Applications of Nature-Based Techniques ...............112
Table 6.10 Examples of Applications of MCDA Techniques ...........................113
Table 7.1 Load Summary for Example on CRAFT ........................................ 124
Table 7.2 Costs for Example on CRAFT.......................................................... 124
Table 7.3 Total Initial Cost for Example on CRAFT ..................................... 125
Table 7.4 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 1 and 2............ 126
Table 7.5 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 1 and 3............ 127
Table 7.6 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 1 and 4............ 127
Table 7.7 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 1 and 5............ 128
Table 7.8 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 1 and 6............ 129
Table 7.9 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 2 and 3............ 129
Table 7.10 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 2 and 4............ 130
Table 7.11 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 2 and 5.............131
Table 7.12 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 2 and 6.............131
Table 7.13 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 3 and 4............ 132
Table 7.14 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 3 and 5.............133
Table 7.15 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 3 and 6.............133
Table 7.16 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 4 and 5............ 134
Table 7.17 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 4 and 6.............135
Table 7.18 Result of Exchanging Centroids of Departments 5 and 6.............135
Table 7.19 Number of Blocks Required for the Departments .........................141
Table 7.20 Determination for Final Score for Layout Alternative I ................141
Table 7.21 Determination for Final Score for Layout Alternative II ............. 142
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Il avait parlé ainsi. J’avais cru sentir se réfugier contre moi cette
grande détresse. Et j’avais vu monter dans ses yeux une tendresse
implorante qui ne s’y était jamais montrée. Mais mon âme la
meilleure, qui se fût émue de tout cela, continuait d’être absente, et
ce qui avait pu naître durant ces quelques semaines n’existait plus à
côté de ce qui était né depuis ces quelques jours.
Je le croyais du moins… je le croyais… Mais pourquoi les
ombres heureuses s’en étaient-elles véritablement allées du jardin ?
Quand je descendis un peu plus tard, comme chaque jour, pour les y
chercher, je ne pus les retrouver. — Et je sentais maintenant à leur
place rôder cette ombre pesante qui s’attachait à Fabien et qu’il me
fallait traîner avec lui.
Notre promenade ce jour-là nous conduisit au delà du Rhône,
jusqu’à Villeneuve, si morne, si morte, avec ses rues où pousse
l’herbe et ses palais abandonnés. Au retour, comme nous étions las,
nous nous assîmes un instant au bord de la route. Le soir venait. Il
faisait presque froid. Autour de nous, parmi la campagne, et devant
nous dans Avignon, les lampes s’allumaient au fond des maisons.
Enveloppée dans mon manteau, tout près de Fabien qui se
serrait contre moi, je pensais à notre maison qui était là-bas, un peu
plus au nord, derrière les collines déjà bien sombres sur le ciel gris.
En ce moment Adélaïde avait, elle aussi, allumé la lampe et
Guicharde s’asseyait devant la table pour m’écrire une fois de plus :
« Quand allez-vous revenir ? » C’est la question que, depuis une
semaine, me posaient toutes ses lettres. Elle trouvait le temps long.
Elle s’ennuyait. Elle s’étonnait un peu. « Fabien, remarquait-elle, doit
avoir pris maintenant tout le repos nécessaire. » Pensant à elle, je
pensais à ce foyer dont elle était restée la gardienne. Y reviendrions-
nous jamais ? Pourrions-nous y revenir et recommencer de vivre là
comme nous y avions vécu après que Fabien m’aurait enfin parlé,
quand nous aurions regardé ensemble dans le passé la minute
effrayante, et dans l’avenir, tous les jours, tous les mois et les
longues années ?…
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