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A persuasive and important challenge to current thinking on sports diplomacy.
Stuart Murray’s book is path-­breaking and draws upon a breadth of interactions
with governments, diplomats and the world of sport. For those who question and
acknowledge the role of sport in making the politics of the possible, possible this
is a significant and timely tour de force. The author is arguably one of the world’s
leading authorities on sports diplomacy and this recent endeavour is a must read
for those working in politics, cultural relations and sport.
Professor Grant Jarvie, Chair of Sport,
University of Edinburgh, Scotland

Stuart Murray has succeeded in producing a thoughtful and comprehensive study

of the relationships between sport and diplomacy. He ranges from the traditional
to the contemporary in a story which he tells with clarity, originality and good
humour. This will be an indispensable title for anyone interested in how the
worlds of diplomacy and sport use, and are used by, each other.
Professor Paul Sharp, Head of Political Science,
University of Minnesota Duluth, USA

This book provides a lively, engaging and much needed account of the deep and
enduring relationship between sport and diplomacy. Stuart Murray provides
analytical clarity and insights from the field to highlight the potential and pitfalls
of “sport diplomacy” as a tool for bringing people and communities together. In
doing so, he reminds us of the value of innovation in diplomacy, particularly for
today’s ever- changing world. An important piece of interdisciplinary scholarship,
this book will be of great interest to diplomats, scholars and sportspeople alike.
Professor Caitlin Byrne, Director,
Griffith Asia Institute, Australia

Stuart Murray’s groundbreaking book opens another societal dimension to the

practice of diplomacy. Sports diplomacy as humanist endeavour provides a uni-
versal, unifying and peaceful impact on transnational communities. It adds a
vivid tool to the diversity of diplomacy and strengthens the attraction towards its
enlarging epistemic community.
Ambassador (ret.) Wilfried Bolewski, Professor of International Law
and Diplomacy, Sciences Po Paris, France

Stuart Murray’s tome is an important, timely and thorough contribution to both

the theory and practice of Sports Diplomacy. An impressive example of interdis-
ciplinary scholarship, this book covers most aspects of the fascinating, storied
and complex relationships between sport, diplomacy and human societies.
Dr. Simon Rofe, Global Diplomacy Programme Director,
SOAS, University of London, UK
Sports Diplomacy

This book offers an accessible overview of the role sport plays in international
relations and diplomacy.
Sports diplomacy has previously been defined as an old but under-­studied
aspect of the estranged relations between peoples, nations and states. These days,
it is better understood as the conscious, strategic and ongoing use of sport,
sports­people and sporting events by state and non-­state actors to advance policy,
trade, development, education, image, reputation, brand and people-­to-people
links. In order to better understand the many occasions where sport and diplo-
macy overlap, this book presents four new, interdisciplinary and theoretical cat-
egories of sports diplomacy: traditional, ‘new’, sport-­as-diplomacy, and sports
anti-­diplomacy. These categories are further validated by a large number of case
studies, ranging from the Ancient Olympiad to the recent appearance of esoteric,
government sports diplomacy strategies, and beyond, to the activities of non-­
state sporting actors such as F.C. Barcelona, Colin Kaepernick and the digital
world of e-­sports. As a result, the landscape of sports diplomacy becomes
clearer, as do the pitfalls and limitations of using sport as a diplomatic tool.
This book will be of much interest to students of diplomacy, foreign policy,
sports studies and International Relations in general.

Stuart Murray is an Associate Professor at Bond University, Australia. He is

also a Fellow of the Academy of Sport at Edinburgh University, UK and Associ-
ate Editor of the journal Diplomacy & Foreign Policy.
Routledge New Diplomacy Studies
Series Editors: Corneliu Bjola
University of Oxford
and
Markus Kornprobst
Diplomatic Academy of Vienna

This series publishes theoretically challenging and empirically authoritative

studies of the traditions, functions, paradigms and institutions of modern diplo-
macy. Taking a comparative approach, the New Diplomacy Studies series aims
to advance research on international diplomacy, publishing innovative accounts
of how ‘old’ and ‘new’ diplomats help steer international conduct between
anarchy and hegemony, handle demands for international stability versus inter-
national justice, facilitate transitions between international orders, and address
global governance challenges. Dedicated to the exchange of different scholarly
perspectives, the series aims to be a forum for inter-­paradigm and interdiscipli-
nary debates, and an opportunity for dialogue between scholars and
practitioners.

Chinese Public Diplomacy

The Rise of the Confucius Institute
Falk Hartig

Gender and Diplomacy

Edited by Jennifer A. Cassidy

Secret Diplomacy
Concepts, Contexts and Cases
Edited by Corneliu Bjola and Stuart Murray

Diplomatic Cultures and International Politics

Translations, Spaces and Alternatives
Edited by Jason Dittmer and Fiona McConnell

Sports Diplomacy
Origins, Theory and Practice
Stuart Murray

For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/

Routledge-­New-Diplomacy-­Studies/book-­series/RNDS
Sports Diplomacy
Origins, Theory and Practice

Stuart Murray
First published 2018
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Stuart Murray
The right of Stuart Murray to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-­in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing-­in-Publication Data
Names: Murray, Stuart, author.
Title: Sports diplomacy : origins, theory and practice / Stuart Murray.
Description: First edition. | Abingdon, Oxon : Routledge, 2018. |
Series: Routledge new diplomacy studies | Includes bibliographical
references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018005793 | ISBN 9780815356905 (hardback) |
ISBN 0815356900 (hardback) | ISBN 9781351126960 (ebook) |
ISBN 1351126962 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Sports and state–History. | Diplomacy–Social aspects. |
International relations–Social aspects.
Classification: LCC GV706.35 .M86 2018 | DDC 306.4/83–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018005793

ISBN: 978-0-8153-5690-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-351-12696-0 (ebk)
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Wearset Ltd, Boldon, Tyne and Wear
For Cammy Murray, the ultimate sportsman and diplomat
Contents

Acknowledgements xii

Introduction 1
Framing sports diplomacy 1
Re-­conceptualising sports diplomacy: towards a new,
quadripartite framework 6
Aims, theory and parameters 8
Let the games begin 9

PART I
Sport, diplomacy and traditional sports diplomacy 15

1 A revised anthropology of diplomacy 17

Framing and challenging the stereotype of diplomacy and
diplomats 17
A revised anthropology of diplomacy 20
From the cave to the conference table: the long and storied
diplomatic continuum 22
Traditional diplomacy defined 29

2 The essence of sport 37

Is cheese rolling actually a sport? 37
The great leveller: sport, anthropology and early human
societies 39
The impact of Greece and Rome on sport 45
Sport in modern times 50
Sport defined 52
x   Contents
3 Traditional sports diplomacy 59
Traditional sports diplomacy contextualised and defined 60
The eerie similarities between sport and diplomacy 62
Traditional sports diplomacy: hijacking and rebranding 64
We’re not playing: boycotts and traditional sports diplomacy 68
The informal sports diplomacy summit 70
Low-­risk traditional sports diplomacy 73
Critical reflections on traditional sports diplomacy 75

PART II
Sports diplomacy in the twenty-­first century 87

4 ‘New’ sports diplomacy 89

The new diplomatic agenda 89
Sports diplomacy as a response to the ‘death’ of diplomacy 90
The attraction of sports diplomacy to MFAs: definitions,
characteristics and benefits 93
From practice to [more] theory 97
Sports diplomacy as an expression of a nation’s culture 97
Sports envoys, old and new 103

5 Public and networked sports diplomacy: theories and

limitations 113
Public sports diplomacy 113
Networked sports diplomacy 118
Limitations of sports diplomacy 122
The importance of learning from sporting failures 125

PART III
Non-­state sporting actors and diplomacy 133

6 The diplomacy of non-­state sporting actors: representation 135

The international society of sport 135
Framing international sport as a type of diplomacy 137
The political and diplomatic character of sport 140
NSSAs, diplomacy and representation 143
The biggest NSSA diplomat: the IOC 147
Sport as a representative of the ‘little guy’ 151
The power of sport to represent 157
 Contents   xi
7 Non-­state sporting actors: communication 165
Communication, sport and NGOs 166
Sports diplomats: real, credible heroes 169
Sports diplomats: old and new virtuosos 174
New roles for old players: teams, regimes and TNCs 176

8 Non-­state sporting actors: negotiation, intelligence gathering

and dissemination, and the minimisation of friction 184
Negotiating international sport 184
Sports diplomacy, intelligence gathering and dissemination 187
Sport and the minimisation of friction in international affairs 189

PART IV
The dark side of international sport 201

9 Sports anti-­diplomacy in the state context 203

Timeout: was Rodman actually duped? 203
Sport, politics and diplomacy should not mix 207
The twenty-­first century: politicians as the neo-­emperors of
sport 209
Sport, nationalism and diplomacy 211
Diplomacy and war, minus the shooting 214

10 Sports anti-­diplomacy: brats, neo-­emperors, hooligans and

terrorists 221
Are sportspeople actually diplomatic? 222
Regimes: who guards the guards? 225
Sports anti-­diplomacy and war … with real shooting, violence and
terror 233

Extra time: traditional versus new sports diplomacy 248

Duality, the ‘withering’ state and new diplomacies 248
The sports report 250
Utopia: recommendations for theory and practice 253

Index 260
Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade,
The Office for Sport and the Consular Corps (Melbourne) for all their help,
support and access they have provided over the past couple of years. This book
would not have been possible without the kindness and counsel of Rob Tranter,
Lou Anderson, Kris Maslin and, in particular, Trent Smyth. Similarly, the work
that the lead researchers Pat Blannin and Holli Edwards undertook was out-
standing, of high quality and always timely. I cannot thank Pat and Holli enough.
Finally, special thanks must go to my partner in Team Sports Diplomacy, Caitlin
Byrne. I would not have come so far if it hadn’t been for Caitlin’s help, encour-
agement and ready ability to share a laugh. Thanks to everyone else concerned,
including Corneliu Bjola and the team at Routledge.
Introduction

Framing sports diplomacy

The relationship between politics, sport and diplomacy is a long and intriguing
one. History shows that when sport provides a function ‘beyond the game’ it is
often always exploited by ruling elites. The Ancient Olympiad, for example,
began in 776 bce in a religious setting as one of the activities during the festival
of Zeus, subsequently morphed into a complex and famous sporting competition,
and was finally abolished in 394 ce by the Roman Emperor Theodosius I as part
of a campaign to abolish Paganism and impose Christianity as a state religion
(Hugh 1998). The Olympic Truce sublimated conflict between diverse Greek
city-­states and afforded athletes, spectators and officials protection while travel-
ling to and from the Games. Ekecheria, the Greek word for ‘a staying of the
hand’ allowed people from dozens of estranged political entities to travel safely,
even while journeying through enemy territory. The Ancient Games were also
an expression of Pan-­Hellenism. While Sparta, Argos, Athens and many others
had their military rivalries and political differences sport was something they all
had in common. In other words, it transcended politics.
Sport can also be used to consolidate once acrimonious relationships, as was
the case with the 1520 meeting between King Francois I of France and Henry
VIII of England (Murray and Pigman 2014). After a century of hostilities, the
two Kings hosted a summit at the Fields of Cloth of Gold in northern France.
For two weeks, Francois, Henry and their retinues wrestled, jousted and com-
peted in archery events as a means of strengthening the bond of friendship after
the signing of the Anglo-­French Treaty of 1514 (Mattingly 1938). Sport is also
regularly co-­opted to express political ideology. The exploitation the 1936
Olympics and the 1938 World Cup by Fascist regimes, the regular boycotts of
tournaments (the 1980 Moscow Games by the United States and, vice-­versa, the
1984 L.A. Games by the Soviet Union and thirteen satellite states), or the role
sport played in isolating Apartheid South Africa are all good, complex
examples.
States, however, are not the only actors interested in the opiate of the masses.
Non-­governmental organisations (NGOs) such as Beyond Sport or Right to Play use
sport to raise awareness of social issues, or as part of disarmament, demobilisation
2   Introduction
and reintegration programmes in war-­torn nations such as Afghanistan. Sport is
also extraordinarily useful for augmenting development initiatives, such as the
United Nation’s (UN) Millennium and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
And, not to be forgotten, international sporting organisations such as Fédération
Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) are highly visible and often con-
troversial actors in what this book terms the international society of sport.
Clearly, sport plays a major part in the international relations between states,
non-­state actors and people all over the world.
For its advocates, sport is a hallmark of civilisation, a way to avoid conflict,
and a powerful yet neglected diplomatic device that effortlessly brings people
closer together. Like music or art, sport is a universal language where no words
are spoken and, as such, it can transcend acrimony in political relationships.
Sporting contests, for example, can generate high profile occasions for dialogue
away from the formal negotiating table, and sport can build bridges between dis-
parate nations and their publics through a mutual affection for physical exercise,
competition and games. As Nelson Mandela (2000) notes in an oft-­cited quote,

sport has the power to change the world. It has the power to inspire. It has
the power to unite people in a way that little else does. Sport can awaken
hope where there was previously only despair. Sport speaks to people in a
language they can understand.

The South African President was well aware of the power of sport to over-
come division, estrangement, and old, racial prejudices. Mandela became Presi-
dent in 1994, one year before South Africa was due to host the Rugby World
Cup (they had been excluded from the previous two tournaments, in 1987 and
1991, respectively). If the freshly minted Rainbow Nation was to have any sort
of future, Madiba knew that reconciliation had to be top of the agenda. Sport
became a means to that end, something all South Africans had in common,
regardless of past conflict, social status, or the colour of people’s skin (Grund­
lingh 1998). The footage of Mandela walking onto the pitch for the final at Ellis
Park in Johannesburg wearing a huge smile and, more importantly, a Springboks
rugby jersey remains one of the simplest yet most powerful examples of how
sport can heal wounds, celebrate all that is good about humanity and drive
nations forward (Cornelissen 2010). That the Boks went onto win a thrilling final
against the New Zealand All Blacks 15–12 simply added to the magical
occasion.
Sport, however, also has a dark side. It has a long, ugly relationship with viol-
ence, is often hijacked by states for jingoistic purposes, or, tragically, as was the
case with the 1972 Munich Games Tragedy, by terrorist organisations for the
dissemination of anti-­diplomatic messages. Moreover, some sportspeople will
also do anything to win. An independent 2016 report, commissioned by the
World Anti-­Doping Agency (WADA), asserted that more than 1,000 Russian
athletes across more than thirty sports were ‘involved in or benefitted from state-­
sponsored doping between 2011 and 2015’ (McLaren 2016). In addition,
 Introduction   3
secrecy, ethical wrongdoings, and mysterious financial transactions are all too
common in the administration of international sport. The 2002 Salt Lake City
Winter Olympics bidding scandal, the 2013 allegations of ‘profound corruption’
levelled at the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) under President Pat McQuaid
and his predecessor Hein Verbruggen, or, more recently, the ethically obnoxious
behaviour of FIFA President Joseph ‘Sepp’ Blatter are all egregious case studies
(Rosenfield 2013). Like it or loathe it, international sport remains blighted with
graft, violence, cheating and blatant displays of nationalist fervour and
pageantry.
The complex role that sport plays in both domestic and international life has
generated a wide body of scholarship from many different academic disciplines.
Blanchard (1995), for example, adopts an evolutionary anthropology perspective
when thinking about sport’s place in the human story. For Jarvie (2017, 2), a
sociological and cultural perspective is far more important. Writing in the
seminal Sport, Culture and Society, he notes ‘it is impossible to fully understand
contemporary society and culture without acknowledging the place of sport’.
Furthermore, validating Orwell’s famous (1945) ‘war minus the shooting’
dictum, Goodhart and Chataway (1968) analysed sport during the Cold War, the
Amer­ican Civil Rights struggle and in Sino-­U.S. diplomatic relations in their
famous tome War Without Weapons. International sport has also been theorised
by sociologists, philosophers, biologists, lawyers, human security and peace and
development studies scholars, to name but a few.
Far less attention, however, has been paid to the means of these exchanges:
sports diplomacy. A diplomatic perspective focuses on the processes, actors
involved and networks created by states, non-­state actors and international sport.
At its very simplest, sports diplomacy is a new term which describes and recon-
ceptualises an old practice: the use of sport to realise goals, minimise friction and
– generally – bring strangers closer together. More specifically, it can be defined as
the conscious, strategic use of sportspeople and sporting events by state and non-­
state actors to engage, inform and create a favourable image among foreign publics
and organisations, to shape their perceptions in a way that is (more) conducive to
the sending group’s goals (Murray and Pigman 2014; Murray 2017).
As an esoteric area of theory, however, sports diplomacy languished in the
bleachers of the canon of diplomatic studies. For decades, all that existed were a
collection of anecdotal, sporadic and case-­study articles on important but famil-
iar narratives: Ping-­Pong diplomacy (Hong and Yi 2000; Wasserstrom 2000;
Chang 2004), the role sport played in isolating Apartheid South Africa (Lap-
chick 1979; Booth 2003; Merrett 2005), or the intermittent baseball diplomacy
practiced between the United States (U.S.) and Cuba (Carter 1999; Turner 2010;
Elias 2010; Carter and Sugden 2012), for instance. Other authors such as Gold-
berg (2000) wrote papers entitled ‘Sporting Diplomacy’ but rehashed common,
historical narratives of sport and international relations, or mentioned tantalising
areas of diplomatic research but didn’t dig deeply.
Recently, however, theoretical and practical interest in sports diplomacy has
increased. The genesis for this book, for instance, began in 2012 when ‘The Two
4   Introduction
Halves of Sports Diplomacy’, the first paper on ‘new’ sports diplomacy, was
published in the journal Diplomacy & Statecraft (Murray 2012). Many more ori-
ginal, esoteric and lively works have followed (Beacom 2012; Black and
Peacock 2013; Dichter and Johns 2014; Murray 2016). For example, a total of
twenty-­two peer-­reviewed articles were published across, respectively, special
issues of The Hague Journal of Diplomacy (2013), Sport in Society (2014) and
Diplomacy & Statecraft (2016) devoted to sports diplomacy. The field of studies
is growing. From one article in 2012, the student, scholar and practitioner now
have dozens of publications on sports diplomacy to choose from.
This body of work has resulted in a robust collection of empirical material on
sports diplomacy, however, it is rather light on theory. So far, no research mono-
graph has traced the rich, deep history or sports diplomacy, or asked why sport
and diplomacy are so compatible, or why, in the twenty-­first century, many
nations and non-­state sporting actors (NSSAs) are turning towards sports diplo-
macy? Moreover, the growth in scholarship described above is encouraging,
however, a familiar problem persists: much of the work described above is case-­
study heavy, that is, it often puts the proverbial and practical sports diplomacy
cart before the theoretical horse. This book adopts a different approach. It puts
theory and epistemology first and practice, policy and ontology second. In doing
so, many new theoretical observations emerge which explain why state and non-­
state actors co-­opt sport for diplomatic purposes. A quadripartite conceptual
framework is also introduced in this volume. This should provide the young but
growing field with some much-­needed conceptual order, as well as solid, theor-
etical bedrock from which to build upon. Furthermore, as this book argues, while
practical experiments, sports diplomacy case-­studies and primary data are
important they must not drive or overshadow theoretical inquiry. Good theory
should be grand, abstract and obtuse, maintain a healthy distance from the object
which it objectively and critically observes, and most importantly of all, generate
more questions than it does answers. In such a context, this book does not seek
to provide a terminal theory on sports diplomacy, for such an intention would be
anathema to the epistemological nature of academe. Rather, it seeks to introduce
to the canon of diplomatic studies the first sustained, theoretical discussion on
sports diplomacy. It therefore ‘describes a range of possibilities’ conducive to
stimulating and directing the further development of knowledge by highlighting
‘gaps’ in what we do, and don’t know about the myriad relationships between
sport and diplomacy (Hayek 1980, 32).
Sports diplomacy is also growing in practice. In the globalised, intercon-
nected and very public twenty-­first century, many nations are experimenting
with sports diplomacy. Indian and Pakistani leaders often engage in ‘cricket
diplomacy’ as a means of diffusing tensions over Kashmir, terrorist attacks, trade
disputes and any number of security dilemmas (Shahid 2015, 51). After 9/11, the
U.S. Department of State instigated the SportsUnited initiative as a way to
engage disenfranchised, young Muslims across Africa, the Middle East and
South Asia. The Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) regularly mobil-
ises football and footballers to augment its traditional diplomacy, something that
 Introduction   5
China, under President Xi Jinping, seems keen to emulate and surpass. Building
on the 2008 Olympic Games, sport has become a vital soft power asset for China
and is now elevated to the strategic level (Zhang 2016). And, in June 2015, Aus-
tralia became the first country in the world to officially codify every aspect of
their formidable international sporting footprint into a comprehensive, whole-­of-
government Sports Diplomacy Strategy. These practical developments allude to
a prolific research agenda. Very little is known, for example, of the reasons why
a state embeds sport as part of its public or cultural diplomacy suite of opera-
tions, how sports diplomacy relates to traditional foreign policy goals, or, indeed,
how the growing practice can be effectively measured?
Also, it is not just states that need to be analysed as sporting diplomatic
actors. Many non-­state sporting actors (NSSAs) exhibit diplomatic functions,
engage in political activities and participate in, create and re-­create an inter-
national society of sport. A sporting regime such as World Rugby (WR), for
example, engages in constant processes of negotiation, representation and com-
munication in order to make international rugby ‘possible in the first place’
(Murray and Pigman 2014, 1099). Arguably, NSSAs, due to their scope, exper-
tise, networks, financial clout and star power are more effective at overcoming
estrangement between separate political communities. Or, consider the fact that
many sports-­people are considered as ‘ambassadors for their sport’, but what
does that really mean? What, or who, do they represent? Moreover, many sports-
­people are anything but diplomatic!1 Celebrity sports diplomats such as Colin
Kaepernick can speak for millions of oppressed Amer­icans, clubs like Manches-
ter United are masters at public diplomacy, and global, corporate brands such as
Nike, Adidas, ESPN all play the diplomacy game, yet very little is known of
their role, capacities or mediating effects.
In light of this ‘multistakeholder’ (Hocking 2006, 13) nature of sports diplo-
macy, this book positions itself as a piece of Innovative diplomatic scholarship.
Combining the insights from both the diplomatic and sports fields of studies it is
an interdisciplinary endeavour, and one that privileges ‘both the state and non-­state
sectors’ in its analysis (Murray 2008, 33). It is an example of the ‘new diplomatic
studies paradigm’ (Pigman 2016, 5), which is itself a growing collection lively,
engaging and groundbreaking work on sustainable diplomacy (Wellman 2004),
public diplomacy (Melissen 2005, 2011), diplomatic theory (Sharp 2009), digital
diplomacy (Bjola and Holmes 2015), and defence diplomacy (Blannin 2017), to
name but a few examples. An innovative approach to writing and thinking about
diplomacy builds on and complements classical, traditional and state-­centric works
of diplomacy: Satow’s A Guide to Diplomacy (1957), Nicolson’s The Evolution of
the Diplomatic Method (1957), and Berridge’s Diplomacy: Theory and Practice
(2015), for example. This book, in other words, ‘stresses the ongoing importance
of the role of traditional diplomacy but in relation to emerging forms of nontradi-
tional diplomacy’ (Murray 2008, 34).
In a complex, dangerous world there is plenty of room and necessity for both
state and non-­state perspectives on diplomacy. As such, the book’s core argu-
ment is simple: sports diplomacy is a generally positive phenomenon that should
6   Introduction
be encouraged, particularly in the divisive twenty-­first century. Sport and diplo-
macy are generally civil institutions aimed at overcoming the barriers conferred
on the world by a system of anachronistic but necessary states. Diplomatic
exchanges built around sport can bring alienated people, organisations and states
together in ways that conventional diplomacy or statecraft cannot. This is not to
claim that sports diplomacy is a hitherto undiscovered panacea but it does have
significant diplomatic potential to ‘mediate estrangement’ (Der Derian 1987,
91). As Dr. Jacques Rogge, International Olympic Committee (IOC) President
from 2001 to 2013, noted, ‘sport alone cannot enforce or maintain peace … but
it has a vital role to play in building a better and more peaceful world’ (Wood-
house 2010, 494). Rogge, Mandela and many others often describe sporting
utopias, and better places – all end in themselves. They just forget to tell us how
to get there. Sports diplomacy – a focus on the means to the end, as well as the
good and bad actors involved in this journey – begins to draw lines on the map.

Re-­conceptualising sports diplomacy: towards a new,

quadripartite framework
There remains much work to be done, however, particularly at the conceptual
level. The first problem the observer encounters is the scale and complexity of
the sporting landscape, or the ‘sportscape’, as Manzenreiter (2008, 414) labels
‘the transnational flows of physical culture, ideologies and practices centring on
the body’. There are hundreds of sports played, thousands of types of NSSAs,
NGOs and sporting clubs, and hundreds of national organising committees rep-
resenting hundreds of states. Mass confusion exists over the number of sports
played, as well as whether activities such as chess, ballroom dancing and darts
can be classified as sports, per se. Many games are played informally by
amateurs for fun and pleasure, as well as formally at the ‘senior’ or professional
levels, and sport occurs locally, nationally and internationally. Mass confusion
exists, and the observer can suffer temporary mental paralysis when trying to
chart, visualise or understand the myriad nodes and networks where sport and
diplomacy overlap.
Sports diplomacy is too monolithic a term to account for such a complex,
plural and multifaceted system. Therefore, this volume introduces a new, quadri-
partite framework that better accounts for the networks, actors, channels, venues
and players where sport and diplomacy converge. Four theoretical sub-­categories
are proposed: traditional sports diplomacy, sports diplomacy, the specialised
diplomacy of NSSAs, and sports anti-­diplomacy, that is, the abuse of sport for
immoral, unethical or intentionally divisive ends. As a result of this new frame-
work, the landscape of sports diplomacy becomes clearer, as do the pitfalls of
using sport as a tool for overcoming and mediating separation between people,
non-­state actors and states.
In terms of structure, the first two chapters situate, explore and define the
book’s key terms: diplomacy and sport. Although the title of the book is Sports
Diplomacy: Origins, Theory and Practice, diplomacy is defined first simply
 Introduction   7
because the author is a diplomatic studies scholar and, more importantly, this
volume forms part of Routledge’s New Diplomacy Studies. While the first
chapter forensically defines diplomacy, Chapter 2 describes sport via an exten-
sive and interdisciplinary literature review that involves insights from sociology,
cultural anthropology and evolutionary anthropology. The depth of these chap-
ters is important because diplomacy and sport are vague, slippery and contested
terms. Before they are welded together, it is therefore important to rigorously
determine each of the hybrid term’s component parts. Moreover, this book aims
to increase collaboration between theorists and practitioners from the realms of
both sport and diplomacy. To achieve this, individuals from the world of sports
need to know what diplomacy is, and, vice-­versa.
Chapter 3 introduces the first category of the new theoretical framework: tra-
ditional sports diplomacy. It begins by swatting aside the cliché that ‘sport and
politics don’t, or shouldn’t, mix’. Sport, politics and, by extension, diplomacy do
mix, all the time. They have done so since time immemorial, regardless of the
epoch, the creed of the state or the civilisation. What is true in the past, is also
true in the present. As Allison (1993, 17) notes, capitalists, communists, dic-
tators and fascists have ‘all played the game, and believed in it’. Seen ‘through
the embassy window’, sport is employed by governments to complement, boost
or augment traditional, strategic and diplomatic goals in an opportunistic, spor-
adic and, at times, clumsy fashion (Wilson, 1962, 122). In this context, tradi-
tional sports diplomacy is simply a ‘continuation of policy by other means’ to
borrow from Clausewitz (1997, 24).
Chapters 4 and 5 introduce ‘new’ sports diplomacy, situating this second
theoretical category as a uniquely post-­Cold War development. ‘New’ sports
diplomacy – or, more simply, plain, old sports diplomacy – is a more inclusive,
amateur and networked type of diplomacy. Sport becomes part of conscious and
permanent diplomatic policies that embody the type of state, non-­state and public
partnerships characteristic of twenty-­first century diplomacy. Chapter 4 begins
by contextualising sports diplomacy in post-­Cold War reform efforts of MFAs,
defines the term, and presents several reasons why governments are attracted to
sport as a diplomatic tool. The following chapter describes sports diplomacy as
an expression of a nation’s culture and examines the practice of sports envoys,
as well as public sports diplomacy and networked sports diplomacy. Many
examples, strategies and policies of sports diplomacy in action are provided in
these chapters.
The sixth, seventh and eighth chapters discuss sport and diplomacy in the
non-­state actor context. They encourage the observer to disaggregate the state as
the key referent object for inquiry. These chapters argue, document and critique
the idea that NSSAs such as the IOC, Manchester United and ‘celebrity’ sports
diplomats, to name but a few, all practice core diplomatic functions (Cooper
2008, 1). NSSAs engage in diplomatic functions once exclusive to the state and
its diplomats: communication, representation, negotiation, intelligence gathering
and dissemination and, most importantly of all, the minimisation of friction (Bull
1977). Their primary focus is sport – playing, organising, or officiating it –
8   Introduction
however in producing and reproducing international sport they, almost sublimi-
nally, create a curious but very welcome by-­product: an international society of
sport. Sport is the reason this society exits while diplomacy binds it together.
For objective balance, Chapters 9 and 10 turn to the dark side of international
sport: behaviours, actors and attitudes that are distinctly ‘un’ or anti-­diplomatic
in their nature. Like it or loathe it, international sport continues to be plagued by
doping, cheating, match-­fixing, violence, terrorism, jingoism and, at the admin-
istrative level, secret management styles that are more reminiscent of Machia-
velli’s Renaissance Italy than the twenty-­first century, with its emphasis on
openness, transparency and fair play. A fourth and final category of the new
framework – sports anti-­diplomacy – is described and reviewed in these final
chapters. They argue that if sports diplomacy is to become a ‘resource for hope’
it is important to identify, critique and ultimately lessen such stains (Jarvie
2008). Analysing immoral, unethical or violent behaviours allows the book to
identify the core problems sports diplomacy faces, as well as suggest solutions
to those problems.
The book ends on a positive note, arguing that dark, immoral or unethical
transgressions from the ideal and aspirational norms of sport are the exception
rather than the rule. The conclusion argues that sport and diplomacy are mostly
civil, civilising and civilised institutions – unsung, under-­appreciated heroes of
the international relations system that do far more good than bad. It describes the
notion of plural sports diplomacy and provides a summary of the book as well as
a series of recommendations for the further study and practice of sports
diplomacy.

Aims, theory and parameters

Besides introducing a new framework to better understand the relationships
between sport and diplomacy this book has three primary aims. First, it intends
to consolidate, review and complement the growing body of esoteric work done
on sports diplomacy in the last five or six years. Second, it is hoped that this
book will provide a valuable first port of call for anyone with an interest in the
role sport has played, plays or ought to play in international relations and diplo-
macy. Nations, organisations and people thinking of using sport for diplomatic
purposes can learn from the theoretical discussion, empirical data and the many
practical examples introduced throughout. Third, the book aims to increase con-
versations between academics, practitioners and policy makers from both the
sport and diplomacy realms. Cross-­collaboration is vital if sports diplomacy is to
have theoretical and practical relevance, as well as utility in addressing both the
traditional and human security concerns.
In terms of its approach, the book involves much interdisciplinary analysis.
This is because sport and diplomacy are both ancient and modern ‘master-­
institutions’ which touch on and relate to many disciplines (Butterfield and
Wight 1966, 183). To ignore the relationship that sport and diplomacy have to
society, culture, history, anthropology, politics, civilisation, war, peace and so
 Introduction   9
on, would do both terms a great disservice. Moreover, interdisciplinary analyses
enrich and enliven the topic of sports diplomacy and make the book accessible
to other fields of study and practice. In addition, the book adopts a chronological
approach in introducing, defining and reviewing its two key terms because, quite
simply, sport and diplomacy loom large in the human story. Both diplomacy and
sport are first discussed in evolutionary anthropological terms, before their
development is chartered across The Cradle of Civilisation, Hellenistic Greece,
Imperial Rome, and the modern, industrial and post-­Westphalian world.
As far as theory is concerned, both positivism and post-­positivism drive much
of the inquiry. In terms of the former, existing understandings of diplomacy and
sport are described and critiqued throughout: ‘what we know’, if you like.
However, it is also important to engage in ‘what we don’t know’ about the rela-
tionships between sport and diplomacy, to ‘theorise across a broader range of
actors and processes’ than a rigid, traditional understanding allows (Pigman
2013, 78). New, controversial and, at times, downright odd propositions about
sports diplomacy are presented in this volume which intentionally obfuscate the
relationship between the two primordial institutions. Such confusion over the
meaning, use and value of sports diplomacy is quite natural when reifying new
terms, theories and conceptual frameworks. As Popper (1960, 69) quite rightly
wrote, ‘the more we learn about the world, and the deeper our learning, the more
conscious, specific and articulate will be our knowledge of what we do not
know, our knowledge of our ignorance’.2 In other words, the more we know of
sports diplomacy, the less we know. Socrates – the philosopher, not the legen-
dary Brazilian football player – would most certainly be in agreement, for confu-
sion encourages deeper thought, debate and, eventually, good scholarship.
Therefore, this book and its author merely serve as ‘epistemic torchbearers’ for
sports diplomacy (Murray et al. 2011, 711).
One parameter also bears mention. In this work, sport and diplomacy are
(generally) discussed in the international context. Diplomacy, after all, is often
defined as a dyadic activity that occurs between representatives of states as well
as non-­state actors in the anarchic international relations system. Sport, on the
other hand, occurs at many levels, from the local, to the domestic, national and
international. This is not to argue that sports diplomacy has limited, or no,
domestic application within nation-­states. In Australia, for example, sport plays
an increasingly significant role in bringing First Australian and European ‘set-
tlers’ closer together.3 The author is also well aware that domestic uses of sport
diplomacy to heal overcome estrangement between different ethnicities, genders,
economic groupings, or religions within nation-­states is yet another new and
exciting topic. Domestic sports diplomacy is, however, outside the purview of
this book and a ‘gap’ best left to others to fill.

Let the games begin

In the mad, divisive and enlightened twenty-­first century, this book argues that
we should explore, develop and encourage exciting innovations like sports
10   Introduction
diplomacy. After all, who can be against sport, or diplomacy? It is foolish and
bizarre to argue that people should not be allowed to play sport, or that negoti-
ation, communication and the minimisation of friction between nations –
all core diplomatic functions – are anathema to a civilised world. In fact,
one wonders why it is only now that more theorists and practitioners are
drawn toward new experiments involving digital, public, cultural or sports
diplomacy?
Perhaps it was because scholars and their topics were siloed for so much of
their disciplinary existence. Previously, sports scholars didn’t ‘talk to’ diplo-
matic scholars, and vice-­versa. Traditions and cultures of institutional inertia and
resistance to change also prevailed, particularly in the practical realm of tradi-
tional diplomacy. Many MFAs were – and remain – conservative, traditional
institutions, populated by risk-­averse diplomats. In the dynamic, public and
plural twenty-­first century however, traditional roles and boundaries are chang-
ing, but not at the expense of the classical, high politico-­military agenda. New
initiatives such as sports diplomacy can act in a complementary fashion, marry-
ing the low agenda to the high, soft power to hard, and traditional to human
security.
Slowly but surely, dynamic initiatives such as public, digital or sports diplo-
macy are finding their permanent, normative place. The rewards of embracing
such new diplomacies are great. Universal languages such as sport, music, food,
culture or art, facilitated by old and new diplomatic actors and networks, remind
the global public that they are not so different after all. Granted, both sport and
diplomacy have their ‘issues’ but, for the most part, they are sublime, ancient
and powerful institutions. Sport and diplomacy are generally positive devices,
great ‘engine rooms’ of international affairs that integrate, improve and unite so-­
called disparate people, nations and states through common desires for peace,
comity and familiarity; base, human desires to play rather than fight (Cohen
1998, 1).
To drive these points home, it is fitting to conclude this introduction with a
simple, modern example. It involves the current Australian Foreign Minister,
Julie Bishop, who is an ardent sports fan (primarily of the West Coast Eagles
AFL team), and both a champion for, and architect of, the world’s first esoteric
Sports Diplomacy Strategy. In 2002, long before she entered high office, Ms.
Bishop served as an election observer in Zimbabwe during the land-­grab by
Robert Mugabe’s war veterans, who had been invading, terrorising and trashing
white-­settler farms. In a remote area near the Mozambique border, Ms. Bishop
visited a farm and met with some veterans sitting round a campfire. She recalls:

I was introduced to the leader of the gang – toothless, bike chains around his
neck, wearing animal skins, with machetes, guns and weapons. After
quickly clarifying I was Australian and not British, the leader of the gang
looked me up and down and said … you don’t know Shane Warne, do you?
The moment was saved. 4
(AAP 2015)
 Introduction   11
Many people have a story like the Australian Foreign Minister’s. Many of us
have been abroad, cast to a strange and foreign land where sport provides a bond
between strangers, regardless of our position in life, race, creed or religion. That
is both the simplicity and beauty of sports diplomacy. The ancient Sumerians
knew it, as did Queen Victoria, who built the British Empire on the three Cs of
Christianity, commerce and cricket, as did Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the
founder of the modern Olympic movement. It is only in the early twenty-­first
century, however, an era where traditional roles and understandings are radically
changing, that students, academics and international relations practitioners are
beginning to truly realise the scale and potential of sports diplomacy. With that
being said, let the games begin!

Notes
1 The September 2017 footage of Ben Stokes, the England Test vice-­captain, knocking a
man unconscious in a late-­night pub fight in Bristol is ample evidence of this point.
Stokes was charged with affray in early 2018 and allowed to return to the national team.
See Berry, Scyld. 2018. ‘Ben Stokes could make England return in first ODI against New
Zealand’. Telegraph. Accessed 26 March 2018. www.telegraph.co.uk/cricket/2018/02/17/
ben-­stokes-could-­make-england-­return-first-­odi-against-­new-zealand/.
2 To further explain the nature of scientific, theoretical inquiry, Popper (1960, 69) offers
a useful analogy:
It is as though science were working in a great forest of ignorance, making an ever
larger circular clearing within which, not to insist on the pun, things become
clear.… But, as that circle becomes larger and larger, the circumference of contact
with ignorance also gets longer and longer. Science learns more and more.… We
keep, in science, getting a more and more sophisticated view of our ignorance.
3 Over seventy-­two aboriginals play for Australian Rules Football clubs, for example,
roughly 10 per cent of the total numbers of players. Legends such as Adam Goodes
(the Sydney Swans) or David Wirrpanda (formerly of the West Coast Eagles), have
demonstrated flair on and off the pitch, acting as role models, community leaders and
representatives of the First People.
4 Shane Warne is a legendary Australian cricketer.

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Part I
Sport, diplomacy and
traditional sports
diplomacy
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Kubrik or Corbicius, name given to Manes by Christians, ii. 279
Kuner Valley, the, cattle of, said to be sent by Alexander to
Macedonia, i. 4 n. 1

Labrys or Double Axe, suggested explanation of its symbolism, ii. 67

n. 3
Lactantius, quoted, i. 70, 143 n. 4; ii. 157 n. 2, 228
Lafaye, M. Georges, his views on Herculaneum frescoes, i. 68, 69;
and on Mithraic fragment in Magic Papyrus, ii. 255, 256;
quoted, i. 48 n. 2, 49 n. 2, 50 n. 1, 52 n. 4, 53 nn. 1-6, 54 n. 2, 55
n. 3, 67 n. 3, 68, 69, 70 n. 6, 71 n. 1, 73 n. 2, 79 nn. 1-3, 88 n. 1;
ii. 255, 266
Lairbenos, name of Sabazius in Phrygia, ii. 67 n. 3
Lampridius, says Commodus on initiation into Mithraism commits
real murder, ii. 262
Langdon, Dr Stephen, new Creation Tablet, i. lxiii n. 1
Lecoq, Prof. A. von, his expedition to Turfan, ii. 316;
quoted, ii. 316 n. 3, 332 n. 2, 334 n. 2, 335 n. 1, 339 n. 1, 342, 343
n. 2, 344 n. 1, 349 n. 2, 357 n. 1.
See Grunwedel
Lenormant, François, his identification of Dionysos with Iacchos, i.
130 n. 2
Leo the Zodiacal sign, in magical ceremony, i. 98
Leo the Isaurian, the Emperor, enlists Manichaeans in Imperial
armies, ii. 357
Leto, the goddess, identified with Demeter in Asia Minor, ii. 67 n. 3
Leucius, author of Manichaean apocrypha, ii. 351
Leviathan, in Diagram perhaps equivalent to Ophiomorphus, ii. 70,
77
Lévy, Isidore M., his work on Serapis, i. 48
Libanus, in Enochian literature, northern frontier of Palestine, i. 165
Light, shed by Ophite Father-and-Son on Holy Spirit, ii. 42, 44;
the Primordial, of Ophites, ii. 46;
taken from Ialdabaoth to make protoplasts, ii. 51;
redemption of, from matter (Naassene writer), ii. 58, 59, 61, 64,
65;
in Pistis Sophia years of, equal to days, ii. 164;
in Pistis Sophia term equivalent to divine, ii. 143, 146, 148, 153,
154, 156, 164, 165, 167, 170, 171, 173, 175 n. 1, 191 n. 2;
and in Bruce Papyrus, ii. 193;
the heavenly in Persian religion, ii. 231;
name of Ormuzd, ii. 234, 236 n. 4;
in Manichaeism, name of god of goodness, ii. 287, 289;
its realm described, ii. 290;
how mixed with Darkness, ii. 294, 295, 335;
redemption of, 296, 297, 336, 339;
Faustus’ account of three worlds of, ii. 319;
in neo-Manichaeism, ii. 321, 324;
powers of, described, ii. 325-328;
praises sung to, ii. 331;
redeemed through food eaten by elect, ii. 343, 346.
See Adamas
Light, the Great, in Pistis Sophia, Legate of the Ineffable One, ii. 141,
164
Linus, explains mysteries and is a source of doctrines of Sethians, i.
175
Lion-headed god of Mithraea, described, ii. 251-253;
represents Ahriman, ii. 254;
his place, ii. 255, 256
Livy, quoted, i. 6 n. 5, 41 n. 3
Lobeck, his Aglaophamus quoted, i. 121 n. 1, 127 n. 2
Loeb, Isidore, attributes Babylonian origin to Jewish Cabala, ii. 35,
36
Logos, in Philo chief and source of all powers of God, i. 174;
 not God, but his reflection, i. 180 n. 3;
member of 2nd Valentinian syzygy, ii. 98;
parent of Dodecad, ii. 101, 102;
Jesus also called the, by Valentinus, ii. 110 n. 1
Loret, M. Victor, says earliest Egyptian gods totemistic, i. 37 n. 2
Love. See Agape, Eros
Loyola, Ignatius, compelling power of prayer of, i. 94
Lucian the Marcionite, Marcion’s successor at one or two removes,
ii. 218 n. 2;
his teaching, ii. 220
Lucian of Samosata, his story of Alexander of Abonoteichos, i. 24,
199, 202; ii. 128;
quoted, i. 24, 199; ii. 30 n. 3, 31, 40 n. 1, 45 n. 1, 300 n. 2
Lucius, hero of the Golden Ass, apparition of Isis to, i. 56;
his prayer to Isis, i. 57, 58;
promise of Isis’ protection in next world to, i. 59, 60;
his first initiation into Mysteries, i. 62, 63;
his second and third, i. 64;
his adoration of statue of Isis, i. 67;
his monotheistic conception of her, i. 75;
his complete devotion to her service, i. 83;
his metamorphosis by ointment, i. 101 n. 2
Lucius, German theological writer, quoted, i. 156 n. 1
Lucius Septimius, freedman of Caesar and Mithraist Court chaplain,
ii. 268
Luebbert, his work on Pindaric doctrine of transmigration, quoted, i.
127 n. 3
Luther, Martin, as reformer and founder of sect, i. 54; ii. 19, 199 n. 3
Lyall, Sir Alfred, his dictum on magic and religion, i. 94;
open dealing of Indian sorcerers, i. 99 n. 1
Lycomidae, the, hereditary priests of Eleusis, i. 76;
sing hymns of Orpheus in Mysteries, i. 141 n. 2;
 Pausanias reads their hymns to Eros, ii. 210 n. 1
Lydia, name of Mother of Gods in, ii. 40, 45 n. 1
Lysimachus, King of Thrace, his wars in Phrygia, ii. 29

Ma, the goddess, Lydian equivalent of Demeter, i. 126;

Lydian name of Mother of Gods, ii. 40
Macaria or Blessedness, member of Valentinian Decad, ii. 101
Macariotes, member of Valentinian Dodecad, ii. 101
Macaulay, Lord, his simile as to religions borrowing from their rivals,
i. 84
Macedonia, its distance from Karachi, i. 4;
temples to Alexandrian gods in, i. 53
Macedonians, inhabitants of Thrace called, i. 136;
term used for subjects of Syrian Empire, i. 177
Macrinus, the Emperor, buys off Persians, ii. 226
Macrobius, quoted, i. 48 n. 1, 49 n. 1, 52, 55 n. 1, 118
Macrocosm and Microcosm, possible origin of theory, ii. 51 n. 1;
in Cabala, Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism, ii. 308 n. 1;
mentioned by name in Tun-huang MS., ii. 353
Maenads, the, reproduce rites of savage Thracians, i. 136
Magas, King of Cyrene, Asoka’s mission to, i. 20
Magi, the, Simon Magus’ system said to be derived from (Franck), i.
197;
Mithraism derived from religion of (Cumont), ii. 232, 275;
tribe of Medes defeated by Darius Hystaspes, ii. 233, 286;
priestly caste among Persians, temp. Herodotus, ii. 234;
religion of, described, ibid.;
called Magusaeans by Theodore of Mopsuestia, ii. 237;
sacrifice to Ahriman, ii. 239;
relations of Manes with, ii. 280;
his most bitter opponents, ii. 280, 281, 282;
 power of, declines under Parthians, ii. 283;
is restored by Ardeshîr, ii. 284
Magic, its practice by Greek confraternities, i. 23;
words used in, generally taken from dying religions, i. 87, 92;
relations between religion and, i. 91;
practice of, increases as religion decays, i. 92;
never entirely separated from religion, i. 93;
prayer in, used to show knowledge, i. 95;
leads to manufacture of theogonies, cosmogonies, etc., i. 96, 97;
ceremonial magic described, i. 97;
examples of spells used in, i. 98-107;
spread of, in Rome and Asia Minor under Empire, i. 108;
phenomena of, partly hypnotic, i. 109;
diffusion of, leads to Gnosticism, i. 110;
Egyptian Gnosticism reverts to, i. 111; ii. 199;
astrology connected with, in practice, i. 113;
effect of astrology upon, i. 117, 118;
magical ideas in Orphism, i. 128;
Orphics’ magical theory of initiation, i. 131-134, 139;
magical practices of Orpheotelestae, i. 140, 146;
Essenes probably practised, i. 158;
so Simon Magus and his successors, i. 176, 198, 202;
Gnostic secrecy due to magical ideas, ii. 18;
Phrygian Jews much addicted to, ii. 33, 34;
salvation through magical effect of Ophite initiation, ii. 56;
Marcus’ magical sacraments, ii. 129;
practice of, condemned in Pistis Sophia but taught in Texts of
Saviour, ii. 180, 183, 185;
and in Papyrus Bruce, ii. 192, 193, 195;
common among Coptic monks, ii. 201;
word derived from Magi, ii. 233, 275;
religion of Magi apt to degenerate into, ii. 235;
Ahriman of Magi compellable by, ii. 239;
practice of, by Mithraists doubtful, ii. 275;
expressly condemned by Mithraist Emperors, ibid.;
and by Zend Avesta and Manichaeism, ii. 275 n. 2;
its connection with worship of Hecate, ii. 276;
 its appearance in Mandaite story of protoplasts, ii. 304;
condemned by Manes and his successors, ii. 313, 314, 342
Magic Papyri, in European Museums enumerated, i. 93 n. 3; ii. 34;
described, i. 97;
examples of spells from, i. 98-107;
probably written in good faith, i. 109;
names in Diagram like those in, ii. 71;
name of Seth in, ii. 76 n. 4;
acrostics in, ii. 84;
name of Maskelli in, ii. 148 n. 3;
Egyptian words in, ii. 180;
mediaeval grimoires copied from, ii. 186 n. 3;
Mithraic fragment in, ii. 267
Magophonia, the Persian festival of, ii. 233
Magusaeans, the, mentioned by Theodore of Mopsuestia, probably
Magi, ii. 237
Mahaffy, Dr J. P., thinks Alexandria not the natural centre of trade
between East and West, i. 28 n. 1;
compares Dynasts of Asia Minor to mediaeval bishops and
abbots, ii. 29;
quoted, i. 6 n. 5, 28 n. 1, 44 n. 2, 45 n. 1, 49 n. 2, 52 n. 1, 150 n. 2,
173 nn. 1, 2; ii. 29 nn. 2, 3, 4
Malays, magic of, mainly taken from Arabs, i. 92
Mallet, D., quoted, i. 181 n. 2; ii. 92 n. 1, 175 n. 4
Man, the First, in Pistis Sophia, Zoroastrianism, and Manichaeism, i.
lxi;
legend of, possibly Sumerian in origin, i. lxiii n. 1;
Ophites call their second god by this name, ii. 38;
wide spread of legend of, ii. 38 n. 3;
the Father of all, ii. 51;
invoked by Holy Spirit to send Christos to Sophia, ii. 59;
hymns to, sung by Ophites, ii. 61;
name of Jeû in Texts of Saviour, ii. 147 n. 5;
 Pistis Sophia delivered after seven prayers like Manichaean, ii.
156 n. 1;
First Mystery of Pistis Sophia compared to Ophite, ii. 158;
name of Jeû in Bruce Papyrus, ii. 193;
in Manichaeism, ii. 292, 293 n. 1;
his defeat by Satan, ii. 294;
delivered by Friend of the Lights, ii. 294, 295 n. 1;
his armour called the soul, ii. 298 n. 2;
Adam and Eve made after image of, ii. 299;
sends Saviour to Adam and Eve, ii. 300, 302, 303;
son of Ahura Mazda by Spenta Armaiti, ii. 300 n. 2;
Bar Khôni’s account of, ii. 302 n. 1;
magic circle with name of, ii. 304;
his light forms souls of man, beasts, birds, etc., ii. 307;
sends Wise Guide to Manichaean Perfect at death, ii. 309;
Jesus comes forth from, ap. Manes, ii. 318;
Third Person of Manichaean Trinity, ii. 319 n. 1;
in neo-Manichaeism, ii. 323.
See Gayômort, Ormuzd
Mandaites, the, or Disciples of St John, possible source of
Manichaean stories of protoplasts, ii. 305;
their hatred of Christians, Jews, and Mahommedans, ibid.
See Hemerobaptists, Mughtasilah
Manes or Mânî, the heresiarch, aims of religion of, i. lviii;
uncompromising dualism of, ii. 221, 277, 289;
life and death of, ii. 279-281;
his connection with Bardesanes, ii. 280 n. 7, 283;
heresy of, followed by that of Mazdak, ii. 284;
originality of doctrines of, discussed, ii. 285-287, 289;
his two principles, ii. 287-290;
said to have been one of the Mughtasilah, ii. 305;
his hatred of Jews and their Law, ii. 315;
his epistle to Marcellus, ii. 317, 318;
his gospel and other writings, ii. 350.
See Manichaeans, Manichaeism, Thibet
Manetho, writes his Egyptian history in Greek, i. 9;
 entrusted by Ptolemy with foundation of Alexandrian religion, i. 44;
said to have taught astrology to Greeks, i. 78
Manichaeans, the, confusion with Ophites possible, i. lx;
Orphic prohibitions observed by, i. 128 n. 1;
heavens made from evil powers according to, ii. 44 n. 3;
their King of Glory compared to Melchizidek of P.S., ii. 148 n. 3;
influence of, perhaps perceptible in later documents of Pistis
Sophia, ii. 152 n. 1;
divide day into 12 hours, not 24, ii. 152 n. 2;
Languedoc perfects may eat only fish, ii. 153 n. 1;
hearers of Languedoc put off baptism till deathbed, ii. 168 n. 6;
oligarchy in Church the aim of, ii. 175 n. 2;
their relations with Marcionites, ii. 221, 222;
and with Mandaites, ii. 305;
their division of everything into five categories, ii. 312, 323 sqq.;
duties of Hearer among, ii. 314;
secret script of, ii. 317;
pretend Trinitarian views among Christians, ii. 319;
take symbolical view of Crucifixion, ii. 320;
hymns of, ii. 333;
Churches of, ii. 347, 349;
Apocrypha of, ii. 351;
Imperial laws against, ii. 356
Manichaeism, prominence of First Man in, i. lxi;
and of Sophia, ii. 45 n. 1;
Virgin of Light in, ii. 137 n. 3;
like Avesta, condemns magic, ii. 275 n. 2;
contrasted with Mithraism, ii. 277, 278;
opposed to Judaism, ii. 278;
first rebellion against Ardeshîr’s religious reform, ii. 284, 285;
owes little to Egypt or Buddhism, ii. 286;
simplicity of teaching of, ii. 287;
its quinary system, ii. 290, 291, 330;
its cosmology like that of Pistis Sophia, ii. 295 n. 1, 296 n. 1;
its androgyne virgin, ii. 298, 299 n. 1, 328, 329;
its system of transmigration, ii. 308;
 teaches eternal punishment, ii. 309;
its Ten Commandments, ii. 314, 341, 342;
its Burkhans or Messengers, ii. 336;
its fasts and alms, ii. 314, 344-347;
Constantine’s enquiry into, ii. 356;
favoured by Julian and the philosophers, ibid.;
ends with Albigenses, ii. 357
Marathon, Iacchos-song heard before Battle of, i. 65 n. 6. See
Callias
Marcion, the heresiarch, groundless accusations of immorality
against, i. 179 n. 2; ii. 206;
differs from other Gnostics as to aeons, i. 187 n. 2;
accusation of ambition against, ii. 8 n. 3;
native of Pontus, ii. 9, 204;
his followers alter his doctrines (Tertullian), ii. 27, 216, 217;
ignores Sophia, ii. 45 n. 1, 214;
contemporary of Valentinus, ii. 134 n. 1;
his life and date, ii. 204, 205;
his relations with Stoics, ibid.;
wide-spread and longevity of heresy of, ii. 205, 206, 216;
compared to Luther, ii. 207, 208;
his alterations of Scripture, ii. 208, 209;
his Antitheses, ii. 209, 213, 223;
his Supreme Being, ii. 210;
his Docetism, ii. 210, 211;
his Demiurge the God of the Jews, ii. 211;
his dislike of Judaism, 211, 212;
his rejection of allegory, ii. 213;
original nature of his teaching, ii. 214;
anticipation of Protestant doctrines and practices, ii. 215, 216;
his views as to matter, ii. 217;
his influence on Church slight, ii. 222;
Manes acquainted with his tenets, ii. 280, 283
Marcionites, the, endure till Xth cent., ii. 206;
their practices, ii. 207;
golden age of, last half of IInd cent., ii. 216;
 their divisions, ii. 216, 217;
their relations with Manichaeism, ii. 221, 222
Marcus, the heresiarch, his Cabalisms, i. 171 n. 1; ii. 9 n. 1, 129;
accusations of immorality against, i. 179 n. 2; ii. 9 n. 1, 99, 128;
his conjuring tricks, i. 202; ii. 129, 183 n. 1;
a Jew, ii. 9 n. 1;
his supposed companion Colarbasus, ii. 20 n. 1;
a Valentinian (Irenaeus), ii. 99, 128;
his life and practices, ii. 128, 129;
possible connection of, with Texts of Saviour, ii. 187-189;
and with Bruce Papyrus, ii. 193
Marcus Aurelius, the Emperor, Alexander of Abonoteichos at Court
of, i. 24; ii. 202;
his generals’ victories over Persians, ii. 225, 226.
See Avidius Cassius
Marcus Volusius, the aedile, his escape in dress of priest of Isis, i. 53
Marduk, the god, called by number 50, ii. 35 n. 4;
name of, ineffable, ii. 37 n. 1.
See Bel, Merodach
Mariamne, sister of Philip the Apostle, source of Ophite tradition
(Hippolytus), ii. 26;
mentioned in Acta Philippi, ii. 26 n. 2;
a sect named after her, ibid.
Marks, the Five, the mystery of, in Pistis Sophia, ii. 141
Marriage, rejected by Orphics, i. 128;
and by Essenes, i. 152;
admitted by Simon Magus, i. 196, 202;
rejected by Ophites, ii. 79, 80;
and by Saturninus, ii. 89;
admitted by Valentinus, ii. 129;
rejected by Texts of Saviour, ii. 174;
by Marcion, ii. 207, 215;
by certain Mithraists, ii. 260;
by Manichaean Elect, ii. 313
Mars, the god, why identified with Ares, i. 17;
on Mithraic monuments, ii. 238;
devotion of Julian to, ii. 269.
See Ares
Mars, the planet, presides over a seventh part of terrestrial things, i.
116;
a malefic in astrology, i. 118 n. 1;
one of the seven heavens of Ophites, ii. 48, 74 n. 2;
a ruler of the sidereal world in Texts of Saviour, ii. 182.
See Correspondences
Martha, the sister of Mary, interlocutor of Jesus in Pistis Sophia, ii.
157
Martial, the poet, quoted, i. 54, 66, 67
Martyrs, position of, in Primitive Church, i. 145 n. 1; ii. 126, 127;
distinguished from confessors, ii. 117 n. 4
Mary Magdalene, St, in Pistis Sophia made after likeness of seven
virgins of light, ii. 150;
chief interlocutor of Jesus in P.S., ii. 157;
her pre-eminent rank in next world, ii. 164.
See Millennium
Mary, the Virgin, statues of Isis re-used for, i. 85;
her worship like that of Isis, i. 61, 62, 84, 85, 88;
birth of Jesus from, due to Sophia ap. Ophites, ii. 53, 59;
Sophia descends into, ap. Valentines, ii. 115;
in Pistis Sophia Jesus speaks to, in likeness of Gabriel, ii. 138;
made after likeness of seven virgins of light, ii. 150;
interlocutor of Jesus in, ii. 157;
suggested origin of worship of, by Church, ii. 158;
Gnostics call her Mother of Life, ii. 300 n. 2.
See Theotokos
Mary, The Interrogations of, attempted identification of Pistis Sophia
with, ii. 157
Masbotheans, early sect mentioned by Hegesippus, ii. 6 n. 4
Maskelli, a ruler of demons in Texts of Saviour, ii. 75 n. 1;
and in Magic Papyri, ii. 148 n. 3
Maspero, Sir Gaston, says Alexander’s deification common form in
Egypt, i. 18;
thinks Apuat originally only assessor of Osiris, i. 33 n. 2;
doubts existence of mysteries in Pharaonic Egypt, i. 60 n. 5;
Nu originally the Celestial Ocean, i. 73 n. 4; ii. 36, 175;
would identify Ostanes with Thoth, i. 108 n. 1;
Egyptian belief in three worlds reflecting one another, i. 197;
Egyptian Ennead varies in number, ii. 92, 176 n. 1;
no Egyptian spell without amulet, ii, 168 n. 1;
says Osirian beliefs reproduced in Pistis Sophia, ii. 175 n. 4;
life in next world confined to privileged few in Egypt, ii. 198 n. 1;
quoted, i. lxi n. 3, 2 n. 3, 3 nn. 3, 4, 10 n. 3, 18 n. 3, 32 n. 2, 35 n.
1, 57 n. 3, 60 n. 5, 63 nn. 3, 5, 65 n. 1, 73 n. 4, 95 n. 3, 104 n. 3,
108 n. 1, 125 n. 3, 134 n. 3, 160 n. 4, 197; ii. 36 n. 3, 48 n. 3, 75
n. 2, 92 n. 2, 153 n. 2, 160 n. 1, 168 n. 1, 175 nn. 4, 6, 176 n. 1,
177 n. 2, 184 n. 2, 189 n. 3, 196 nn. 1-5, 197 nn. 1-7, 198 n. 1,
201 n. 1, 233 n. 5
Matter, Jacques, his reproduction of Ophite Diagram, ii. 68, 70;
says Basilides’ followers came over to Valentinus, ii. 93;
dates death of Basilides 135 A.D., ii. 93 n. 3;
quoted, ii. 77 n. 2, 88 n. 1, 89 n. 5, 93 n. 3, 130 n. 1, 134 n. 4, 208
n. 3, 209 n. 1, 320 n. 3
Matter, Orphic views as to, i. 128, 147, 148;
Philo’s, i. 174;
Simon Magus’, i. 195, 201;
the Ophites’, ii. 44 n. 2, 49;
the post-Christian Gnostics’, ii. 64;
Valentinus’, ii. 107, 112 n. 2, 113;
the Pistis Sophia’s, ii. 151, 153, 161 n. 2;
The Texts of the Saviour’s, ii. 167 n. 2;
Cerdo’s, ii. 205;
Marcion’s, ii. 210, 217;
the Mithraists’, ii. 250;
the Manichaeans’, ii. 294, 346
Matthew, Saint, the Apostle, one of the three recorders of words of
Jesus in Pistis Sophia, ii. 157
Matthias, the Apostle, Basilides’ doctrines said to be handed down
from, ii. 90;
in Pistis Sophia perhaps destined from beginning to supersede
Judas, ii. 137 n. 1
Maury, L. F. Alfred, thinks Orphic cosmogony taken from Ionian
philosophers, i. 124;
quoted, i. 16 n. 1, 17 n. 1, 21 n. 1, 25 n. 1, 40 nn. 1, 4, 42 n. 1, 46.
n. 1, 51 n. 1, 95 n. 4, 123 n. 2, 124 n. 2, 125 n. 3, 135 nn. 3, 4,
136 nn. 1, 2, 4, 147 n. 1, ii. 275 n. 2
Mazdak, antinomian heresy of, ii. 284
Mazdeism, its influence on Simon Magus, i. 197;
Mithraism not derived from, ii. 232;
opposed to Mithraism, ii. 270.
See Zoroastrianism
Medes, angels to, stir them up against Jerusalem (Enoch), i. 161;
Magi tribe of non-Aryan, ii. 286
Mediterranean, the, religions of eastern basin of, i. lviii;
the Dying God of, i. 37, 43 n. 3, 123; ii. 16, 29;
gods of, tend to merge in Serapis, i. 55;
Orphic legends current in islands of, i. 122;
religions of eastern, before Orphics, i. 126 n. 3;
god of, always worshipped in mysteries, ii. 17;
and often bisexual, ii. 29, 97
Megalopolis in Arcadia, statue of Dionysos with attributes of Zeus at,
i. 125 n. 2
Megasthenes, his story of gold-digging ants, i. 2 n. 1
Melchizidek, purifier or receiver of the Light in Pistis Sophia, ii. 148,
153;
receiver of, in Texts of Saviour, ii, 148, 186;
sect of worshippers of, ii. 148 n. 1;
Sun and Moon act as “receivers” of (P.S.), ii 154;
 placed by last Parastates according to arrangement, ii. 191 n. 2
Melissae or Bees, priestesses of Great Goddess and Demeter so
called, i 143 n. 4
Memphis, religious capital of Egypt after Ethiopian conquest, i. 32;
Osiris worshipped as bull Apis at, i. 45;
Greek Serapeum at, divided from native, i. 51;
Asklepios worshipped at, i. 78 n. 2, 87;
recluse in Serapeum at, i. 79, 80
Men, the god, in Orphic hymn, i. 139 n. 1;
identified with Attis in Asia Minor, ii. 67 n. 3
Menander, comic poet, notes fashion for Isis-worship in Athens, i. 54
Menander, the heresiarch, successor of Simon Magus, i. 111, 199;
Basilides and Saturninus disciples of, ii. 89, 93
Menant, Mdlle D., quoted, i. lxii n. 2; ii. 232 n. 4
Mendes, Osiris worshipped as ram or goat at, i. 45
Menuthis, medical saints succeed Isis at, i. 86 n. 1
Mercury, the god, why Hermes called, i. 17;
caduceus of, in procession of Isis, i. 72;
on Mithraic monuments, ii. 238, 258.
See Hermes
Mercury, the planet, presides over category of earthly things, i. 116;
one of the Ophite heavens, ii. 48;
the sphere of, in Diagram, ii. 73 n. 2;
ruler of stars in Texts of Saviour, ii. 182
Merodach or Marduk, absorbs all gods in himself, i. 15 n. 1
Merv, may be Alexandria Margiana, i. 5 n. 3
Mesopotamia, Mazdeism in, before Homer, i. lxiii;
Antiochus the Great transports Jews from, into Anatolia, ii. 28;
Ophites in, ii. 76
Messenia, worship of Eleusinian triad in, i. 135
Messiah, Jewish expectation of, i. 164, 165, 166.
 See Barcochebas
Metricos or Motherly, member of Valentinian Dodecad, ii. 101
Metropator, the word, i. 190 n. 1
Michael, the Archangel, he and Gabriel only angels named in O.T., i.
158;
in Book of Enoch, i. 169;
in Magic Papyri, ii. 34;
name of Ophiomorphus among Ophites, ii. 52;
connected with planet Saturn, ii. 75;
with Gabriel delivers Pistis Sophia from Chaos, ii. 156.
See Sammael
Michar and Micheu, powers set over Waters of Life in Papyrus
Bruce, ii. 192
Mihr Nerses, conqueror of Armenia for Yezdegerd II, ii. 285, 336 n. 1
Milk, kid bathed in, Orphic password, i. 134
Millennium, the, in Pistis Sophia, ii. 164
Mincopies, the, of Andamans, their compulsion of spirits, i. 93
Minerva, the goddess, why Athena called, i. 17;
identified with Isis, i. 56.
See Athena
Minucius, Felix, naturalistic explanation of Graeco-Roman pantheon,
i. lvii n. 1;
makes Osiris son and not spouse of Isis, i. 63 n. 5, 70 n. 1;
his Octavius quoted i. 70
Miracles, of Primitive Church and success of Christianity, i. li; ii. 361
Mise, Orphic name of androgyne Dionysos, i. 47, 137 n. 1;
Orphic hymn to, i. 143;
Persephone called Mise Kore, i. 143 n. 1
Mitannians, the, Mithras worshipped by, i. lxii; ii. 231;
a branch of Hittites (Winckler), ii. 231 n. 2
Mithraism, its use of the number seven, i. 117;
 its origin, ii. 232;
its connection with astrology, ii. 235;
extinct before rise of Zervanism, ii. 236;
Stoic influence upon, ii, 250, 274;
half-way house between Paganism and Christianity (Lafaye), ii.
256 n. 3;
its seven heavens or spheres, ii. 256, 257;
aims at universal religion, ii. 258, 269;
its ceremonies, ii. 259-262, 268, 269;
its degrees of initiation, ii. 262, 263;
a Pagan Freemasonry (Renan), ii. 264, 269;
its mystic banquet, ii. 264, 265;
ritual fragment in Magic Papyrus connected with, ii. 265-267;
its priesthood, ii. 268;
its relations with the State, ii. 270, 271;
its connection with Mazdeism obscure, ii. 270;
its decline and suppression, ii. 271-274;
its survivals, ii. 274, 275;
its use of magic and astrology, ii. 275, 276;
its contrasts with Manichaeism, ii. 277, 278;
its attitude towards Judaism, ibid.
Mithras, worship of, pre-Christian and ethical, i. xlix n. 1;
most dangerous Pagan rival to Christian Church, i. lxii;
worshipped by Hittites or Mitannians, i. lxii; ii. 231;
small beginnings of worship of, in West, i. 24;
equated with Serapis, i. 56;
supplants Alexandrian religion in Imperial favour, i. 81;
devotees of, worship other gods, i. 83; ii. 269;
identified with Sun (Pliny and Macrobius), i. 118;
Orphic and Valentinian analogies of banquet of, ii. 111 n. 1;
arrival of worship of, in West, ii. 228, 229;
monuments of, where found, ii. 230;
who Mithras was, ii. 230, 231;
his place in Zend Avesta, ii. 231, 232;
in Herodotus and Plutarch, ii. 234;
lost books on, ii. 235, 236;
Zervanist theory of (Cumont), ii. 236, 237, 252;
 Jupiter O. M. his only superior in pantheon, ii. 238-240;
his relations with the Sun, ii. 240-241, 243, 244;
his birth from a rock, ii. 241, 242;
as the bringer of rain, ii. 242, 243;
scenes with Bull, ii. 243;
his alliance with Sun, ii. 243, 244;
“Mithras my crown” (Tertullian), ii. 245, 263;
in Tauroctony, ii. 245-247;
the Banquet, and creation of animals, ii. 247, 248;
the Demiurge, ii. 248, 249;
the μεσίτης or Mediator, ii. 249;
his relations with Ahriman and Hecate, ii. 250-254;
and with Cybele, ii. 258, 259, 269;
Taurobolium taken into worship of, ii. 259;
his relations with Alexandrian religion, ii. 259, 260;
and with the Mysteries of Eleusis, ii. 260;
and with Christianity, ii. 261;
his chapels and rites, ii. 261, 262, 268, 269;
monotheism of religion of, ii. 273;
name of, reappears in neo-Manichaeism, ii. 324 n. 1.
See Izeds
Mithridates, King of Pontus, his temporary power in Asia Minor, ii. 29;
Sinope his capital, ii. 204;
reaction towards Persian nationality during his wars with Rome, ii.
225;
Magi of Asia Minor his supporters, ii. 229
Mixis or Mixture, member of Valentinian Decad, ii. 101
Mohammed or Muhammad, receives Koran from Allah, i. liii;
religion of, admittedly propagated by human means, i. liv;
commanding personality of, i. 54;
his Arabs aim at universal dominion, i. 160
Mohammedanism, scientific study of, and its results, i. li;
to Gnostic, merely veil, ii. 18;
takes its ideas of Christianity from heretics, ii. 283 n. 4
Moira, individual fate or cause of death in Texts of Saviour, ii. 184
Monceaux, M. Paul, quoted, i. 121 n. 1, 123 nn. 2, 4, 125 n. 3, 131 n.
4, 137 n. 5, 139 n. 3
Monogenes, confusion with μονογέννητος, i. 124 n. 3; ii. 15, 98 n. 2;
Bar Coziba called, i. 124 n. 1;
expresses Gnostic conception of nature of Jesus, ii. 15, 16;
name of Nous, first offspring of Bythos in system of Valentinus, ii.
98;
member of Valentinian Decad, ii. 101;
Christ and Holy Spirit put forth by (Irenaeus), ii. 105 n. 1
Monoimus Arabs, the heresiarch, ii. 9;
uses words found in Naassene or Ophite writer, ii. 41 n. 1
Montanist heresy, the, most formidable to Church save Gnosticism,
ii. 29 n. 1.
See Tertullian
Moret, M. Alexandre, description of daily rites in Egyptian temples, i.
66;
quoted, i. 66 n. 1; ii. 139 n. 2, 153 n. 2, 175 n. 5
Morocco, monuments of Alexandrian religion found in, i. 53
Moses, the patriarch, religion of, i. liv;
Law of, broken by magicians, i. 107;
pseudepigraphical books of, i. 163;
devotion of Essenes to, i. 168 n. 2;
writings of, not intelligible without mystic insight (Justin Martyr), i,
170 n. 5;
adherence of rich Jews of Dispersion to Law of, i. 173;
reverence of Essenes for, i. 168;
and of Samaritans, i. 177;
and of Simon Magus, i. 188;
divine inspiration claimed for, ii. 15;
magical book ascribed to, ii. 46 n. 3
Moses, The Assumption of, edited by Dr Charles, i. 164;
comes from Essene School, i. 167 n. 6;
quoted, i. 166, 168 n. 1, 170 n. 2
Moses of Chorene, mentions Zervan as equivalent of Shem, i. lx
Mother of the Gods. See Aphrodite, Atargatis, Cybele, Ishtar, Isis,
Mother of Life, Ramsay, Sophia
Mother of Life, the, the Great Goddess of Western Asia, ii. 45 n. 1,
299 n. 1, 300 n. 2;
Mater viventium, ii. 135 n. 3;
in Manichaeism, ii. 293 n. 1, 302 n. 1;;
rescues First Man, ii. 294, 295 n. 1;
forms link with many systems, ii. 300 n. 2;
with other powers sends Jesus to Adam, ii. 303;
anonymous in neo-Manichaeism, ii. 323.
See Nahnaha
Moulton, Prof. Hope, his Hibbert Lectures quoted, i. lxii n. 2; ii. 110 n.
1, 231 n. 1, 258 n. 3
Mount of Olives, the, place of Ascension in Pistis Sophia, ii. 136,
139, 146, 157
Mughtasilah, the, Mandaites, Hemerobaptists or Disciples of St John
described, ii. 305;
an extant sect, ibid.;
go back to reign of Trajan, ibid.;
their hatred of Christians, Jesus, and Mahommedans, ibid.;
possible source of some of Manes’ doctrines, ibid.
Murray, Prof. Gilbert, his translation of Orphic gold plates quoted, i.
132, 133
Musaeus, address to, in Orphic hymns, i. 139 n. 1, 142;
associated with Orpheus, the expounder of Mysteries, i. 175
Musonius, Rufus, exercises care of souls, ii. 87
Mycenae, Double Axe in worship of, ii. 67 n. 3
Mystery, the First, the Great Power of the Pistis Sophia, ii. 135;
the origin of all things, ii. 139;
all other good powers his “names,” ii. 140;
his “completion” to be fulfilled by Jesus, ii. 143;
a Twin Mystery, ii. 144;
Jesus the, looking outwards, ii. 144, 161;
 proceeds from last limb of Ineffable One, ii. 145;
his “receptacle” or heaven, ii. 146;
commands Jesus to help Pistis Sophia, ii. 156;
corresponds to Father-and-Son of Ophites, ii. 158;
sees to emanation of universe, ii. 161;
the “mysteries” (i.e. sacraments) of, ii. 166, 167, 169, 173, 175 n. 1
Mysteries of Eleusis. See Dionysos, Demeter, Eleusis, Eumolpidae,
Foucart, Iacchos, Mithras Persephone

Naassenes, the, name of early Ophites (Giraud), ii. 26, 74;

borrow from Simon Magus (Salmon), ii. 41 n. 1;
explanation of name as serpent worshippers, ii. 50;
their triple nature of soul, ii. 53;
frequent Mysteries of Great Mother, ii. 58;
believe in malignity and independence of matter, ii. 64;
set forth changes of soul in Gospel of Egyptians, ii. 65;
their priests, ii. 66 n. 1;
Philosophumena chief authority for doctrines of, ii. 68;
the assembly of souls in each world of, ii. 75;
Gospel of Egyptians only work attributed to (Hippolytus), ii. 79;
their allegorical interpretation of all literature, ii. 81;
quote Homer, Pindar etc., ii. 83;
treat poets as Puritans do Scripture, ii. 85
Nabonidus, King of Chaldaea, his date for inscription of Sargon of
Accad, i. 114 n. 1
Nahnaha, name of Manichaean Mother of Life, ii. 300 n. 2, 309, 323
n. 4
Name, of Alexander still famous in East, i. 14;
Hawk or Horus name of Egyptian kings, i. 36;
of Dionysos at Eleusis ineffable, i. 47 n. 1;
of Osiris in Book of Dead, i. 55;
many names of Greek Isis, i. 56;
of Pluto used in magic, i. 99;
the like of Persephone, i. 100;
Babylonians use number instead of, i. 100; ii. 35;