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Sports Nutrition for
Paralympic Athletes
Second Edition
Sports Nutrition for
Paralympic Athletes
Second Edition

Edited by
Elizabeth Broad
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-58900-1 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher can-
not assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The
authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in
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may rectify in any future reprint.

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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Broad, Elizabeth, editor.


Title: Sports nutrition for paralympic athletes / Elizabeth Broad.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton, Florida : CRC Press, [2019] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018057046| ISBN 9781138589001 (hardback : acid-free paper)
| ISBN 9780429491955 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Physical education for people with disabilities. | Physical
fitness--Nutritional aspects. | Sports for people with disabilities.
Classification: LCC GV445 .S685 2019 | DDC 796.04/56--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018057046

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at


http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Foreword...................................................................................................................vii
Preface.......................................................................................................................ix
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................xi
Editor...................................................................................................................... xiii
Contributors.............................................................................................................. xv
Contributions by Way of Commentary...................................................................xvii
List of Figures..........................................................................................................xix
List of Tables............................................................................................................xxi
Abbreviations........................................................................................................ xxiii

Chapter 1 Introduction...........................................................................................1
Elizabeth Broad

Chapter 2 Sport for Individuals with an Impairment............................................. 7


Peter Van de Vliet

Chapter 3 Principles of Sports Nutrition.............................................................. 21


Elizabeth Broad and Louise M. Burke

Chapter 4 Energy Availability in Para Athletes................................................... 71


Claudia Ridel Juzwiak and Daniel Paduan Joaquim

Chapter 5 Cooling and Hydration for the Para Athlete....................................... 87


Kelly Pritchett, Robert Pritchett and Elizabeth Broad

Chapter 6 Spinal Cord Injuries.......................................................................... 103


Victoria Goosey-Tolfrey, Terri Graham-Paulson and Mike Price

Chapter 7 Nutrition for Athletes with Cerebral Palsy and Acquired Brain
Injuries............................................................................................... 135
Michelle Minehan

Chapter 8 Nutrition for Amputees..................................................................... 159


Jacque Scaramella

v
vi Contents

Chapter 9 Other Physical Impairments.............................................................. 187


Elizabeth Broad

Chapter 10 Vision and Hearing Impairment....................................................... 195


Elizabeth Broad

Chapter 11 Intellectual Impairments...................................................................209


Elizabeth Broad

Chapter 12 Medical Issues, Pharmacology and Nutrient Interaction.................. 219


Yetsa Tuakli-Wosornu, Nida Naushad, Amos Laar, Christine
Townsend and Emerald Lin

Chapter 13 Assessing Body Composition of Athletes......................................... 245


Gary Slater and Victoria Goosey-Tolfrey

Chapter 14 Use of Supplements in Athletes with an Impairment....................... 265


Claudio Perret and Greg Shaw

Chapter 15 Practical Sports Nutrition: Challenges and Solutions....................... 287


Siobhan Crawshay

Chapter 16 Summary and Future Directions....................................................... 299


Elizabeth Broad

Appendix................................................................................................................ 303
Index....................................................................................................................... 331
Foreword
Lord Sebastian Coe declared that the 2012 London Paralympic Games resulted
in a “seismic effect in shifting public attitudes” about sport for athletes with an
impairment. The Paralympic Movement can no longer be ignored as a legitimate
competitive sporting event. Sports science and performance management supporting
these athletes is a rapidly growing body of knowledge. Only in recent years has
a comprehensive handbook been published on sports medicine for Paralympic
athletes.
What fuels our Paralympians nutritionally is vitally important, and this book
addresses this essential area. Currently the most well-credentialed and acknowledged
person in sports nutrition for the impaired is Dr. Elizabeth (Liz) Broad. I have
worked with Liz for nearly 20 years, and she has demonstrated an unrelenting
dedication to improving the science base in this area. I have been privileged to work
and collaborate with Liz both during and since my retirement from my 25 years of
involvement as an Australian Paralympic team physiotherapist and International
Paralympic classifier.
Liz has provided a much-needed volume, now in its second edition, on an essential
part of any athlete’s competitive edge. As one of the most prolific authors in this
area, she has assembled an international team of collaborators, all experts in this
field. Sports Nutrition for Paralympic Athletes provides information on the broad
subcategories of all physical impairments (grouped as spinal cord injuries, amputees,
cerebral palsy and other physical impairments), along with vision impairments,
hearing impairments and intellectual impairments. Specific areas such as body
composition, supplements and practical issues are discussed comprehensively.
Case studies enhance and illustrate a direct and firsthand application to managing
Paralympic athletes. This second edition has been expanded with new chapters,
case studies and cutting-edge research. This edition is additionally enhanced by Liz
bringing a wealth of current practical experience in her capacity as U.S. Paralympics
Senior Sport Dietitian (for the past five years).
While it might be argued that, for the most part, sports nutrition for Para athletes
may be no different from that for regular athletes, the required expertise to ensure the
best science is utilised in some areas needs to be explored and highlighted. Hopefully,
this book will challenge and stimulate current and future research in this area to
improve the delivery of this intrinsic component of athlete preparation.
Sports Nutrition for Paralympic Athletes is an essential addition to the resources
for anyone interested in the sports nutrition requirements for our Paralympic athletes.
Sports nutrition can be the difference in being competitive and making the podium.
As a resource, this book is vital in the armoury of sports medicine teams, and with

vii
viii Foreword

the Paralympic profile rapidly increasing, it will be required reading for professionals
endeavouring to give their athletes a competitive edge.

Jane Buckley
Australian Paralympic Team Physiotherapist 1984–2000
IPC International Classifier 1992–2009
Medical Director of the Australian Paralympic Team for Sydney 2000
Preface
Individuals with an impairment constantly have to adapt in order to progress in the
world we live in – our challenge is to come up with ideas as to how they can do this in
sport. The scope of this book was not to rewrite a range of excellent, comprehensive
resources already devoted to various aspects of sports nutrition, but rather to provide
a more expansive set of knowledge, considerations and tips that a practitioner might
need to consider when applying this knowledge to an athlete with an impairment.
In doing so, I believed it was important to provide as much background information
about impairments and para-sport as was necessary and practical. In my professional
experience, I have become very comfortable with the fact that Para athletes are “an
n of 1” who have their own unique needs and challenges and have embraced the
problem-solving process that is often required to help them optimise and adapt to
training, compete at their desired level (whatever that may be), remain healthy and,
above all, enjoy their sport. If there’s one thing I’ve learnt, it’s NEVER to think that
something may NOT be possible.
In the preparation of this second edition, I have been delighted to realise how
much has been invested in some areas of research on Para athletes in the past five
years. At the same time, I am reminded of how little we still know in other areas.
The contributors to this book are leading the way in searching for answers, and we
encourage you all to join the ride.
This book is aimed at students interested in working within para-sport and sports
nutrition, sports practitioners and coaches who are searching for information to help
them adapt their practise if necessary, and researchers who may want some ideas as
to some cool research projects to involve their students in! Hopefully, it’s also relevant
to athletes who are looking for more detailed information to support their endeavours.

ix
Acknowledgments
When Randy Brehm approached me to undertake the second edition of this book,
I was surprised. I knew it was always going to be a niche publication, but this showed
that it was valued more than I expected; so, for all the readers, this would not have
been undertaken without you! I would like to thank Randy Brehm (Senior Editor) and
Paul Boyd at Taylor & Francis/CRC Press and Pam Tagg at Nova Techset for their
support throughout the production process.
This book could not have been possible without the support of all the contributors,
athletes, coaches and scientists. Thank you all for your passion, time and willingness
to share knowledge, especially in a Paralympic year! The U.S. Olympic Committee,
and especially U.S. Paralympics, are recognised for providing me with one of the
rarest opportunities for the past five years – to work full time with Paralympic
athletes and sports programs. It’s definitely been a journey of continued growth and
experience within an incredibly supportive environment.
To my husband, Darren, for your ever-present support, encouragement to stretch
myself, and red penning. To my family and friends, for everything that you do to
tolerate my crazy endeavours across the globe, I love you all!
Finally, I devote this book to all the passionate and committed Paralympic athletes
and coaches I have worked with over the past 25 years. I have learnt so much from
you – and that goes well beyond the scope of sports nutrition practise. You have my
most humble appreciation.

xi
Editor
Dr Elizabeth Broad, BSc, Dip.Nutr.Diet., M.App.Sc., PhD, Level 3 Anthropometrist,
APD, FSDA. Dr Broad has been a sports dietitian for over 25 years, working with
elite and developing athletes from a wide range of sports in Australia, the UK and the
USA. Dr Broad’s interest in athletes with an impairment was sparked early, through
working with the Australian Institute of Sport athletics program (Paralympic athletes)
and undertaking her master’s dissertation on “The Effects of Heat on Shooting
Performance in Wheelchair Shooters.” While having always worked in some capacity
with athletes with an impairment, she has been fortunate enough to have now spent
over seven years in a full-time capacity with Para athletes. She has been fortunate
enough to work at two Olympic Games with canoe/kayak, two Winter Paralympic
games (with Team USA) and two Summer Paralympic Games (London with Team
Australia, Rio with Team USA).
In addition to sports nutrition, Dr Broad has experience in exercise science and
team management and has lectured in sports nutrition and in biochemistry of exercise
at several universities. She has also authored several book chapters and lay and
scientific publications.
Dr Broad is currently working as the Senior Sport Dietitian, U.S. Paralympics, at
the U.S. Olympic Committee.

xiii
Contributors
Elizabeth Broad Claudio Perret
U.S. Paralympics/U.S. Olympic Swiss Paraplegic Centre
Committee Nottwil, Switzerland
Chula Vista, California
Mike Price
Louise M. Burke Coventry University
Australian Institute of Sport Coventry, England
Canberra, Australia
Kelly Pritchett
Siobhan Crawshay Central Washington University
Australian Paralympic Committee Ellensburg, Washington
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Robert Pritchett
Central Washington University
Victoria Goosey-Tolfrey
Ellensburg, Washington
Peter Harrison Centre for Disability
Sport Claudia Ridel Juzwiak
Loughborough, England Universidade Federal de São Paulo
Santos, Brazil
Terri Graham-Paulson
English Institute of Sport Jacque Scaramella
Loughborough, England U.S. Paralympics/U.S. Olympic
Committee
Amos Laar Chula Vista, California
University of Ghana
Legon, Ghana Greg Shaw
Freelance Sports Dietitian
Emerald Lin Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
Weill Cornell Medicine
New York, New York Gary Slater
University of the Sunshine Coast
Michelle Minehan Maroochydore, Queensland, Australia
University of Canberra Christine Townsend
Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, New York Presbyterian
Australia New York, New York
Nida Naushad Yetsa Tuakli-Wosornu
Yale University Yale University
New Haven, Connecticut New Haven, Connecticut

Daniel Paduan Joaquim Peter Van de Vliet


Brazilian Paralympic Committee International Paralympic Committee
São Paulo, Brazil Bonn, Germany

xv
Contributions by Way
of Commentary
Scientists/Practitioners
Professor Luc Van Loon, Maastricht University
Professor Kevin Tipton, Stirling University
Ben Stephenson, Loughborough University
Dr Sophie Killer, British Athletics
Victoria Moore, Para-athletics lead physiotherapist, Australia

Coaches
Iryna Dvoskina, Athletics
Adam Bleakney, Athletics
Jenni Banks, Athletes/cycling
Sam Gardner, Strength and conditioning
Eileen Carey, Nordic ski

Athletes
Lex Gillette, Athletics (USA)
Steve Serio, Wheelchair basketball (USA)
Carmen Lim, Swimming (Malaysia)
AJ, Para canoe (Australia)
Charl Parkin, Swimming and triathlon (South Africa)
Allysa Seely, Para triathlon (USA)

Disclaimer
The material, views and information in this book are those of the authors, presented
on their own behalf, and do not necessarily reflect those of their employers or their
affiliates. All information is correct at time of publication.

xvii
List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Growth of the Paralympic Movement. (a) Number of
competitors at the Paralympic Summer Games; (b) number of competitors at
the Paralympic Winter Games; (c) number of delegations at the Paralympic
Summer Games; (d) number of delegations at the Paralympic Winter Games.......... 9
Figure 3.1 Case studies for varying carbohydrate intake..................................... 32
Figure 5.1 Presentation of the interaction between three primary indicators
of hydration status to assess likelihood of dehydration............................................96
Figure 6.1 The American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) standards for
neurological classification of SCI worksheet.......................................................... 107
Figure 6.2 (a) Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scan of a male
aged 46 years with a spinal cord injury (T7 incomplete), which includes the
segmental and total body measures of percent fat. (b) bone density segmental
and total values for the same athlete. Permission obtained from the athlete......... 110
Figure 6.3 Expired air collection during wheelchair locomotion on a
motorised treadmill................................................................................................. 114
Figure 6.4 Energy expenditure for a range of wheelchair sports. Elite
data represent international standard athletes for tennis and basketball,
respectively.............................................................................................................. 115
Figure 6.5 Energy expenditure for seated and standing fencing compared
to wheelchair fencing in athletes with SCI............................................................. 116
Figure 6.6 Fluid balance in wheelchair rugby players following a 60-min
scrimmage session. Each number represents an individual athlete........................ 126
Figure 7.1 Classification of cerebral palsy.......................................................... 138
Figure 7.2 Example profiles of athletes with cerebral palsy............................... 139
Figure 8.1 Photograph of bilateral BKA (Nick Rogers, USA) in running
prostheses approved for his maximal height allowance......................................... 173
Figure 13.1 Weighing athletes with a spinal cord injury without a set of
seated scales............................................................................................................248
Figure 13.2 Assisting a subject into a BOD POD. Note the silicone cap
used on the head...................................................................................................... 249
Figure 13.3 Undertaking a BOD POD assessment............................................. 250

xix
xx List of Figures

Figure 13.4 Standardising the positioning of an athlete for a DXA scan.


Note the use of foam pads to enable consistent positioning and separation of
limbs. The foam is not detectable by the DXA scanner......................................... 252
Figure 13.5 Undertaking a DXA scan................................................................ 253
Figure 13.6 Undertaking skinfold measurements. Note the landmarking
of sites per ISAK requirements............................................................................... 257
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Challenges to Dietary Changes in Para Athletes....................................5
Table 2.1 Governing Bodies of Sports on the Paralympic (Winter) Games
Program for PyeongChang 2018 and Tokyo 2020 (Governance Status as of
June 2018)................................................................................................................. 12
Table 2.2 General Rules and Principles for Participation in the Paralympic
Games....................................................................................................................... 14
Table 3.1 Equations to Estimate Resting Metabolic Rate.....................................25
Table 3.2 Example of Modifying a Training Diet to Alter Body Composition.... 29
Table 3.3 Carbohydrate Needs for Training, Recovery and Fuelling................... 30
Table 3.4 Summary of Eating for Recovery......................................................... 35
Table 3.5 New Issues in Sports Nutrition............................................................. 42
Table 3.6 Factors Related to Nutrition That Could Produce Fatigue or
Suboptimal Performance During Sports Competition............................................. 47
Table 3.7 Summary of Key Issues Involved in Developing Individual
Hydration and Fuelling Plans for Various Types of Sporting Activities.................. 56
Table C1 Body Composition Control in Weight-Category Sports........................ 61
Table 4.1 Summary of Studies on Energy Availability in Different Sports......... 76
Table 6.1 Paralympic Sports Open to People with Spinal Cord Injury.............. 105
Table 6.2 Spinal Cord Injury Classification Categories within Wheelchair
Track Events............................................................................................................ 106
Table 7.1 Common Terms Used to Describe Symptoms of Cerebral Palsy........ 138
Table 8.1 Para Sport Classifications for Amputees............................................. 161
Table 10.1 Paralympic Sports Open to Athletes with Vision Impairment.......... 197
Table 12.1 Vitamin D Supplementation Recommendations for Adults.............. 221
Table 12.2 Known Drugs, Their Functions and Pertinent Nutrient
Interactions.............................................................................................................. 232
Table 13.1 Physique Assessment Techniques Potentially Available for
Assessment of Body Composition and Physique Traits of Athletes with an
Impairment.............................................................................................................. 247

xxi
xxii List of Tables

Table 13.2 Interpretation of Changes in Body Composition Based on


Skinfold and Body Mass Data................................................................................ 256
Table 14.1 Identified Studies Dealing with Supplement Use and
Performance in Athletes with a Spinal Cord Injury............................................... 274
Table 15.1 Useful Kitchen Equipment................................................................ 297
Abbreviations
AB able-bodied
ADL activities of daily living
ADP air-displacement plethysmography
BIA bioelectrical impedance analysis
BM body mass
CHO carbohydrate
CP cerebral palsy
DXA dual x-ray absorptiometry
EA energy availability
EE energy expenditure
FFM fat-free mass
GI glycaemic index
IPC International Paralympic Committee
LEA low energy availability
MS multiple sclerosis
RMR resting metabolic rate
SCI spinal cord injury (injured)
TEA thermic effect of activity
TEF thermic effect of feeding

xxiii
1 Introduction
Elizabeth Broad

CONTENTS
1.1 Outline of This Book.........................................................................................2
1.2 The Sports Nutrition Pathway – From Rehabilitation to High Performance....... 3
References................................................................................................................... 5
Recommended Reading.............................................................................................. 5

“There is little point in training hard without taking advantage of the opportunities
that nutrition support can offer” (Maughan and Burke 2011). This statement started
the first edition of this book and remains equally valid five years later. Our knowledge
of the human body, its responses to exercise and the nutrition-related factors that
enable an athlete to become fitter, faster and stronger have evolved substantially
over the past three decades. Present-day recommendations are individualised to the
athlete’s specific goals and periodised according to the time of the week, macrocycle
and stage of an athlete’s development and sporting career. The core goals are to
maximise the adaptations to training in order to then optimise performance on the
day of competition. These outcomes are underpinned by the need to achieve an
appropriate body composition, promote health and well-being, minimise the time lost
to illness and injury and maintain the enjoyment of food. The goals of sports nutrition
can be applied across the spectrum of athletic endeavour, from the developmental
athlete through to the “elite” performer, as well as the individual who exercises for
general fitness and weight control. In this way, our definition of athlete is an expansive
one that describes any individual who is undertaking regular exercise or involved in
sport, regardless of the intended outcomes.
Sport for Para athletes has grown progressively over the last century from its
early beginnings as a component of rehabilitation to improve both functionality as
well as quality of life following injury. The opportunities for individuals with any
form of impairment to participate in sport and exercise have increased substantially
over recent decades, with specialist coaches/trainers, sporting events, national
and international competitions and opportunities to become an elite-level athlete
competing at the Paralympic Games. As a consequence, Para athletes are now
undertaking committed training programs which are similar to those undertaken
by their able-bodied counterparts at a similar age and developmental stage, and are
achieving high standards of competition performances. However, in the majority
of countries, opportunities for Para athletes to receive funding to support them
competing at an elite level have not kept pace with those of able-bodied athletes.
Therefore, it is not uncommon to have athletes at the elite level who still work full
time, who have limited opportunities to train regularly with their teammates and who

1
2 Sports Nutrition for Paralympic Athletes

have to travel long distances (including overseas) to find opportunities to compete. In


addition, many coaches are still learning how best to balance training type, frequency
and load required to optimise training for an athlete whose physiological capabilities
may be altered. Creating a support team that includes the coach and athlete can be
useful for generating ideas around how best to manage all components of training,
including their sports nutrition requirements.
The benefits of specialised nutrition support for achieving training and competition
goals cannot be overstated. The role of the sports dietitian/nutritionist is to assess an
individual athlete’s current dietary practises and provide advice regarding how they
can be modified and improved to optimise training capability, training adaptations,
body composition goals and competition performance. Adapting general sports
nutrition guidelines to develop individual, periodised approaches for Para athletes is
no different to those for an able-bodied athlete. Practitioners should aim to develop
a sound knowledge of both the athlete’s impairment and the events in which they
compete so that the specific physiological requirements, practical challenges and
culture of the sport can be appreciated and integrated into the sports nutrition plan.
The plan must be fine-tuned to the individual through practise and feedback. Applying
sports nutrition principles to some forms of impairment (such as vision impairment,
high-functioning cerebral palsy, intellectual impairment) and sporting activities is
fairly straightforward, since the athlete’s physiological functioning is not substantially
different to that of an able-bodied individual. In contrast, some impairment types
involve substantially altered physiological and physical capabilities, and many para-
sports have unique physiological demands (such as goalball, boccia, wheelchair
rugby), all of which have very little research available to help understand how best to
apply sports nutrition principles. This book aims to assist practitioners working with
Para athletes by presenting the research that is available and providing practical tips
and guidelines for problem solving when research is not available.

1.1 OUTLINE OF THIS BOOK


The book commences with a description and short history of sport for athletes with
an impairment (or para-sports, both of which are the accepted terms; International
Paralympic Committee 2017), including the concept of classification. It is
acknowledged that not all Para athletes will be participating at a level that requires
them to be classified; however, the principles are useful to understand for individuals
who may be involved in organising, running or officiating in local sporting events
where individuals with an impairment may participate.
Chapter 3 reviews current principles of sports nutrition for both training and
competition. Since there are very few scientific studies specifically undertaken on
Para athletes, this chapter will outline the guidelines developed for able-bodied
athletes and highlight areas that can be challenging for Para athletes. Chapters 4
and 5 address in more detail energy availability and cooling and hydration for Para
athletes. Subsequently, Chapters 5 to 11 will further investigate nutrition challenges
within specific classes of impairment and outline solutions.
Chapters 12 to 15 then explore areas associated with sport and exercise which a
sports nutrition practitioner may require a more in-depth understanding of, or utilise
Introduction 3

tools associated with, in their assessment of athletes’ needs and may influence the
advice which is given.
New to this edition (Appendix A) is an explanation of each Paralympic sport – the
classes of athletes eligible to compete, an outline of the sport itself and its key rule
differences compared to its able-bodied counterpart (if there is one). Considering the
inclusion of sports in major games changes over time, readers are advised to seek
updates via the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) website (www.paralympic.
org). Since many Para athletes are unique, case studies and comments from athletes
and coaches are utilised throughout the book to provide practical examples of the
process which may be required when advising an athlete. In addition, commentaries
from experts in the field of sports nutrition research are presented to answer
specific questions on how their field of research could be adapted to this population.
Throughout this book, it is assumed readers have a pre-existing understanding of
basic exercise physiology, exercise biochemistry and nutrition – where this is not
the case, several key readings have been recommended. While we have attempted
to outline the majority of impairments that practitioners are likely to come across,
it is acknowledged that not every single impairment can be explored. However, it is
our hope that we have provided sufficient detail and breadth of information that the
practitioner understands where to look when presented with a more unusual case.

COMMENTARY BOX 1.1


ATHLETE INSIGHT: What do you believe are the biggest challenges to you
in being able to train consistently and optimise your sporting performance?
Time management. As I am both a full-time athlete as well as student, I find myself
struggling at times, trying to juggle both sporting and academic excellence. All
of my time that hasn’t been already used up for training or studying would be
contributed to my sleep schedule. Despite the fact that having sufficient sleep is
vital for maintaining my sporting performance at the highest level, it is simply
impossible to have enough of it without compromising either my revision or
training time.

Carmen Lim, Swimming (S8)

1.2 THE SPORTS NUTRITION PATHWAY – FROM


REHABILITATION TO HIGH PERFORMANCE
The spectrum of impairments can be subdivided into two main categories: those that
are inborn or present at a very early age, and those that have been acquired. Individuals
who have acquired their impairment, especially via trauma or from health-related
issues such as cancer, will usually have undergone a period of rehabilitation which
may have involved substantial time in hospital. An increasing number of Para athletes
come from a military background, having acquired their impairment while on “active
duty.” Depending on the time frame between the onset of their impairment and entry
into sport, the individual may also be having to deal with a wider range of practical
4 Sports Nutrition for Paralympic Athletes

and psychological issues, such as adjusting back to home, managing their impairment
itself and its clinical manifestations, changing occupation, having to get carers to
look after essential needs, etc. Information such as this should be asked early on as it
assists in understanding the framework that the athlete is currently operating within.
Individuals who have acquired their impairment have likely been exposed at
some point to nutrition education and support, since nutrition needs are elevated
immediately post trauma for healing of wounds and at other times may have decreased
substantially due to periods of inactivity. Indeed, there is a substantial range of
scientific literature regarding many clinical aspects of impairments. There is a lot to
be learnt from this literature, such as the nutritional management of pressure wounds,
prevention of urinary tract infections and the understanding of bladder and bowel
management for spinal cord injuries. However, it is also important to acknowledge
the context of this work, which is generally embedded in acute post-injury/illness or
long-term institutionalised practise. For example, studies of energy expenditure of,
or body composition changes in, sedentary spinal cord injured (SCI) individuals may
present results that are substantially different to the SCI athlete population; pressure
wound management research is generally undertaken in bed-bound, potentially
undernourished, individuals; and energy expenditure assessments in cerebral palsy
have generally been undertaken in children whose activity levels are not reported.
Part of the challenge for a sports nutritionist working with Para athletes can be
changing their mindset to what is required for high performance. This can be a
substantial shift in nutrition focus in terms of volume, type and timing of food and
fluid intake and, in fact, the whole reason for consuming food. It is not uncommon,
particularly early in their involvement with sport, for energy requirements to be
underestimated by the athlete, especially when weight control has been a focus and
the individual was not an athlete prior to the injury/illness. Similarly, the deliberate
restriction of fluid intake by a spinal cord–injured individual when travelling longer
distances due to restrictions in accessing a bathroom needs addressing where health
and the ability to perform on arrival is the priority. When changing an athlete’s
diet or hydration practises, it is important to explain why these changes may be
beneficial, with the focus on optimising performance and health. It is also imperative
to acknowledge and work within their own limitations and concerns, some examples
of which are outlined in Table 1.1. Any dietary changes should be undertaken
progressively, and the practitioner may require some patience to allow the process
to evolve, especially where the athlete is having to manage a whole range of new
scenarios. The outcomes will inevitably be worth it!

COMMENTARY BOX 1.2


COACH’S INSIGHT:
Our team has been working with our sports dietitian for the last 4 years, and
her guidance has been instrumental in elevating our team’s performance, from
working with athletes to individualise their approach to nutrition, to finding ways
for our team to support athletes to optimise performances. She has helped us
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cross the Forth. Even that part of his army which was discomfited by
the Earl of Mar, had nevertheless become possessed of the principal
standard of the enemy.
This day was fatal to the cause of the Chevalier in another part of
the kingdom. The large party of united Scots and English, under
Forster, had penetrated to Lancashire, without gaining any such
accessions of force as had been expected. On the 12th of November
they were assailed in the town of Preston by a considerable force
under General Willis, who had concentrated the troops of a large
district in order to oppose their march. For this day, they defended
themselves effectually by barricading the streets; but next day the
enemy was increased by a large force under General Carpenter, and
the unfortunate Jacobites then found it necessary to surrender, upon
the simple condition that they should not be immediately put to the
sword. Forster, Kenmure, Nithsdale, Wintoun, and Mackintosh, with
upwards of a hundred other persons of distinction, including a brave
and generous young nobleman, the Earl of Derwentwater, were taken
prisoners. The common men, in number about fourteen hundred,
were disposed about the country in prisons, while their superiors
were conducted to London, and, after being exposed in an
ignominious procession on the streets—a mark of the low taste as
well as of the political animosity of the time—imprisoned in Newgate
on a charge of high treason.
The affairs of the Chevalier now began to decline in Scotland. The
Earl of Sutherland, having established a garrison at Inverness,
afforded to the Earl of Seaforth and the Marquis of Huntly an excuse
for withdrawing their forces from Perth. Some of the other clans
went home to deposit their spoil, or because they could not endure to
be taunted for their bad behaviour at Sheriffmuir. The army being
thus reduced to about four thousand men, various officers began to
think of capitulating with the Duke of Argyle. To this there was one
serious objection. In compliance with a pressing invitation which
they had despatched in better times, they were daily expecting their
prince to arrive amongst them. Nevertheless, the Earl of Mar was
compelled to open a negotiation with the royalist general. In answer
to their message, the duke informed them that he had no power to
treat with them as a body, but would immediately send to court to
ask for the required instructions. They were in this posture when the
unfortunate son of James VII. landed (December 22) at Peterhead,
and advanced to the camp to put himself at their head. The Earl of
Mar and some other officers went to Fetteresso to meet him, and to
apprise him of the present state of his affairs. Although greatly
dejected by what he heard, and much reduced in health by a severe
ague, he resolved to establish himself in royal state at Perth, in the
hope of reanimating the cause. Advancing through Brechin and
Dundee, he entered Perth in a ceremonious manner on the 9th of
January; but he could not conceal his mortification, on finding how
much his forces were reduced in number. It was, nevertheless,
determined that he should be crowned at Scone on the 23d. If he was
disappointed with his adherents, they were no less so with him.
Whether from natural softness of character, or through the influence
of his late malady, or from despair of his present circumstances, he
appeared exceedingly tame and inanimate; quite the reverse, in every
respect, of the bold and stirring chief required for such an enterprise.
The Duke of Argyle, having now received large reinforcements
from England, besides three thousand Dutch troops, sent in terms of
the treaty of Utrecht, found himself as superior in numbers to the
Earl of Mar as that general had been to him in the early part of the
campaign. On the 23d of January, the day on which the Chevalier
was to have been crowned, the royalist troops commenced their
march upon Perth, through deep snow. To retard their progress, all
the villages upon the road were burned by the insurgents. It was now
debated at Perth whether they ought to remain within the town and
defend themselves against the royal forces, who, in this weather,
must suffer severely in the fields, or to march northward and
disperse. A great part of the clans were anxious in the highest degree
for a battle with the duke; but the safety of the Chevalier’s person
was a consideration which precluded all desperate hazards. It was
resolved to vacate Perth. Accordingly, on the 30th of January, a day
ominous to the House of Stuart, from its being the anniversary of the
death of Charles I., the remains of the Highland army deployed
across the river, then covered with thick ice, and marched to Dundee.
The duke entered the town with his vanguard, only twelve hours
after the rear-guard of the insurgents had left it. But the state of the
roads rendered it impossible for him, with all the appurtenances of a
regular army, to overtake the light-footed mountaineers. He followed
on their track towards Aberdeen, at the distance of one or two
marches behind them. At Montrose, the Chevalier and the Earl of
Mar provided for their own safety by going on board a French vessel.
The army, which had been fast declining by the way, was finally
disbanded on the 7th of February at Aberdeen, after which every
man shifted for himself. Thus ended the insurrection of 1715, an
enterprise begun without concert or preparation, and which
languished so much throughout all its parts, that it could hardly be
considered in any other light than as an appearance of certain friends
of the House of Stuart in arms.
The Earl of Derwentwater and the Viscount Kenmure were the
only individuals of distinction who suffered death for this rebellion.
They were beheaded on Tower Hill on the 24th of February. All the
rest of the noblemen and gentlemen taken at Preston either made
their escape from Newgate, which on this occasion manifested a
peculiar irretentiveness, or were pardoned. About twenty inferior
persons were executed. There were, however, at least forty families of
distinction in Scotland whose estates were forfeited. It is to be
mentioned, to the honour of the Argyle family, that they counselled
lenient measures, and set the example by not taking advantage of the
law against such of their vassals as had forfeited their estates into
their hands as superiors.
The miserable failure of this effort for the House of Stuart, and its
dismal consequences, neither allayed the wishes nor extinguished
the hopes of the Jacobite party. Firm in the principle of hereditary
right, convinced that the prosperity and happiness of the country
could only be secured through their legitimate prince, seeing in every
shortcoming and error of the reigning house and ministry
confirmation of their doctrines, they never once faltered in believing
that a restoration was worthy of a civil war. They only admitted now,
that, for success, the assistance of some foreign state was
indispensable.
Unfortunately for the hopes of the party, the favour of France for
the Stuart cause was at this time lost, in consequence of the necessity
which the Regent Orleans felt himself under of cultivating the
alliance of Britain, that he might strengthen himself against the
Spanish branch of the House of Bourbon. Even a home could no
longer be afforded by France for the unfortunate son of James VII.;
and it now occurs, as a curious instance of the vicissitudes of fortune
among historical persons, that the diplomate who negotiated for his
expulsion beyond the Alps (the Earl of Stair) was the grandson of one
whom James VII. had driven to Holland little more than thirty years
before.
Rather oddly, while the Stuart party lost France, prospects opened
to them in quarters wholly new. It pleased the half-crazed Charles
XII. of Sweden to take umbrage at George I. for aid given to some of
his enemies; and he formed the resolution to dethrone the British
monarch, and replace his rival. There was only a total want of ships
of war and transports for effecting this object. Even from the great
rival of the Swede, Peter of Russia, some hopes were at one time
entertained. At length, Spain, under the ambitious politics of her
celebrated minister Alberoni, found it for her interest to take up in a
decided manner the cause of the Stuart. In spring 1719, an
expedition, comprehending a few companies of infantry and a
considerable quantity of arms, passed from St Sebastian to the isle of
Lewis, under the care of the Earl Marischal and the Marquis of
Tullibardine, designing to raise and arm the Highland clans. A
landing was effected in Loch Alsh amongst the friendly Mackenzies,
whose chief, the Earl of Seaforth, accompanied the expedition, and
very quickly there were a thousand natives in arms, in addition to the
Spanish companies. But a foreign force of such a trivial character was
quite insufficient to induce a general rising. While the Jacobite chiefs
lingered in Glenshiel, with only about fifteen hundred men in arms, a
government force of rather superior numbers was conducted
northward by General Wightman. It would have been easy to prevent
this force from entering the Mackenzie country; but no attempt to
that effect was made. The two parties came into conflict on the 11th
of June, and the royal commander had 142 men killed and wounded,
without accomplishing a decisive victory. It was seen, however, by
the Jacobite chiefs, two of whom were wounded, that nothing more
could be effected at present; and it was therefore arranged that the
Spanish troops should next day surrender themselves, while the
Highlanders should disperse. General Wightman was happy to carry
southwards 274 Spanish prisoners, without attempting to inflict any
punishment upon the rebels.
For some years afterwards, the agents of the Stuart prince were
actively engaged in keeping up his interest in Scotland. A large
proportion of the Highland clans and of the Lowland nobility and
gentry, along with the entire body of the Episcopalian clergy, were
his friends; but with the great bulk of the Presbyterian middle classes
his pretensions found little favour, and in the constantly increasing
comfort of the people through the pursuits of peaceful industry his
chance was always becoming less. Having married a Polish princess,
he became in 1720 the father of a prince named Charles Edward, who
was destined to make one last and brilliant, but unsuccessful effort
for the restoration of the family.
King George I., dying in June 1727, was quietly succeeded by his
son George II., with little change in the Whig set of statesmen by
which the affairs of the country had long been conducted. During the
latter years of the first Hanover sovereign, the Duke of Argyle and his
brother, the Earl of Ilay, were the men of chief influence in Scotland.
It was a period remarkable in several respects, but particularly for
the first decided development of the industrial energies of the
people, and for considerable changes in their manners and habits.
For a number of minor incidents, verging or trenching on the domain
of political history, reference must be made to the chronicle.
The strong sense of religious duty at this 1714. Oct.
time connected with the observance of
Sunday, is strikingly shewn in the conduct of the deputation sent by
the Church of Scotland to present a loyal address to George I. on his
accession. Reaching Barnby Moor on a Saturday night, and finding
there was no place of public worship which they were ‘clear’ to attend
within a reachable distance, ‘we resolved,’ says Mr Hart, ‘to spend
the Lord’s Day as well as we could. So each having retired alone for
some time in the morning, we breakfasted about ten of the clock, and
after that Messrs Linning, Ramsay, Adams, Mr Linning’s man, and I,
did shut our chamber-door, and went about worship. I read, sung,
and prayed, and then we retired again to our several chambers, and
met about two of the clock, and Mr Ramsay read, sung, and prayed;
and after that we retired to our several chambers, and met between
four and five, supped, and, after supper, Mr Linning read, sung, and
prayed, and after we had sat a while we retired, and so prepared for
bed. Thus we spent the Lord’s Day at Barnby Moor.’
It may be imagined that no small distress was given to the clergy
generally two years after, when it was reported that Mr William
Hamilton and Mr William Mitchell, in returning recently from
London, had travelled post on a Sabbath-day, with the horn
sounding before them. The presbytery of Edinburgh took up the case
in great grief and concern, and called the two reverend brethren to
give an explanation of their conduct, which fortunately they were
able to do very satisfactorily. Arriving at Stilton on a Saturday night,
and finding there was no accommodation for the next day but in a
public-house, while there was no place where they could rightly join
in worship nearer than Stamford—that is to say, no Presbyterian or
dissenting meeting-house—they had been induced to start on their
journey to the latter place next morning, when, as they were upon
post-horses, it was a matter of course, and needful for safety, that
they should have a boy going before to blow a horn. The presbytery
was satisfied; but one strenuous brother, Mr James Webster, who
was not distinguished by a charitable temper, or much moderation of
words, broke out upon them on this score in his pulpit—not in a
sermon, but in the course of his prayer—and was rebuked on this
account by the presbytery.[467]

For many years after the Revolution, the 1715. Feb.


sombre religious 1715.
feelings of the
community forbade even an attempt at the revival of theatrical
performances. If there was anywhere an inclination to see
Shakspeare, Otway, Congreve, or Addison, put into living forms on
the stage, it was restricted to the same obscurity in the breast which
entertained it, as devotion to the mass or doubts regarding
witchcraft. The plays and other examples of light literature of the age
of Anne did at length begin to find their way from London to
Edinburgh, there to meet a not wholly ungenial reception from at
least that portion of society which professed Episcopacy, not to speak
of a certain minority of the gay, who have usually contrived to exist
even amidst the most gloomy puritanism. Time, moreover, was
continually removing the stern men of the seventeenth century, to be
replaced by others of gentler convictions. The natural love of
amusement began to assert itself against the pride of asceticism and
self-denial. Englishmen were constantly coming in as government
officers, or in pursuit of business, and bringing with them new ideas.
Thus it came to pass that, about the beginning of the Hanover
dynasty, Scotland began to think that it might indulge now and then
in a little merriment, and no great harm come of it. It must be
owned, however, that during much of the eighteenth century, there
was great truth in a simile employed in the preface to a play
published in Edinburgh in 1668, which likened the drama in
Scotland to ‘a swaggerer in a country church.’[468]
The very first presentment of any public theatricals that can be
authenticated, occurred in the early part of 1715, just before the
breaking out of the unfortunate insurrection. We know little about it
besides that a corps was then acting plays at the Tennis Court, near
Holyrood Palace.[469]
‘We have now,’ says a contemporary letter-writer, ‘got a playhouse
set up here in the Tennis Court, to the great grief of all sober good
people; and I am surprised to see such diversions as tend so much to
corrupt men’s manners patronised and countenanced by some of
whom I expected better things.... Mr Webster and several other
ministers have given a testimony against them; and for so doing are
mocked by a great many that you would 1715.
scarce suspect. Particularly, Mr Webster is
very much cried out against for saying no more but that whoever in
his parish did attend these plays should be refused tokens to the
sacrament of the Supper.’[470]
The presbytery of Edinburgh was alive to the danger of allowing
stage-plays to be acted within their borders, and adverted to the
Canongate theatricals in great concern on the 23d of March 1715.
‘Being informed,’ they said, ‘that some comedians have lately come to
the bounds of this presbytery, and do act within the precincts of the
Abbey, to the great offence of many, by trespassing upon morality
and those rules of modesty and chastity which our holy religion
obligeth all its professors to a strict observance of, therefore the
presbytery recommends to all their members to use all proper and
prudent methods to discourage the same.’[471] It is at the same time
rather startling to find that three of the ministers who went as a
deputation to pay the respects of the Church of Scotland to George I.
on his accession in 1714—namely, Mitchell, Ramsay, and Hart—went
at Kendal to see the comedy of Love for Love acted.
A celebrated total eclipse of the sun, Apr. 22.
which happened about nine o’clock in the
morning of this day, made a great impression in Scotland, as in other
parts of Europe, over which the entire shadow passed. The darkness
lasted upwards of three minutes, during which the usual phenomena
were observed among the lower animals. The Edinburgh bard, Allan
Ramsay, heralded the event with a set of verses, embracing all the
commonplaces connected with it; adding,
‘The unlearned clowns, who don’t our era know,
From this dark Friday will their ages shew,
As I have often heard old country men
Talk of Dark Monday[472] and their ages then.’

Whiston, in his Memoirs, relates what will be to philosophical


persons an amusing anecdote of this eclipse. When the accounts of it
were published beforehand in the streets of London, telling when it
would commence, and that it would be total, a Mohammedan envoy,
from Tripoli, thought the English people were distracted in
pretending to know what God Almighty 1715.
would do; which his own countrymen could
not do. ‘He concluded thus, that God Almighty would never reveal so
great a secret to us unbelievers, when he did not reveal it to those
whom he esteemed true believers. However, when the eclipse came
exactly as we all foretold, he was asked again what he thought of the
matter now; his answer was, that he supposed we knew this by art
magique; otherwise he must have turned Christian upon such an
extraordinary event as this was.’

Mr James Anderson, so honourably July.


known as editor of the Diplomata Scotiæ,
was rewarded for his public services by the appointment of Deputy
Postmaster-general, in place of George Mein. A mass of his
correspondence, preserved in the Advocates’ Library, makes us
acquainted with the condition in which he found postal matters, and
the improvements which he effected during two or three subsequent
years.
We learn that the horse-posts which existed many years back on
some of the principal roads, had, ere this time, been given up, and
foot-runners substituted, excepting perhaps upon what might be
called the aorta of the system, from Edinburgh to Berwick. In this
manner direct bags were conveyed as far north as Thurso, and
westwards to Inverary. There were three mails a week from
Edinburgh to Glasgow, and three in return; the runners set out from
Edinburgh each Tuesday and Thursday, at twelve o’clock at night,
and on Sundays in the morning, and the mails arrived at Glasgow on
the evening of Wednesday and Friday, and on the forenoon of
Monday. For this service the Post-office paid £40 sterling per
annum, but from the fraudulent dealing of the postmaster of Falkirk,
who made the payments, the runners seldom received more than
from £20 to £25.
‘After his appointment, Mr Anderson directed his attention to the
establishment of horse-posts on the western road from Edinburgh.
The first regular horse-post in Scotland appears to have been from
Edinburgh to Stirling; it started for the first time on the 29th
November 1715. It left Stirling at two o’clock afternoon, each
Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, and reached Edinburgh in time
for the night-mail to England. In March 1717, the first horse-post
between Edinburgh and Glasgow was established, and we have the
details of the arrangement in a memorial addressed to Lord
Cornwallis and James Craggs, who jointly filled the office of
Postmaster-general of Great Britain. The 1715.
memorial states that the “horse-post will set
out for Edinburgh each Tuesday, and Thursday, at eight o’clock at
night, and on Sunday about eight or nine in the morning, and be in
Glasgow (a distance of thirty-six miles by the post-road of that time)
by six in the morning on Wednesday and Friday in summer, and
eight in winter, and both winter and summer will be on Sunday
night.” There appears to have been a good deal of negotiation
connected with the settlement of this post, in which the provost and
bailies of Glasgow took part. After some delay, the matter appears to
have been arranged to the satisfaction of all parties.
‘A proposition was made at this time to establish a horse-post
between Edinburgh and Aberdeen, at a cost of £132, 12s. per annum,
to supersede the foot-posts, which were maintained at a cost of £81,
12s. The scheme, however, appears not to have been entertained at
that time by the Post-office authorities.
‘In the year 1715, Edinburgh had direct communication with sixty
post-towns in Scotland, and in the month of August the total sum
received for letters passing to and from these offices and Edinburgh,
was £44, 3s. 1d. The postage on letters to and from London in the
same month amounted to £157, 3s. 2d., and the postage for letters
per the London road, amounted to £9, 19s., making the total sum for
letters to and from Edinburgh, during that month, amount to £211,
5s. 3d.—equal to £2535, 3s. per annum.
‘In 1716, the Duke of Argyle, who had then supreme control in
Scotland, gave orders to Mr Anderson to place relays of horses from
Edinburgh to Inverness, for the purpose of forwarding dispatches to,
and receiving intelligence from, the army in the Highlands under
General Cadogan. These posts worked upon two lines of roads—the
one went through Fife, and round by the east coast, passing through
Aberdeen; the other took the central road viâ Perth, Dunkeld, and
Blair Athole. These horse-posts were, however, discontinued
immediately after the army retired.’[473]
In October 1723, the authorities of the Edinburgh Post-office
announced a thrice-a-week correspondence with Lanark, by means
of the horse-post to Glasgow, and a runner thence to Lanark. The
official annonce candidly owns: ‘This at first sight appears far about’
(it was transforming a direct distance of thirty-one miles into sixty-
six). But ‘the Glasgow horse-post running all night makes the
dispatch so quick, that the letters come this 1715.
way to Lanark in twenty, or at most twenty-
two hours, and from Lanark to Edinburgh in twenty-four hours at
most.’

Two Renfrewshire gentlemen, of whose July 18.


previous dealings with each other in
friendship or business we get but an obscure account, came to a
hostile collision in Edinburgh. Mr James Houston, son of the
deceased Sir Patrick Houston of that Ilk, was walking on a piece of
pavement called the Plainstones, near the Cross, when Sir John
Shaw of Greenock came up with a friend, and the two gentlemen,
designedly or not, slightly jostled each other. Mr Houston put his
hand to his sword, but had not time to draw it before Sir John fell a-
beating him about the head and shoulders with his cane, which,
however, flying out of his hand, he instantly took to his sword, and
before the bystanders could interfere, passed it twice through Mr
Houston’s body.
It was at first thought the man was slain outright; but he was
surviving in a sickly state in the ensuing January, when he raised a
criminal prosecution against the knight of Greenock, and succeeded
in obtaining from him a solatium to the amount of five hundred
pounds.[474]

On the breaking out of the Rebellion this Sep.


month, there was a run upon the Bank of
Scotland, rather encouraged by the directors than otherwise, from a
desire to escape the responsibility and danger of keeping money
during such a critical time. When the whole coin was drawn out, the
Bank rendered up about thirty thousand pounds of public money
which lay in its hands, that it might be lodged in the Castle, and then
very calmly stopped payment, or rather discontinued business,
intimating that their notes should bear interest till better times
should return. In May 1716, the troubles being over, the Bank began
to take in their notes and resume business as usual.[475]

At this crisis, when a formidable Sep. 29.


insurrection was breaking out, the officers
intrusted with the support of the government were not in the
enjoyment of that concord which is said to give strength. The Justice-
clerk (Cockburn of Ormiston) was on bad terms with both the Earl of
Ilay and the Lord Advocate, Sir David 1715.
Dalrymple. The animosity between two of
these men came to a consummation which might be said to prefigure
the celebrated wig-pulling of Sir Robert Walpole and Lord
Townshend. The Earl of Ilay writes at this date from Edinburgh:
‘There has happened an accident which will suspend the Justice-
clerk’s fury against me; for he and the King’s Advocate have had a
corporal dispute; I mean literally, for I parted them.’[476]

Oct. 18.
In a letter of this date, written at Musselburgh by the Rev. J.
Williamson, minister of that place, some recent domestic events are
alluded to—as ‘the lamentable murder of Doctor Rule last week by
Craigmillar’s second son, and the melancholy providence of a
jeweller’s servant, who was under some dejection for some time, and
did, on Monday last, immediately after sermon, at Leith, run into the
sea deliberately, and drown himself.’ There had been a new election
of Scots peers at Holyrood for the first parliament of the new reign,
and they were all of one sound loyal type—‘a plain evidence of our
further slavery to the English court.’ In reference to this, a fruit-
woman went about the Palace-yard, crying: ‘Who would buy good
pears, old pears, new pears, fresh pears—rotten pears, sixteen of
them for a plack!’[477]

Died, William Carstares, Principal of the Dec. 28.


University of Edinburgh, noted as having
been the intimate friend of King William, and his adviser about all
Scottish affairs; for which reason, and his influence over the fortunes
of the church, he was popularly known by the name of Cardinal
Carstares. It must ever be considered a great honour to the Church
of Scotland to have had the affectionate support of such a man. A
sufferer under the severities of the pre-Revolution government, he
inclined, when his day of power came, to use it with moderation. His
temperate counsels and practice are believed to have had a great
effect in smoothing the difficulties which at first surrounded the
Presbyterian establishment. His probity and disinterestedness have
been above all question. King William said ‘he had known him long
and well, and he knew him to be an Honest Man.’ In the midst of the
contentious proceedings of this period, to light upon the gentle
prudence, the unostentatious worth, and the genial unselfishness of
Carstares, has the effect of a fine, soothing 1715.
melody amidst discord. There are a few
anecdotes of this eminent man, which no one can read without
feeling his heart improved.
A newly widowed sister coming from the country to see him, when
he was engaged in consultations of importance with some of the
officers of state, he instantly left these personages and came to her;
insisted, against her remonstrances, on staying a short while with
her, and giving her a prayer of consolation; then, having appointed a
more leisurely interview, he returned with the tears scarcely effaced
from his countenance, to his noble company.
His charities, which were truly diffusive, were often directed to the
unfortunate Episcopal clergy. One, named Caddell, having called
upon him, he observed that the poor man’s clothes were worn out,
and discreditable to his sacred calling. Instantly ordering a suit to be
prepared for a man of Caddell’s size, he took care to have them first
tried upon his own person when his friend next waited upon him.
‘See,’ said he, ‘how this silly fellow has misfitted me! They are quite
useless to me. They will be lost if they don’t fit some of my friends.
And, by the by, I daresay they might answer you. Please try them on,
for it is a pity they should be thrown away.’ Caddell, after some
hesitation, complied, and found that the clothes fitted him exactly.
With his hard-wrung permission, they were sent home to him, and
he found a ten-pound note in one of the pockets.
It is said that many of the ‘outed’ clergy were in the custom of
receiving supplies, the source of which they never knew till Mr
Carstares’s death. At his funeral, two men were observed to turn
aside together, quite overcome by their grief. Upon inquiry, it was
found they were two nonjurant ministers, whose families, for a
considerable time, had been supported by the benefactions of him
they were laying in the grave.[478]
If the partisans of particular doctrines and formulæ were to try
occasionally upon each other the effect of kindly good offices such as
these, might they not sometimes make a little way with their
opponents, instead of merely exasperating and hardening them, as,
under existing circumstances, they almost invariably do?

John Kellie, corporal in the Earl of Stair’s 1716. Apr. 21.


regiment, was put into the Edinburgh
Tolbooth for killing John Norton, sergeant of the same regiment, in a
duel near Stirling. He was liberated at the 1716.
[479]
bar, on the 23d July ensuing.
The fighting of duels by private soldiers, now never heard of,
seems then to have been not uncommon. The Edinburgh Courant of
February 16, 1725, states: ‘This morning, two soldiers of the regiment
that lies in the Canongate were whipped for fighting a duel.’

The Whig government of George I., May 21.


having now got the lay Jacobites effectually
put down, bethought itself of the clergy of the defeated party, the
Episcopalians, who had made several active demonstrations during
the late insurrection, and constantly stood in a sort of negative
rebellion, in as far as they never prayed for the king de facto. Under a
prompting from a high quarter, the Commissioners of Justiciary now
ordered the advocate-depute, Duncan Forbes, to proceed against
such of the Episcopal clergy in Scotland as had not prayed for King
George, or otherwise obeyed the late Toleration Act by registering
orders from a Protestant bishop. The consequent proceedings reveal
to us a curious view of the condition of Episcopacy at that time in
Edinburgh—at once comprehending a large number of clergy, and
existing in the greatest obscurity.
There were Mr William Abercrombie and Mr David Freebairn, Mr
Robert Marshall and Mr William Wylie, each described as ‘preacher
in the Episcopal meeting-house in Bailie Fyfe’s Close;’ Mr George
Johnston, Mr Robert Keith, and Mr Andrew Lumsdain, severally
described as ‘preacher in the Episcopal meeting-house in Barrenger’s
Close;’ Mr Jasper Kellie, ‘preacher in the Episcopal meeting-house
below the Fountain-well;’ Mr Thomas Rhind, ‘preacher in the
Episcopal meeting-house in Sandilands’ Close;’ Mr George Grahame,
‘preacher and user of the English Liturgy in his own house, to which
many do resort as an Episcopal meeting-house, in Canongate-head;’
Mr Andrew Cant, Mr David Lambie, Mr David Rankine, and Mr
Patrick Middleton, ‘preachers in the Episcopal meeting-house in
Skinner’s Close;’ Mr Henry Walker and Mr Patrick Home, each
described as ‘preacher in the Episcopal meeting-house in Todrig’s
Wynd;’ Mr Robert Calder, ‘preacher, sometimes in Edinburgh,
sometimes in Tranent’ [the reputed author of Scots Presbyterian
Eloquence Displayed]; Mr William Milne and Mr William Cockburn,
‘preachers in the Episcopal meeting-house 1716.
in Blackfriars’ Wynd’ [the latter probably he
who had lately been chased by the mob out of Glasgow]; Mr James
Walker, ‘preacher in the Episcopal meeting-house in Dickson’s
Close;’ Mr Alexander Sutherland, senior, and Mr Robert Chein,
‘preachers in the Episcopal meeting-house at the back of Bell’s
Wynd.’ Thus, we see there were ten places of worship in Edinburgh—
all in retired situations, and, strange to say, all within two hundred
yards or so of each other; having in all twenty-two ministers; being
considerably more than the number of the Established clergy then in
Edinburgh; but in what poverty they lived may be partly inferred
from the fact, that Thomas Ruddiman, the grammarian, when
attending an Episcopal meeting-house in Edinburgh in 1703, paid
only ‘forty shillings’ (3s. 4d.) for his seat for two years.[480]
Besides the twenty-two Edinburgh clergy, there were Mr Arthur
Miller, ‘preacher in the Episcopal meeting-house in Leith,’ and Mr
Robert Coult and Mr James Hunter, ‘Episcopal preachers in
Mussleburgh,’ all involved in the same prosecution.
The result of their trial was a sentence, applicable to all except Mr
William Cockburn, forbidding them to exercise their ministerial
functions till they should have fulfilled the requirements of the law,
and amerciating them in twenty pounds each for not praying for
King George. The only visible difference between the old
persecutions and this was, that there was a populace to howl in the
one case, and not in the other. However, the authorities were
humane. The magistrates of Edinburgh were content to see that
letters of ordination were registered. When the Prince of Wales,
acting as regent, some time after sent them a secretary of state’s
letter, complaining that the sentence was not fully carried out—the
object being to compel a praying for his father—the magistrates
applied for instructions to the commissioners of Justiciary, and were
told that, having once passed sentence, the court could do nothing
more in the case. So the Episcopal meeting-houses in Bailie Fyfe’s,
Barrenger’s, Sandilands’, and other closes went on as before.[481]

William Mure of Caldwell travelling with Aug.


a party of friends from Edinburgh to Ross-
shire, came the first stage—namely, to the Queensferry—in a coach,
and afterwards proceeded on horseback. Writing an account of his
journey to his wife, from Chanonry, August 1716.
30, he says: ‘We came in coach to the Ferry
on Friday; and though we were once overturned, yet none of us had
any misfortune.’ Probably Mr Mure considered himself as getting off
very well with but one overturn in a coach-journey of eleven English
miles. He goes on: ‘We came that night to Perth, where the Master of
Ross and Lady Betty met us. On Saturday, we came to Dunkeld, and
were all night with the Duke of Athole. On Sunday, after sermon, we
left the ladies there, and came to the Blair.’ The ladies probably had
scruples about Sunday travelling; but Mr Mure, although a man of
notedly religious character, appears to have had none. ‘On Monday,’
he adds, ‘we made a long journey, and went to Glenmore, where my
Lord Huntly’s fir-woods are. On Tuesday, we came to Kilravock’s
house [Kilravock], and yesternight came here, which is the first town
in the shire of Ross.’[482] Thus a journey of about 170 miles occupied
in all six days.
In April 1722, the king being about to visit Hanover, certain
Scottish lords, amongst others, were appointed to attend him. It is
intimated in a London paper of April 28,[483] that they set out from
Edinburgh for this purpose on the previous Monday, the 23d; and
‘the roads being laid with post-horses, they are expected here as to-
morrow.’ That is, the journey would occupy in the way of posting
from Monday to Sunday, or seven days. It was one day more than the
time occupied in a journey from London to Edinburgh by the Duke of
Argyle in September 1715, when he posted down in the utmost haste,
with some friends, to take command of the troops for the resistance
to the insurgent Earl of Mar.
It appears that about this time there were occasional packet-ships,
by which people could travel between Edinburgh and London. In
1720, the Bon Accord, Captain Buchanan, was advertised as to sail
for London on the 30th June, having good accommodation for
passengers, and ‘will keep the day, goods or no goods.’ Two years
later, the ‘Unity packet-boat of Leith’ was in like manner announced
as to proceed to London on the 1st September, ‘goods or no goods,
wind and weather serving, having good accommodation for
passengers, and good entertainment.’ The master to be spoke with in
the Laigh Coffee-house.[484] But this mode of transit was occasionally
attended with vicissitudes not much less 1716.
vexatious than those of the pious voyager of
the Æneid. For example, we learn from a paragraph in an Edinburgh
newspaper, on the 15th November 1743, that the Edinburgh and
Glasgow packet from London, ‘after having great stress of weather
for twenty days, has lately arrived safe at Holy Island, and is soon
expected in Leith harbour.’
During the decade 1720–30, return chaises for London, generally
with six horses, are occasionally advertised. The small amount of
travelling which then prevailed is marked by the fact, that we find
such a conveyance announced on the 11th of May to set out
homeward on the 15th or 16th, and on the 18th re-advertised as to go
on the 2d or 3d of June, no one having come forward in the interval
to take advantage of the opportunity. We find, however, in 1732, that
a periodical conveyance had at length been attempted. The
advertisement states, ‘that the Stage Coach continues to go from the
Canongate for London, or any place on the road, every Wednesday
fortnight. And if any gentleman want a by-coach, they may call at
Alexander Forsyth’s, opposite to the Duke of Queensberry’s Lodging,
where the coach stands.’
In May 1734, a comparatively spirited effort in the way of
travelling was announced by John Dale and three other persons—
namely, a coach to set out towards the end of this week [pleasant
indefiniteness!] for London, or any place on the road, to be
performed in nine days, or three days sooner than any other coach
that travels the road.’
The short space between the two populous towns of Edinburgh
and Leith must have been felt as a particularly favourable field for
this kind of enterprise; and, accordingly, a ‘Leith stage’ was tried
both in 1610 and 1660,[485] but on both occasions failed to receive
sufficient encouragement. In July 1722, we are informed that, on the
9th instant, ‘two stage-coaches are to begin to serve betwixt
Edinburgh and Leith, and are to go with or without company every
hour of the day. They are designed to contain six persons, each
paying threepence during the summer, and fourpence during the
winter for their fare.’

This day met at Edinburgh a set of Sep. 1.


commissioners appointed under a late act
‘to inquire of the estates of certain traitors, and of popish recusants,
and of estates given to superstitious uses, in order to raise money out
of them for the use of the public.’ The first 1716.
and most prominent object was to
appropriate the lands of the Scottish nobles and gentlemen who had
taken part in the late insurrection for the House of Stuart. Four out
of the six commissioners were Englishmen, members of the House of
Commons, and among these was the celebrated Sir Richard Steele,
fresh from the literary glories he had achieved in the Tatler,
Spectator, and Guardian, from his sufferings in the Whig cause
under Anne, and the consolatory honours he attained under the new
monarch.
It was a matter of course that strangers of such distinction should
be honoured in a city which received few such guests; and doubtless
the government officials in particular paid them many flattering
attentions. But the commissioners very soon found that their
business was not an easy or agreeable one. There was in Scotland
plenty of hatred to the Jacobite cause; but battling off its adherents
at Sheriffmuir, and putting down its seminaries, the Episcopal
chapels, was a different thing from seeing an order come from
England which was to extinguish the names and fortunes of many
old and honourable families, and turn a multitude of women and
children out of house and home, and throw them upon the charity of
their friends or the public. Most of the unfortunates, too, had
connections among the Whigs themselves, with claims upon them for
commiseration, if not assistance; and we all know the force of the old
Scottish maxim—eternal blessings rest on the nameless man who
first spoke it!—that bluid is thicker than water.
It was with no little surprise and no little irritation that these
English Whig gentlemen discovered how hard it was to turn the
forfeited estates into money, or indeed to make any decent progress
at all in the business they came about. The first and most vexatious
discovery they made was, that there was a code of law and frame of
legal procedure north of the Tweed different from what obtained to
the south of it. The act was framed with a regard to the practices of
English law, which were wholly unknown and could not be
recognised in Scotland. Then as to special impediments—first came
the Scotch Court of Exchequer, with a claim under an act of the
preceding year, imposing a penalty of five hundred pounds and loss
of liferents and whole movables on every suspected man who did not
deliver himself up before a certain day: all of the men engaged in the
late insurrection had incurred this penalty; the affair came under the
Exchequer department; and it was necessary to discriminate between
what was forfeited by the one act and what was forfeited by the other.
There was something more obstructive, 1716.
however, than even the Scottish Exchequer.
The commissioners discovered this in the form of a body called the
Court of Session, or, in common language, ‘the Fifteen,’ who sat
periodically in Edinburgh, exercising a mysterious influence over
property throughout the country, and indulging in certain phrases of
marvellous potency, though utterly undreamed of in Southern
Britain. Here is how it was. The act had, of course, admitted the
preferable claims of the creditors of the traitors, and of those who
had claims for marriage and other provisions on their estates. On
petitions from these persons—in whose reality the commissioners
had evidently a very imperfect faith—this Court of Session had
passed what, in their barbarous jargon, they called sequestrations of
the said estates, at the same time appointing factors to uplift the
rents, for the benefit of the aforesaid persons in the first place, and
only the commissioners in the second. What further seemed to the
commissioners very strange was, that these factors were all of them
men notedly disaffected to the Revolution interest, most of them
confidential friends, some even the relatives, of the forfeited persons,
and therefore all disposed to make the first department of the
account as large, and the second as small, as possible. Nor was even
this all, for, as had been pointed out to them by some of the
Established clergy of Forfarshire, these factors were persons
dangerous to the government. For example, Sir John Carnegie of
Pitarrow, factor on the Earl of Southesk’s estate, was the man who,
on the synod of Angus uttering a declaration in 1712 for the House of
Hanover, had caused it to be burned at the head burgh of the shire.
John Lumsdain, who was nominated to the charge of the estates of
the Earl of Panmure, had greatly obstructed the establishment of the
church in the district, and proved altogether ‘very uneasy to
presbyteries and synods.’ Suppose the unruly king of Sweden should
land on the east of Scotland, there were all the tenants of those large
estates in the obedience of men who would hail his arrival and
forward his objects!
The general result was, that the commissioners found themselves
stranded in Edinburgh, as powerless as so many porpoises on
Cramond sands, only treated with a little more outward respect. One
proposal, indeed, they did receive (January 1717), that seemed at first
to be a Scottish movement in their favour—namely, an offer from the
Lord Advocate (Sir David Dalrymple), with their concurrence, to
commence actions in the Court of Session for determining the claims
of creditors; but, seeing in this only an 1716.
endless vista of vexatious lawsuits, they
declined it, preferring to leave the whole matter to be disposed of by
further acts of the legislature.[486]

By virtue of the treason-law for Scotland, Sep. 3.


passed immediately after the Union, the
government this day suddenly removed eighty-nine rebel prisoners
from Edinburgh to Carlisle, to be there tried by English juries, it
being presumed that there was no chance of impartiality in Scotland.
The departing troop was followed by a wail of indignant lament from
the national heart. Jacobites pointing to it with mingled howls and
jeers as a proof of the enslavement of Scotland—Whigs carried off by
irresistible sympathy, and unable to say a word in its defence—
attested how much the government did by such acts to retard the
desirable amalgamation of the two nations. Under the warm feeling
of the moment, a subscription was opened to provide legal defences
for the unfortunate Scotsmen, and contributions came literally from
all sorts and conditions of men. Even the Goodman of the Tolbooth
gave his pound. The very government officials in some instances
were unable to resist an appeal so thrilling.
The list includes the names of nineteen of the nobility—namely,
Errol, Haddington, Rosebery, Morton, Hopetoun, Dundonald,
Moray, Rutherglen, Cassillis, Traquair, March, Galloway, Kinnoull,
Eglintoune, Elibank, Colville, Blantyre, Coupar, and Deskford, all for
considerable sums. Amongst other entries are the following: Lady
Grizel Cochrane, £6, 9s.; the Commissioners of Excise, £7, 10s. 6d.;
Mr George Drummond, Goodman of the Tolbooth [Edinburgh], £1;
John M‘Farlane, Writer to the Signet, 10s. 9d.; the Merchant
Company, £5; the Incorporation of Goldsmiths, £5; the
Incorporation of Tailors, £5; the Incorporation of Chirurgeons, £5;

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