Rare Metal Technology 2017 1st Edition

Hojong Kim
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 2017
Editors
Hojong Kim
Shafiq Alam
Neale R. Neelameggham
Harald Oosterhof
Takanari Ouchi
Xiaofei Guan
The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series
Hojong Kim Shafiq Alam
•

Neale R. Neelameggham
Harald Oosterhof Takanari Ouchi
•

Xiaofei Guan
Editors

Rare Metal Technology 2017

123
Editors
Hojong Kim Harald Oosterhof
Pennsylvania State University Umicore
University Park, PA Olen
USA Belgium

Shafiq Alam Takanari Ouchi

University of Saskatchewan Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Saskatoon, SK Cambridge, MA
Canada USA

Neale R. Neelameggham Xiaofei Guan

IND LLC Watertown, MA
South Jordan, UT USA
USA

ISSN 2367-1181 ISSN 2367-1696 (electronic)

The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series
ISBN 978-3-319-51084-2 ISBN 978-3-319-51085-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-51085-9
TMS owns copyright; Springer has full administrative rights
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016960563

© The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

Rare Metal Technology 2017 is the proceedings of the symposium on rare metal
extraction and processing sponsored by the Hydrometallurgy and Electrometallurgy
Committee of the TMS Extraction and Processing Division. The symposium has
been organized to encompass the extraction of rare metals as well as rare extraction
processing techniques used in metal production and mineral processing. This is the
fourth symposium since 2014, which will be held in San Diego, California.
This symposium intends to cover research and developments in the extraction
and processing of less common rare metals that are not covered by other TMS
symposia. These elements include antimony, bismuth, barium, beryllium, boron,
calcium, chromium, gallium, germanium, hafnium, indium, manganese, molybde-
num, platinum group metals, rare earth metals, rhenium, scandium, selenium,
sodium, strontium, tantalum, tellurium, and tungsten. These are rare metals of low
tonnage sales compared to high tonnage metals such as iron, copper, nickel, lead,
tin, zinc, or light metals such as aluminum, magnesium, or titanium and electronic
metalloid silicon. Rare processing includes bio-metallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and
electrometallurgy, as well as extraction of values from electric arc furnace
(EAF) dusts, and less common waste streams not discussed in recycling symposia.
Rare high-temperature processes included microwave heating, solar-thermal reac-
tion synthesis, molten salt electrochemical processes, cold crucible synthesis of the
rare metals, and the design of extraction equipment used in these processes as well
as laboratory and pilot plant studies.
This volume covers extraction and processing techniques of various platinum
group metals, rare earth elements as well as other less common metals such as
arsenic, indium, antimony, molybdenum, chromium, titanium, and vanadium,
including electrochemical processing, aqueous processing, biological separation,
and microwave heating. The symposium is organized into the following sessions:
(1) Rare-Earth Elements, (2) Platinum Group Metals, and (3) Base and Rare Metals
(Co, Cr, Sn, Ti, Mo and V).
We acknowledge the efforts of the symposium organizers and proceedings
editors: Hojong Kim, Shafiq Alam, Neale R. Neelameggham, Harald Oosterhof,
Takanari Ouchi, and Xiaofei Guan. The support from TMS staff members Trudi

v
vi Preface

Dunlap and Patricia Warren is greatly appreciated in assembling and publishing the
proceedings. We sincerely thank all the authors, speakers, and participants and look
forward to continued collaboration in the advancement of science and technology in
the area of rare metal extraction and processing.

Hojong Kim
Lead Organizer
Contents

Part I Rare Earth Elements I

The Economics of the Search Minerals Direct Extraction
Process for Rare Earth Element Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
David Dreisinger and Greg Andrews
Recovery of Critical Rare Earth Elements for Green Energy
Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Jyothi Rajesh Kumar and Jin-Young Lee
Selective Reduction and Separation of Europium from Mixed
Rare-Earth Oxides from Waste Fluorescent Lamp Phosphors . . . . . . . . 31
Mark L. Strauss, Brajendra Mishra and Gerard P. Martins
Application of Rare Earths for Higher Efficiencies in Energy
Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
W.D. Judge, Z.W. Xiao and G.J. Kipouros
Microwave Treatment for Extraction of Rare Earth Elements
from Phosphogypsum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Adrian Lambert, Jason Tam and Gisele Azimi
Selective Separation of Rare Earth Chlorides Utilizing
Vapor Phase Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Katelyn M. Lyons, Jerome P. Downey, Jannette L. Chorney
and Katie J. Schumacher
Microstructure Observation of Oxidation of Nd-Magnet
at High Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Muhamad Firdaus, M. Akbar Rhamdhani, Yvonne Durandet,
W. John Rankin, Kathie Mcgregor and Nathan A.S. Webster

vii
viii Contents

Part II Rare Earth Elements II and Platinum Group Metals

Electrochemical Behavior of Neodymium in Molten
Chloride Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
L. Diaz, P. Chamelot, M. Gibilaro, L. Massot and J. Serp
Novel Reactive Anode for Electrochemical Extraction
of Rare Earth Metals from Rare Earth Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Aida Abbasalizadeh, Seshadri Seetharaman, Prakash Venkatesan,
Jilt Sietsma and Yongxiang Yang
Electrochemical Formation of Nd Alloys Using Liquid
Metal Electrodes in Molten LiCl–KCl Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Hirokazu Konishi, Hideki Ono, Eiichi Takeuchi, Toshiyuki Nohira
and Tetsuo Oishi
Challenges in the Electrolytic Refining of Silver—Influencing
the Co-deposition Through Parameter Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Ann-Kathrin Maurell-Lopez, Bernd Friedrich and Wolfgang Koch
Vapor Treatment for Alloying and Magnetizing Platinum
Group Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Yu-ki Taninouchi and Toru H. Okabe
Biotechnological Recovery of Platinum Group Metals from
Leachates of Spent Automotive Catalysts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Norizoh Saitoh, Toshiyuki Nomura and Yasuhiro Konishi
Recovering Palladium from Chloridizing Leaching Solution
of Spent Pd/Al2O3 Catalyst by Sulfide Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Qian Li, Qiang Zou, Bin Xu, Yongbin Yang, Xuefei Rao, Long Hu
and Tao Jiang
Mechanism of Intensifying Cyanide Leaching of Gold from
a Calcine by the Pretreatment of Acid or Alkali Washing . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Yan Zhang, Qian Li, Xiaoliang Liu, Yongbin Yang, Bin Xu, Tao Jiang
and Hongwei Li

Part III Base and Rare Metals

Disclosure of the Kinetic Relations of Semidirect Cemented
Carbide Leaching in Acid Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Gregor Kücher, Stefan Luidold, Christoph Czettl and Christian Storf
A New Two-Stage Aluminothermic Reduction Process
for Preparation of Ti/Ti-Al Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Kun Zhao and Naixiang Feng
Contents ix

Study on Pre-reduction Mechanisms of Chromium Ore

Pellets in SRC Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Pei-xiao Liu, Yan-xiang Li and Han-jie Guo
Recovery of Valuable Metals from High-Content Arsenic
Containing Copper Smelting Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Xuepeng Li and Dachun Liu
Sulfuric Acid Leaching of Mechanically Activated
Vanadium–Bearing Converter Slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Junyi Xiang, Qingyun Huang, Xuewei Lv and Chenguang Bai
Present Status and Development of Comprehensive Utilization
of Vanadium-Titanium Magnetite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Shiju Zhang, Songli Liu, Wenhui Ma, Kuisong Zhu, Li Cao
and Yongnian Dai
Review of TiO2-Rich Materials Preparation for the
Chlorination Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Songli Liu, Li Cao, Kuisong Zhu, Shiju Zhang and Kui He

Part IV Poster Session

Adsorbents for Selective Recovery of Heavy Rare Earth Elements . . . . . 219
Takeshi Ogata, Hirokazu Narita and Mikiya Tanaka
Behavior of Sec-Octylphenoxy Acetic Acid (CA-12)
in Yttrium Recovery from High Concentrated Heavy
Rare Earths Mixture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Corradino Sposato, Alessandro Blasi, Assunta Romanelli,
Giacobbe Braccio and Massimo Morgana
Preparation of Molybdenum Powder from Molybdenite
Concentrate Through Vacuum Decomposition-Acid
Leaching Combination Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Chongfang Yang, Yuezhen Zhou, Dachun Liu, Wenlong Jiang,
Fansong Liu and Zewei Liu
Pressure Leaching Behavior of Molybdenum-Nickel Sulfide
from Black Shale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Zhigan Deng, Xingbin Li, Chang Wei, Cunxiong Li, Gang Fan
and Minting Li
Selective Recovery of Scandium From Sulfating Roasting Red
Mud By Water Leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Zhaobo Liu, Hongxu Li and Zihan Zhao
x Contents

Study for Preparation of Industrial Ammonium Molybdate

from Low Grade Molybdenum Concentrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Qingwei Qin, Zhenwei Liu, Tiejun Chen, Zili Huang, Jianhong Yang
and Wei Han
Study of a Synergistic Solvent Extracting System to Separate
Yttrium and Heavy Rare Earths: A Deep Investigation
on System Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Alessandro Blasi, Corradino Sposato, Assunta Romanelli,
Giacobbe Braccio and Massimo Morgana
The Recovery of Bismuth from Bismuthinite Concentrate
Through Membrane Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Si-yao Peng, Jian-guang Yang, Jian-ying Yang and Lei Jie
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
About the Editors

Hojong Kim is Assistant Professor of Materials

Science and Engineering, and Norris B. McFarlane
Faculty Professor at the Pennsylvania State University.
Dr. Kim received his B.S. from Seoul National
University in South Korea in 2000 and Ph.D. degree at
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 2004
both in Materials Science and Engineering. His doc-
toral research sought to identify the corrosion mech-
anisms of constructional alloys in high temperature
and high pressure steam environments under Prof.
Ronals Latanision in the Uhlig Corrosion Laboratory
at MIT. After graduate research, Dr. Kim worked as a
senior research scientist at Samsung-Corning Precision
Glass Co. Ltd. and as a project lead to improve the
process yield for thin film transistor liquid crystal
display (TFT-LCD) glass melting processes by engi-
neering high temperature materials of refractory
ceramics (alumina and fused zirconia), molybdenum,
and platinum alloys. After five years of industrial
experience, Dr. Kim returned to MIT as a postdoctoral
associate and later as a research scientist to contribute
to the growing need for sustainable technology. He
conducted research on high temperature electrochem-
ical processes, including molten oxide electrolysis for
carbon-free iron and steel production with focus on
developing inert anode materials in molten slags as
well as molten salt liquid metal batteries for large-scale
energy storage.
Dr. Kim’s current research interests embrace the
development of environment-friendly electrochemical
processes for resource extraction/recycling,

xi
xii About the Editors

corrosion-resistant materials, as well as energy storage

systems. He was awarded The Minerals, Metals &
Materials Society (TMS) Young Leaders Professional
Development Award in 2013 from the Extraction and
Processing Division in recognition of his achievement
in the high temperature materials and electrochemical
processing. In 2015, he was chosen to receive a
Doctoral New Investigator Award from the American
Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund for his
innovative research and education program. He is
currently leading efforts to separate
alkali/alkaline-earth elements from the used nuclear
fuel recycling processes in the molten salt electrolytes.
Dr. Kim is the lead organizer of the present Rare Metal
Extraction & Processing Symposium at the TMS 2017
Annual Meeting and is the vice-chair of the
Hydrometallurgy and Electrometallurgy Committee of
the Extraction and Processing Division.

Shafiq Alam is Associate Professor at the University of

Saskatchewan, Canada. In 1998, he received his Ph.D.
degree in Chemical Engineering from Saga University,
Japan. From 1999 to 2001, he was appointed as a post-
doctoral research fellow at the University of British
Columbia and the University of Toronto, Canada.
Dr. Alam has extensive experience in industrial
operations, management, engineering, design, consult-
ing, teaching, research, and professional services.
Before joining the University of Saskatchewan in 2014,
he was an assistant/associate professor at Memorial
University of Newfoundland for about seven years.
Prior to starting his career in academia, he worked with
many different companies, such as, Shell, Process
Research ORTECH Inc., Fluor Canada Ltd., and the
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and
Technology (AIST), Japan. Dr. Alam is highly experi-
enced in the area of mineral processing and extractive
metallurgy, and he possesses two patents and has more
than 140 publications. He is the co-editor of four books
and an associate editor of the International Journal of
Mining, Materials and Metallurgical Engineering
(IJMMME). He is the winner of the 2014 TMS
Extraction & Processing Division’s Technology
Award.
About the Editors xiii

Dr. Alam is a registered professional engineer and

has worked on projects with many different mining
companies including, Falconbridge, INCO (Vale),
Barrick, Hatch, Phelps Dodge, Rambler, Anaconda, etc.
He is an Executive Committee Member of the
Hydrometallurgy Section of the Canadian Institute of
Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum (CIM) and cur-
rently, he holds the office of secretary (2013–2017). Dr.
Alam is also the chair of the Hydrometallurgy and
Electrometallurgy Committee of the Extraction &
Processing Division (EPD) of The Minerals, Metals &
Materials Society (TMS) for the period of 2015–2017.
He is a co-organizer of many symposia at the interna-
tional conferences through CIM and TMS. Dr. Alam is
also involved in organizing the TMS 2017 Symposium
on Energy, Environment and Materials Process
Engineering, which is an EPD Symposium in Honor of
Ramana Reddy focusing on applications of process
engineering principles in materials processing, energy
and environmental technologies.

Neale R. Neelameggham is ‘The Guru’ at IND LLC,

involved in international consulting in the field of
metals and associated chemicals (boron, magnesium,
titanium, and lithium and rare earth elements),
thiometallurgy, energy technologies, soil biochemical
reactor design, etc. He was a visiting expert at Beihang
University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Beijing,
China. He was a plenary speaker at the Light Metal
Symposium in South Africa—on low carbon dioxide
emission processes for magnesium.
Dr. Neelameggham has more than 38 years of
expertise in magnesium production and was involved
in process development of its startup company NL
Magnesium through to the present US
Magnesium LLC, UT until 2011. Neelameggham and
Brian Davis authored the ICE-JNME award winning
(2016) paper—“21st Century Global Anthropogenic
Warming Convective Model”—which notes that con-
strained air mass warming is independent of the energy
conversion source—fossil or renewable energy. He is
presently developing Agricoal™ and agricoalture to
improve arid soils.
Dr. Neelameggham holds 16 patents and patent
applications, and has published several technical
xiv About the Editors

papers. He has served on the Magnesium Committee of

Light Metals Division (LMD) of TMS since its incep-
tion in 2000, chaired it in 2005, and in 2007 he was
made a permanent co-organizer for the Magnesium
Symposium. He has been a member of the Reactive
Metals Committee, Recycling Committee, Titanium
Committee, and Program Committee Representative of
LMD and LMD council.
Dr. Neelameggham was the inaugural chair, when in
2008, LMD and EPD (Extraction & Processing
Division) created the Energy Committee, and has been a
co-editor of the energy technology symposium pro-
ceedings through the present. He received the LMD
Distinguished Service Award in 2010. While he was the
chair of Hydro and Electrometallurgy Committee he
initiated the rare metal technology symposium in 2014.
He is co-editor for the 2017 proceedings for the sym-
posia on magnesium technology, energy technology,
rare metal technology, and solar cell silicon.

Harald Oosterhof graduated as a chemical engineer

from Twente University (TU) in the Netherlands in
1994. In the same year he assumed a position as
researcher at TU Delft. His research on antisolvent
crystallization of well-soluble salts was rewarded with
two patents and several publications. After receiving
his Ph.D. from Delft University in 1999, he assumed
the position of project manager at Umicore, a global
materials and technology group that is based in
Belgium. During his first assignment as Project Leader
Hydrometallurgy, he focused on the refining of cobalt,
nickel, and germanium. Since 2011, Dr. Oosterhof has
worked as a scientist in the Recycling and Extraction
Technology group at Umicore’s Central R&D depart-
ment. His main competence areas are special metals
hydrometallurgy, recycling and refining of rare earth
metals, base metal hydrometallurgy, and recycling of
spent rechargeable batteries and superalloys. In his
current job, Dr. Oosterhof is frequently involved in
business development of scarce metals recycling and
he is heading a team of hydrometallurgical specialists.
About the Editors xv

Takanari Ouchi is a research scientist in Materials

Processing Center at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT). He received his Ph.D. in
Nano-Science and Nano-Engineering from Waseda
University on 2011. He developed electrochemical
deposition processes to fabricate metal nanostructures
with both well-controlled crystallinity and uniformity
at the single nanometer scale and demonstrated the
applicability of these processes to fabrication of bit
patterned magnetic recording media for future hard
disk drives. After completing his doctoral degree, Dr.
Ouchi joined MIT, where he has developed liquid
metal batteries, which is in principle a bi-directional
electrolysis (electro-refining) cell, to apply for the
grid-scale energy storage. He led the systematic
investigation of electrochemical properties of liquid
metal electrodes in molten salt electrolytes and
developed novel lithium, calcium, and sodium
liquid metal batteries. Dr. Ouchi has been an author of
16 peer reviewed papers and conference proceedings
and of 47 talks at conferences. He has constantly
contributed to create the vibrant field of metal extrac-
tion by working as a member of Hydrometallurgy and
Electrometallurgy Committee at The Minerals, Metals
& Materials Society (TMS), organizing technical
symposiums at TMS, and soliciting papers as a guest
editor of JOM. He has earned several awards and
honors, such as TMS Extraction & Processing Division
(EPD) Young Leaders Professional Development
Award in 2015 based on his reputation in the electro-
chemical metal extraction processing.

Xiaofei Guan received his B.S. degree in Applied

Physics from Nankai University, China, in 2009, and
Ph.D. degree in Materials Science and Engineering
from Boston University in 2013. His Ph.D. research in
the group of Prof. Uday Pal was on resource recovery
and recycling, and electrolytic production of energy
intensive metals from minerals. In 2014, he joined the
Ramanathan Research Group at Harvard University as
a postdoctoral fellow, where he led research on energy
conversion and storage devices including solid oxide
fuel cells, protonic ceramic fuel cells, and hydride-air
batteries. He is currently a postdoctoral fellow in the
Clarke Research Group and the Girguis Laboratory at
xvi About the Editors

Harvard University, where his research is centered on

growth and characterization of semiconductor thin
films for solar energy applications, a joint project at
the interface between materials science, microbiology,
and electrochemistry.
Dr. Guan received the Outstanding Ph.D.
Dissertation Award in Materials Science and
Engineering from Boston University in 2014, and the
Young Leaders Professional Development Award
from the TMS Extraction & Processing Division in
2015. He also serves as an advisor and guest editor in
the Recycling and Environmental Technology
Committee for JOM.
 Part I
Rare Earth Elements I
The Economics of the Search Minerals
Direct Extraction Process for Rare Earth
Element Recovery

David Dreisinger and Greg Andrews

Abstract The Foxtrot deposit of Search Minerals contains a range of rare earth
element containing minerals including allanite, fergusonite and bastnasite. The
Search Minerals Direct Extraction Process for treating these minerals involves
coarse crushing of the ore to-6 mesh (3.45 mm), acid treatment at 200 °C in a novel
reactor configuration, water leaching, various purification steps to reject iron, alu-
minum and uranium/thorium (present in small amounts) and finally precipitation of
rare earths as a oxalate and calcination to form a mixed rare earth oxide product for
refining. The economics of the process are presented.

Keywords Rare earths
Extraction
Mixed rare earth oxide
Foxtrot
Capital
and operating cost

Introduction

Search Minerals Inc. (Search) is exploring and developing a number of deposits for
rare earth element (REE) recovery in Labrador, Canada. The Port Hope Simpson
District is in the southeast of Labrador and is highly prospective for heavy and light
rare earth elements. The Foxtrot deposit sits within the Port Hope Simpson REE
District, which is 70 km long by up to 10 km wide. The infrastructure available at
Foxtrot is excellent; a deep-water port, air strip, and road and power infrastructure
are pre-existing at St. Lewis. The three communities of Port Hope Simpson,
St. Lewis and Mary’s Harbour are in close proximity to the site.
A Preliminary Economic Assessment has been developed for Foxtrot. Roscoe
Postle Associates (RPA) has determined a 43–101 compliant resource for the
Foxtrot deposit [1]. The resource comprises 7.39 Mt of Indicated Resource and
1.96 Mt of Inferred Resource. An NSR cut-off of $165/t was used for material that
could be accessed by open pit mining and $260/t was used for material to be mined

D. Dreisinger (&)
G. Andrews

Search Minerals, #211, 901 West 3rd Street, North Vancouver, BC V7P 3P9, Canada
e-mail: david_dreisinger@yahoo.com

© The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 2017 3

H. Kim et al. (eds.), Rare Metal Technology 2017,
The Minerals, Metals & Materials Series,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-51085-9_1
4 D. Dreisinger and G. Andrews

underground. The resource is summarized in Table 1. The deposit is rich in the

critical rare earth elements Pr, Nd, and Dy.
Search Minerals have developed a direct extraction process for recovery of rare
earth elements from the Foxtrot mineralization [2–4]. This process was conceived
to meet the challenges posed in early work on Foxtrot metallurgy. Namely, the new
direct extraction process was designed to (1) eliminate complex and costly bene-
ficiation processes (e.g. gravity, flotation and magnetic separation), (2) reduce the
use of reagents (e.g. acid, base, and oxalic acid) and (3) improve the control and
rejection of key impurities including minor amounts of thorium contained in the
Foxtrot mineralization.
The direct extraction process treats crushed material (eliminating costly grinding
and beneficiation) using a low temperature acid extraction process. The acid treated
material is then water leached to extract rare earths. The leachate is then purified in
a series of steps followed by rare earth oxalate precipitation and calcination. The
mixed rare earth oxide calcine is then available for refining to individual rare earth
elements and final products.
The direct extraction process has now been the subject of an engineering design
and cost study. The details of the process and associated project capital and
operating costs are outlined below.

The Direct Extraction Process

The direct treatment of Foxtrot mineralization was investigated through a series of

studies on acid baking/water leaching, solution purification, RE precipitation, RE
re-dissolution and purification to remove thorium and finally RE precipitation with
oxalic acid and calcination to make a mixed REO. The goal again was simplifi-
cation, cost reduction and production of a premium product. The general flowsheet
for the treatment scheme is shown in Fig. 1.
The testing of the direct extraction process has been reported in Dreisinger et al.
[3, 4]. A summary of the key steps follows.

Table 1 Foxtrot resource [1]

Classification Cut-off Tonnage Pr Nd Dy LREE HREE TREE
$NSR 000s ppm ppm ppm (%) (%) (%)
Open pit
Indicated $165 4129 372 1393 177 0.69 0.17 0.86
Inferred $165 228 368 1378 179 0.68 0.17 0.85
Underground
Indicated $260 3263 429 1602 209 0.78 0.19 0.97
Inferred $260 1730 430 1602 201 0.80 0.19 0.99
Total indicated 7392 397 1485 191 0.73 0.18 0.91
Total inferred 1958 423 1576 199 0.79 0.18 0.97
The Economics of the Search Minerals … 5

Crushing Foxtrot Ore

H2O

H2SO4 Washed Residue to

Acid / Ore Mixing Acid Baking (AB) Water Leaching (WL)
Disposal

Impurity Removal (IR) Barren SoluƟon to

REE PrecipitaƟon(RP)
Fe/Al/Th Hydroxide with MgO, MgCO3 or Environmental
with Na2 CO3
Na2 CO3 Treatment

Th Precipitate + Minor REE ReLeach and

REE PrecipitaƟon
REE (potenƟal recycle Secondary Th Removal
(ROP) with H2 C2 O 4
to AB) with HCl and MgO

Mixed REO for refining CalcinaƟon

Fig. 1 Conceptual flowsheet for testing of the new Foxtrot process

Acid Treatment/Water Leach

The material is crushed to a nominal 6 mesh particle size and treated at 200 °C with
minimum acid followed by water leaching. The average extraction (Table 2) was
78% for the series La-Er. The extractions of Tm–Lu were lower. The radioactive
elements Th and U were extracted but the major gangue elements (Si, Al, Fe, Na,
K) were only weakly extracted. Some Mg, Ca, Ti, P and Mn were also extracted.

Impurity Removal by Oxidation and Precipitation

The initial removal of impurities was tested by pH adjustment to pH 3.75 with

MgCO3 and oxidation (for Fe removal). More than 90% of the iron was eliminated
along with 88.4% of the thorium. There was also significant rejection of Si, Al, Ti
and P. The losses of REEs ranged from 0.74 to 3.6% from La to Lu.

Bulk Rare Earth Precipitation

The purified solution was treated with a soda ash solution (Na2CO3) at pH 7.25 to
precipitate the REEs into a mixed carbonate product for further purification. The
precipitation of REEs approaches 100% (Table 3). The co-precipitation of Th, U,
Fe, Al is similarly very high. The mixed REE carbonate precipitate may be further
6 D. Dreisinger and G. Andrews

Table 2 Bulk acid bake—water leach results

Rare earth extraction Impurity extraction
Element Analysis (mg/L or g/t) Extn Element Analysis (mg/L, % or g/t) Extn
Feed PLS Residue (%) Feed PLS Residue (%)
La 1720 144 392 76.7 Th 109 9.35 34.6 70.4
Ce 3720 321 805 78.1 U 22.4 1.2 13.5 44.4
Pr 437 39.7 90.8 79.6 Si 31.32 288 32.44 0.8
Nd 1610 148 330 80.0 Al 3.99 212 3.97 4.6
Sm 297 27.9 63.8 79.6 Fe 7.83 496 7.69 5.5
Eu 15.5 1.51 3.6 79.1 Mg 0.12 43.5 0.07 36.7
Gd 244 22.6 56.1 78.4 Ca 1.45 642 0.96 40.0
Tb 37.3 3.59 8.5 79.2 Na 2.13 47 2.14 2.6
Dy 223 20.8 54.6 77.5 K 3.36 384 3.44 9.2
Ho 43.7 4.09 11.7 76.0 Ti 0.27 4.6 0.28 1.5
Y 1090 107 288 77.0 P 0.01 5 0.02 33.5
Er 122 11.2 36 73.8 Mn 0.23 82.3 0.19 27.6
Tm 17.2 1.49 5.8 69.9
Yb 111 8.56 41.8 64.9
Lu 15.8 1.02 7.3 55.9
Conditions: acid bake at 6 mesh, 200 °C, 2 and 24 h water leach at 90 °C with 600 rpm mixing
intensity

Table 3 REE Prec. results

Rare earth precipitation Impurity precipitation
Element Analysis (mg/L or g/t) Pptn Element Analysis (mg/L, % or g/t) Pptn
Feed Filtrate Ppte (%) Feed Filtrate Ppte (%)
Soln Soln
La 134 0.24 57,700 99.8 Th 0.84 0.04 422 95.7
Ce 315 0.39 129,000 99.9 U 1.07 0.13 467 88.4
Pr 36.3 0.06 15,600 99.8 Al 83.6 0.05 3.67 99.4
Nd 136 0.18 58,800 99.9 Fe 39.3 0.2 1.81 99.5
Sm 26.1 0.05 11,000 99.8 Mg 1550 1560 0.505 0.7
Eu 1.39 0.03 584 97.6 Ca 616 583 1.95 6.6
Gd 23 0.04 10,900 99.8 Na 191 1050 0.125 0.3
Tb 3.62 0.03 1640 99.1 K 298 289 0.03 2.2
Dy 20.8 0.05 9270 99.7 P 5 5 0.003 1.2
Ho 4.08 0.02 1800 99.5 Mn 77.4 68.8 0.131 3.9
Y 107 0.3 42,100 99.7
Er 11.1 0.04 4880 99.6
Tm 1.46 0.04 636 97.1
Yb 7.92 0.03 3470 99.6
Lu 0.93 0.03 409 96.6
Conditions: pH 7.25 with Na2CO3 addition for 3 h at 25 °C [4]
The Economics of the Search Minerals … 7

refined by a re-leach, oxalate precipitation and calcination method to form a mixed

REO for refining. The overall recovery of REEs from the original mineralized
material to mixed carbonate precipitate has been calculated and summarized in
Table 4.
The mixed REE carbonate precipitate was re-dissolved in HCl solution followed
by pH adjustment for purification and oxalic acid precipitation. The REE oxalate
was then calcined to make a mixed REO product. The analysis of the mixed REO
product from the testing is summarized in Table 5. This product was generated in a
continuous kiln test campaign of the acid treatment followed by batch water leach
and purification (as outlined above).
The final product analyzed 98.9% REO+Y with <0.01% S, < 0.01% F, 2 g/t, Th
and 97 g/t U. Other key impurity values were 93 g/t Si, 0.15% Ca, 44 g/t P, 465 g/t
Mn, 34 g/t Cr, 23 g/t Sr, and 56 g/t V. The critical and highly values rare earths (Pr,
Nd, Eu, Tb, Dy, Y) accounted for 37.95% of the Mixed REO oxide.
The direct extraction process has been demonstrated to be technically feasible.
The Foxtrot mineralization can be crushed, acid treated, and leached with the
leachate purified to recover a mixed rare earth oxide for refining. At the present time

Table 4 Overall recovery (%) of rare earth elements from Foxtrot material to mixed carbonate
precipitate
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Y Er Tm Yb Lu
75.9 77.3 78.9 79.3 78.9 78.4 77.6 78.4 76.7 75.3 76.3 73.1 69.2 64.3 55.4

Table 5 Chemical analysis Rare earth Impurity

of the mixed REO calcine
Element Analysis (%) Element Analysis (g/t)
product from the kiln testing
La 12.0 Th 2.1
Ce 31.4 U 96.6
Pr 3.87 Si 93.5
Nd 15.4 Al <53
Sm 2.53 Fe 69.9
Eu 0.147 Mg 92
Gd 2.13 Ca 1572
Tb 0.314 Na <300
Dy 2.00 K <83
Ho 0.413 Ti <60
Y 9.8 P 43.6
Er 1.07 Mn 465
Tm 0.156 Zn <200
Yb 0.705 F 290
Lu 0.0887 Ctot <100
TREE 82.0 S <100
LREE 65.2
HREE 16.8
TREO 98.9
8 D. Dreisinger and G. Andrews

Search Minerals are embarking on a $1.9M CDN pilot plant program to continue
the “scaling up of the process” as part of the drive to commercialization. This pilot
plant program will confirm the process parameters in large-scale equipment while
providing product for refinery evaluation.

Engineering and Cost Studies

The engineering and cost studies have proceeded in two steps. First, SNC Lavalin
(Australia) has prepared a concept study focusing on the processing of rare earth
mineralization to a mixed rare earth oxide product [5]. Second, Roscoe Postle
Associates (RPA) have completed a Preliminary Economic Assessment on the
Foxtrot Deposit at a processing rate of 1000 tpd from underground and open pit
resources [1]. The results of the SNC Lavalin study were used as the basis for the
processing plant cost in the PEA produced by RPA. The SNC Lavalin study costs
were updated by RPA to take into account changes in currency exchange rates and
the cost of raw materials (e.g. steel and other metal prices).

SNC Lavalin Engineering and Cost Study [5]

The SNC Lavalin engineering and cost study comprised the following items.
• Testwork Review
• Process Design Criteria
• Preliminary METSIM® Model
• Preliminary Mass Balance
• Block Flowsheet
• Major Equipment List
• Operating Cost Estimate
• Capital Cost Estimate
• Study Report
The project battery limits were defined as:
• Reclaim from the ROM stockpile (pre-crushed to 100% passing 30 mm).
• Acid storage tank inlet at the port.
• Reagents as delivered to site (except sulphuric acid) and product dispatch from
site.
• Boundaries of the residue storage facility.
• Water supply from a client identified year round water source, including an
allowance for pumping and a water supply pipeline.
• Power supply ‘over the fence’ from a utility supplier, including an allowance for
a transmission line and incoming transformers and distributions.
The Economics of the Search Minerals … 9

• Liquid effluent disposal (barren solution) to sea requirements after a long

pipeline to the port.
The following items were excluded from the scope of work:
• Resource definition and mining.
• Testwork and testwork management.
• Engineering development and studies prior to project commitment.
• Project definition and scheduling.
• Study of social and environmental issues.
• Definition of or obtaining project approvals and permits.
• Financial modeling.
• Power delivery outside of the battery limits.
• Water delivery outside of the battery limits.
• Logistics of reagents and product outside of the battery limits.
• Port logistics.
The testwork review highlighted the results presented in this paper as a basis for
design. The SNC Lavalin review concluded that a simple direct acid bake and water
leaching process has been developed for treatment of Foxtrot mineralization that
involves crushing to 6 mesh particle size, application of 100 kg/t of H2SO4 to the
material at 200 °C for 2 h followed by a 24 h water leach to produce a weakly
acidic product leach solution. Favourable material handling characteristics of the
acid/feed mixture and calcine as well as easy filtration characteristics of the water
leach residue have led to the development of a much more operable acid bake
circuit than other “typical” REE acid bake circuits. The review also highlighted
areas where future testing and process development would be most useful including
optimization of crush size for balance between leaching and solids handling,
reduced impurity levels (e.g. U) in the final concentrate, determining solid-liquid
separation design parameters, determining oxidant requirements in impurity
removal and a general reduction in reagent requirements. The current pilot plant
program is designed to address these areas.
The conceptual block flow diagram is shown in Fig. 2.

Feed Preparation

The purpose of feed preparation is to mine and crush the mineralization to a size of
100% passing 3.45 mm, while minimizing the fines generated. This sized feed is
approaching the minimum size possible for a dry crushing circuit. This is achieved
by:
1. Open cut mining with in pit crushing to below 30 mm and delivered to the run
of mine (ROM) stockpile at the processing facility.
2. Further size reduction by high pressure grinding rollers (HPGR, in closed circuit
with a vibrating screen) during day shift will ensure an appropriately sized feed
10 D. Dreisinger and G. Andrews

Fig. 2 Conceptual block flow diagram [5]

for the continuous operation of the acid mixing and acid bake section of the
facility.
3. This area is supported by a small dust collection system for control of dusts,
recognizing that this is the highest risk factor when handling low radiation
mineralization. Dust collected is mixed back with the feed to the acid mixing
process.

Mixing and Acid Baking

The purpose of the mixing stage is to intimately mix the crushed ore with con-
centrated (93%) sulphuric acid at a rate of 100 kg of acid (100% equivalent) for
every tonne of ore. This mixture must then be heated and maintained at 200 °C for
90 min. This section of the plant operates continuously 24 h a day. This is achieved
by:
1. A pug mixer is used to intimately mix the acid with the ore. A recycled filter
cake from the later Secondary Th Removal stage is also added to pug mill to
minimize REE losses.
2. A Holo-Flite® preheater to raise the temperature of the mixture to 200 °C. The
Holo-Flite® heater is an indirect heat exchanger utilising hollow screws and
jacketed walls for heating of bulk solids and pastes. The screws provide
movement of the solids similar to a screw conveyor while also improving the
heat transfer by further mixing of the solids. The action of the Holo-Flite®
system (screw conveyor movement) is expected to mimic the “rabbling” used in
The Economics of the Search Minerals … 11

the laboratory testwork for ensuring excellent acid/ore contact through the
heating system.
3. The heated mixture is then transferred to a refractory lined bin to provide the
90 min at temperature for the acid to react.
4. The hot acidic gases evolved from the Holo-Flite® and refractory lined bin are
contained and scrubbed in a caustic scrubber.

Water Leaching, Impurity Removal and REE Precipitation

The purpose of the water leaching stage is to provide the time, agitation and
temperature to leach the metals converted to soluble form by the acid bake. The
slurry is then neutralized with MgCO3 slurry to reduce the free acid sufficiently to
substantially remove impurities by precipitation onto the leach residue. The leach
residue is then separated from the leach solution and the rare earths in that solution
are precipitated by further neutralization with Na2CO3 solution. The water leaching,
impurity removal, and REE precipitation are achieved by:
1. Hot acid baked ore is mixed with hot water in the 3 large gravity overflow Water
Leach Tanks providing the 24 h residence time and intense mixing required for
the Water Leach.
2. Wash filtrates from downstream in this area are recycled to the water leach to
maximize the washing of products, minimizing the dilution of the leach liquor
and minimizing the overall water consumption and disposal. These flows are
supplemented by additional raw water supply.
3. The liquid feeds to the water leach are heated by a combination of heat recovery
from the REE precipitation overflow liquor prior to disposal and steam heating.
4. The last of the Water Leach Tanks overflows to the first of the 2 smaller
Impurity Removal Tanks where the controlled addition of MgCO3 solution
neutralizes the free acid to achieve a solution pH of 3.85. As the pH is raised to
this level and over the 2-h residence time, the majority of the Fe, Al and Th
impurities are precipitated onto the leach residue.
5. The relatively coarse leach residue is thickened as feed for a vacuum belt filter.
On the vacuum belt filter the solids are thoroughly washed to maximize the
recovery of REE. The resultant solids are transferred to a bin and dumped into a
dump truck for dry disposal to a lined dry tailings storage facility assumed to be
2.5 km from the processing facility.
6. The overflow from the thickener is filtered with a precoated polishing filter to
ensure none of the ore fines or precipitated impurities are contaminating the
solution and thus maximizing the purity of the REE Precipitation product.
7. The solids free solution is mixed with a Na2CO3 solution to preferentially
precipitate RE carbonates from the liquor.
8. The precipitated solids are thickened and two thirds of these solids are recycled
as seed for the precipitation process. The remaining third are filtered and washed
12 D. Dreisinger and G. Andrews

on a diaphragm filter. The resultant solids are transferred to a belt conveyor to

one of the two HCl Releach tanks for further processing.
9. The overflow from the thickener is filtered with a precoated polishing filter to
ensure none of precipitated product is lost and the liquor is then disposed to sea
via a 2.5 km pipeline.

Releach and Precipitation

The purpose of this step is to further purify the RE carbonate product by releaching
in HCl, a second Th removal step and selectively re-precipitating as RE oxalates.
This section of the processing facility operates 24 h a day, but processes the solids
as an 8 h batch from the previous continuous sections. This is achieved by:
1. An 8 h batch of REE Precipitation filter cake is allowed to accumulate in one of
the two HCl Releach Tanks. The cake is constantly repulped by continually
adding a minimal level of 33% HCl. At change of shift, the REE Precipitation
Filter cake is diverted to the other HCl Releach Tank that has been emptied on
the previous shift.
2. Additional 33% HCl is added to the batch now being processed to reach an
excess of 10 g/L acid and the tank is agitated under these conditions for an hour
as the HCl Releach step.
3. After the one hour releach, the Chloride Tails Filter cake from a previous batch
is added to reduce the free acid levels and releach some of the value metals.
4. A small quantity of H3PO4 is added to this tank to assist in lowering the pH
required to remove Th (and consequently reducing REE losses). Then sufficient
MgCO3 slurry is added to further neutralize the solution to achieve a solution
pH of 3.8. As the pH is raised to this level and over the 2 h residence time, the
majority of the Fe, Al and Th impurities are precipitated onto the releach
residue.
5. The resultant slurry is filtered through a precoated diaphragm filter. The solids
are washed, air dried and dumped into a transportable hopper. Once full, the
hopper is rolled and hoisted into a position for a metered return to the Acid Bake
pug mixer. The solution is collected in the RE Oxalate Precipitation Tank.
6. Solids from the previous batch are repulped into the high strength RE chloride
solution, and then an oxalic acid solution is mixed into the solution to prefer-
entially precipitate RE oxalates from the liquor.
7. The precipitated solids are filtered and two thirds of these solids are reserved and
used as seed for the next batch. The remaining third are washed and air dried on
the diaphragm filter and dumped into a calcination hopper for further
processing.
8. The filtrate is collected in the Chloride Tails Tank, further neutralized with a
MgCO3 slurry and filtered with the same filter used to filter the second Th
removal step. The filter cake from this filter is used to neutralize the free acid
The Economics of the Search Minerals … 13

from the HCl Releach. The filtrate is pumped directly into the RE Precipitation
overflow stream and disposed to sea via a 2.5 km pipeline.
9. The majority of the tanks in this section of the plant are covered and vented to a
HCl scrubbing system.

Calcination

The RE oxalate precipitate is calcined at 750 °C to break down to the RE oxides,

cooled, transferred to 1 t bulk bags, weighed and sampled for quality control and
then transferred in bags to a shipping container ready for export. This is achieved by:
1. A calcination hopper loosely filled with oxalate filter cake is wheeled into a
450 kW oven and a pre-programmed heating/cooling cycle is activated to heat
the contents to 750 °C and hold them at this temperature for 4 h and then allow
the contents to cool.
2. Once the hopper is cool, the hopper can be removed from the oven, hoisted into
a packaging platform and used to give a metered and measured feed into 1 m3
bulk bags.
3. Packaging is largely a manual operation of hanging the bag, initiating feed to
near desired weight, jogging the feeder to achieve desired weight, sampling for
analysis and custody transfer and affixing the relevant identifying documenta-
tion. The bag can then be closed, unhooked from the packaging frame and taken
by forklift to a shipping container at the loading dock.
4. Once the container is fully loaded with product and sealed it can be loaded onto
a truck for export.

Reagents

Reagent use in the REE extraction process is central to ore treatment. Reagents are
provided as follows:
1. 93% Sulphuric acid is delivered in 10,000 DWT shipments and unloaded to
insulated acid tanks at the port. The level in a small storage tank at the pro-
cessing facility is maintained by pumping through an insulated and electrically
traced pipeline from the port. The acid from this tank is dosed directly into the
process.
2. Diesel fuel for heating and steam generation is delivered by standard fuel tan-
kers to the onsite fuel tanks.
3. 33% HCl acid is delivered in 20 t rubber lined steel isotainers. These are
unloaded at port and progressively emptied into 2 storage tanks at the processing
facility from a top unloading gantry while the isotainers are on the back of
trucks. The unloading facility and storage tanks are vented through the process
facility HCl scrubbing system.
14 D. Dreisinger and G. Andrews

Table 6 Reagent Reagent Annual consumption (t/a)

consumption for 1000 t/d of
ore treatment Sulphuric acid 36,500
Magnesium carbonate 20,400
Filter aid 540
Flocculant 4
Sodium carbonate 9200
Hydrochloric acid 9800
Phosphoric acid 420
Sodium hydroxide 120
Oxalic acid 2000
Hydrogen peroxide (allowance) 0.2
Diesel (litres) 2,280,000
Product shipping 2940
Process plant consumables 0.8

4. Smaller scale liquid reagents are stored inside in the bulk box packaging that
they arrive in until they need to be diluted for use in the process and then a batch
at the correct concentration is prepared and transferred to the dosing tank.
5. Stocks of solid reagents are stored undercover, but outside the building and are
brought inside prior to reagent preparation for thawing (if required). Bulk bags
of these reagents will be transferred by forklift to the appropriate mixing tank
after which the bag is hooked to a local hoist, lowered onto a bag breaker above
the tank and mixed to the appropriate concentration. This is then transferred to
the corresponding dosing tank. It is expected that 40–50 bags per day will need
to be processed in this manner.
A provision in the capital cost estimate has been included for laboratory services
and mobile equipment for servicing the plant.
The annual consumption of reagents is shown in Table 6. A total of 72 people
are employed at the processing plant.

Preliminary Economic Assessment

The preliminary economic assessment of the Foxtrot project was completed by

RPA and incorporated the SNC Lavalin engineering and cost study results [1]. The
basis for the PEA and some of the main results were as follows:
• 1000 tonnes per day processing rate
• Mine life: 14 years: 8 years open pit, 6 years underground
• $353 Canadian per tonne processing facility average unit revenue, net of pay
factors and third party separation charges
• $238 Canadian per tonne processing facility average unit operating cost
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
the lower is simply that the higher beliefs, being a creation of
superior intelligence, have little hold on the minds of the vulgar, who
nominally profess them for a time in conformity with the will of their
betters, but readily shed and forget them as soon as these beliefs
have gone out of fashion with the educated classes. But while they
dismiss without a pang or an effort articles of faith which were only
superficially imprinted on their minds by the weight of cultured
opinion, the ignorant and foolish multitude cling with a sullen
determination to far grosser beliefs which really answer to the
coarser texture of their undeveloped intellect. Thus while the avowed
creed of the enlightened minority is constantly changing under the
influence of reflection and enquiry, the real, though unavowed, creed
of the mass of mankind appears to be almost stationary, and the
reason why it alters so little is that in the majority of men, whether
they are savages or outwardly civilized beings, intellectual progress
is so slow as to be hardly perceptible. The surface of society, like
that of the sea, is in perpetual motion; its depths, like those of the
ocean, remain almost unmoved.
Thus from an examination, first, of savagery
The early history of and, second, of its survivals in civilization, the
mankind,
reconstructed from study of Social Anthropology attempts to trace the
the joint testimony early history of human thought and institutions.
of savagery and The history can never be complete, unless science
folklore, is full of
gaps, which can should discover some mode of reading the faded
only be imperfectly record of the past of which we in this generation
bridged by the
Comparative
can hardly dream. We know indeed that every
Method. event, however insignificant, implies a change,
however slight, in the material constitution of the
universe, so that the whole history of the world is, in a sense,
engraved upon its face, though our eyes are too dim to read the
scroll. It may be that in the future some wondrous reagent, some
magic chemical, may yet be found to bring out the whole of nature’s
secret handwriting for a greater than Daniel to interpret to his fellows.
That will hardly be in our time. With the resources at present at our
command we must be content with a very brief, imperfect, and in
large measure conjectural account of man’s mental and social
development in prehistoric ages. As I have already pointed out, the
evidence, fragmentary and dubious as it is, only runs back a very
little way into the measureless past of human life on earth; we soon
lose the thread, the faintly glimmering thread, in the thick darkness of
the absolutely unknown. Even in the comparatively short space of
time, a few thousand years at most, which falls more or less within
our ken, there are many deep and wide chasms which can only be
bridged by hypotheses, if the story of evolution is to run continuously.
Such bridges are built in anthropology as in
The legitimacy of biology by the Comparative Method, which
the Comparative
Method in social enables us to borrow the links of one chain of
anthropology rests evidence to supply the gaps in another. For us
on the similarity of who deal, not with the various forms of animal life,
the human mind in
all races. but with the various products of human
intelligence, the legitimacy of the Comparative
Method rests on the well-ascertained similarity of the working of the
human mind in all races of men. I have laid stress on the great
inequalities which exist not only between the various races, but
between men of the same race and generation; but it should be
clearly understood and remembered that these divergencies are
quantitative rather than qualitative, they consist in differences of
degree rather than of kind. The savage is not a different sort of being
from his civilized brother: he has the same capacities, mental and
moral, but they are less fully developed: his evolution has been
arrested, or rather retarded, at a lower level. And as savage races
are not all on the same plane, but have stopped or tarried at different
points of the upward path, we can to a certain extent, by comparing
them with each other, construct a scale of social progression and
mark out roughly some of the stages on the long road that leads
from savagery to civilization. In the kingdom of mind such a scale of
mental evolution answers to the scale of morphological evolution in
the animal kingdom.
From what I have said I hope you have formed
It is only of late some idea of the extreme importance which the
years that the
importance of study of savage life possesses for a proper
savagery as a understanding of the early history of mankind. The
document of human savage is a human document, a record of man’s
history has been
understood. efforts to raise himself above the level of the
beast. It is only of late years that the full value of the document has
been appreciated; indeed, many people are probably still of Dr.
Johnson’s opinion, who, pointing to the three large volumes of
Voyages to the South Seas which had just come out, said: “Who will
read them through? A man had better work his way before the mast
than read them through; they will be eaten by rats and mice before
they are read through. There can be little entertainment in such
books; one set of savages is like another.”173.1 But the world has
learned a good deal since Dr. Johnson’s day; and the records of
savage life, which the sage of Bolt Court consigned without scruple
to the rats and mice, have now their place among the most precious
archives of humanity. Their fate has been like that of the Sibylline
Books. They were neglected and despised when they might have
been obtained complete; and now wise men would give more than a
king’s ransom for their miserably mutilated and imperfect remains. It
is true that before our time civilized men often viewed savages with
interest and described them intelligently, and some of their
descriptions are still of great scientific value. For
Great impulse given example, the discovery of America naturally
to the study of
savagery by the excited in the minds of the European peoples an
discovery of eager curiosity as to the inhabitants of the new
America and of the world, which had burst upon their gaze, as if at the
Pacific.
waving of a wizard’s wand the curtain of the
western sky had suddenly rolled up and disclosed scenes of glamour
and enchantment. Accordingly some of the Spaniards who explored
and conquered these realms of wonder have bequeathed to us
accounts of the manners and customs of the Indians, which for
accuracy and fulness of detail probably surpass any former records
of an alien race. Such, for instance, is the great work of the
Franciscan friar Sahagun on the natives of Mexico, and such the
work of Garcilasso de la Vega, himself half an Inca, on the Incas of
Peru. Again, the exploration of the Pacific in the eighteenth century,
with its revelation of fairy-like islands scattered in profusion over a
sea of eternal summer, drew the eyes and stirred the imagination of
Europe; and to the curiosity thus raised in many minds, though not in
Dr. Johnson’s, we owe some precious descriptions of the islanders,
who, in those days of sailing ships, appeared to dwell so remote
from us that the poet Cowper fancied their seas might never again
be ploughed by English keels.174.1
These and many other old accounts of savages
The passing of the must always retain their interest and value for the
savage.
study of Social Anthropology, all the more because
they set before us the natives in their natural unsophisticated state,
before their primitive manners and customs had been altered or
destroyed by European influence. Yet in the light of subsequent
research these early records are often seen to be very defective,
because the authors, unaware of the scientific importance of facts
which to the ordinary observer might appear trifling or disgusting,
have either passed over many things of the highest interest in total
silence or dismissed them with a brief and tantalizing allusion. It is
accordingly necessary to supplement the reports of former writers by
a minute and painstaking investigation of the living savages in order
to fill up, if possible, the many yawning gaps in our knowledge.
Unfortunately this cannot always be done, since many savages have
either been totally exterminated or so changed by contact with
Europeans that it is no longer possible to obtain trustworthy
information as to their old habits and traditions. But whenever the
ancient customs and beliefs of a primitive race have passed away
unrecorded, a document of human history has perished beyond
recall. Unhappily this destruction of the archives, as we may call it, is
going on apace. In some places, for example, in Tasmania, the
savage is already extinct; in others, as in Australia, he is dying. In
others again, for instance in Central and Southern Africa, where the
numbers and inborn vigour of the race shew little or no sign of
succumbing in the struggle for existence, the influence of traders,
officials, and missionaries is so rapidly disintegrating and effacing the
native customs, that with the passing of the older generation even
the memory of them will soon in many places be gone. It is therefore
a matter of the most urgent scientific importance to secure without
delay full and accurate reports of these perishing or changing
peoples, to take permanent copies, so to say, of these precious
monuments before they are destroyed. It is not yet too late. Much
may still be learned, for example, in West Australia, in New Guinea,
in Melanesia, in Central Africa, among the hill tribes of India and the
forest Indians of the Amazons. There is still time to send expeditions
to these regions, to subsidize men on the spot, who are conversant
with the languages and enjoy the confidence of the natives; for there
are such men who possess or can obtain the very knowledge we
require, yet who, unaware or careless of its inestimable value for
science, make no effort to preserve the treasure for posterity, and, if
we do not speedily come to the rescue, will suffer it to perish with
them. In the whole range of human knowledge at the present
moment there is no more pressing need than that of recording this
priceless evidence of man’s early history before it is too late. For
soon, very soon, the opportunities which we still enjoy will be gone
for ever. In another quarter of a century probably there will be little or
nothing of the old savage life left to record. The savage, such as we
may still see him, will then be as extinct as the dodo. The sands are
fast running out: the hour will soon strike: the record will be closed:
the book will be sealed. And how shall we of this
The duty of our generation look when we stand at the bar of
generation to
posterity. posterity arraigned on a charge of high treason to
our race, we who neglected to study our perishing
fellow-men, but who sent out costly expeditions to observe the stars
and to explore the barren ice-bound regions of the poles, as if the
polar ice would melt and the stars would cease to shine when we are
gone? Let us awake from our slumber, let us light our lamps, let us
gird up our loins. The Universities exist for the advancement of
knowledge. It is their duty to add this new province to the ancient
departments of learning which they cultivate so diligently.
Cambridge, to its honour, has led the way in equipping and
despatching anthropological expeditions; it is for Oxford, it is for
Liverpool, it is for every University in the land to join in the work.
More than that, it is the public duty of every
The duty of the civilized state actively to co-operate. In this
State.
respect the United States of America, by instituting
a bureau for the study of the aborigines within its dominions, has set
an example which every enlightened nation that rules over lower
races ought to imitate. On none does that duty,
The duty of that responsibility, lie more clearly and more
England.
heavily than on our own, for to none in the whole
course of human history has the sceptre been given over so many
and so diverse races of men. We have made ourselves our brother’s
keepers. Woe to us if we neglect our duty to our brother! It is not
enough for us to rule in justice the peoples we have subjugated by
the sword. We owe it to them, we owe it to ourselves, we owe it to
posterity, who will require it at our hands, that we should describe
them as they were before we found them, before they ever saw the
English flag and heard, for good or evil, the English tongue. The
voice of England speaks to her subject peoples in other accents than
in the thunder of her guns. Peace has its triumphs as well as war:
there are nobler trophies than captured flags and cannons. There
are monuments, airy monuments, monuments of
Monumentum aere words, which seem so fleeting and evanescent,
perennius.
that will yet last when your cannons have
crumbled and your flags have mouldered into dust. When the Roman
poet wished to present an image of perpetuity, he said that he would
be remembered so long as the Roman Empire endured, so long as
the white-robed procession of the Vestals and Pontiffs should
ascend the Capitol to pray in the temple of Jupiter. That solemn
procession has long ceased to climb the slope of the Capitol, the
Roman Empire itself has long passed away, like the empire of
Alexander, like the empire of Charlemagne, like the empire of Spain,
yet still amid the wreck of kingdoms the poet’s monument stands
firm, for still his verses are read and remembered. I appeal to the
Universities, I appeal to the Government of this country to unite in
building a monument, a beneficent monument, of the British Empire,
a monument

“Quod non imber edax, non Aquilo impotens

Possit diruere, aut innumerabilis
Annorum series, et fuga temporum.”

[The End]
 INDEX
Aborigines of Australia, the severity with which they punish sexual
offences, 71 sqq.
Abraham and Sarah, 60 sq.
Abyssinia, 66, 81
Action and opinion, their relative values for society, 155
Adulterer and injured husband, physical relationship supposed to
exist between, 104 sq.
—— called a murderer, 65, 104
Adultery, expiation for, 44 sq.; disastrous effects supposed to flow
from, 44 sqq., 60 sq.; punishment of, 46, 50 sq., 63 sqq.;
supposed to be dangerous to the culprits, their spouses, and
their offspring, 102 sqq. See also Infidelity.
Africa, superstitious veneration for kings in, 12 sqq.; superstition as a
support of property in, 38 sqq.; disastrous effects supposed to
flow from sexual immorality in, 54 sqq.; British Central, 66, 79,
105; British East, 77, 81, 92, 105, 115, 123; German East, 92,
105, 106; North, 119
Akamba, the, of British East Africa, 77 sq., 105
Akikuyu, the, of British East Africa, 92, 105, 115, 128
Aleutian hunters, 106
Algonquin Indians, their modes of keeping off ghosts, 139
Amboyna, taboo in, 27 sq.
America, Indians of North, 130 sq.; the discovery of, 173
Amulets for the protection of fruit-trees, 29 sqq.
Analogy between the reproduction of men, animals, and plants, 99
sqq.
Ancestor-worship, 7
Anger of gods or spirits at sexual offences, 44, 46, 47, 50, 51, 54, 55
sq., 57, 61, 63, 107
Angola, 108; Cazembes of, 11
Angoni, the, of British Central Africa, 79, 132
Annam, savages of, 46
Annamites, the, 33
Anne, Queen, 18
Anointing the nail instead of the wound, 166
Antambahoaka, the, of Madagascar, 59
Anthropology, social, the scope of, 157 sqq.
Anyanja, the, of British Central Africa, 66, 79, 105
Arab merchant in Darfur, 39
Araucanians of Chili, 84
Arawaks of British Guiana, 83
Areopagus, trials for murder before the, 156
Argos, massacre at, 115
Aricara Indians, 118
Armenians, their mutilation of the dead, 133
Assam, tribes of, 45
Attic law as to homicides, 114
Atua, guardian spirit, 118
Atua tonga, divinity, 8
Aunt, incest with, 50, 51
Australia, aborigines of, the severity with which they punish sexual
offences, 71 sqq.
——, Western, 74
Australian aborigines, their precautions against ghosts, 137
Avebury, Lord, 159
Avoidance, ceremonial, of relations by marriage, 75 sqq.; a
precaution against incest, 75, 84 sqq., 93; of wife’s mother, 75
sqq., 86 sq., 90 sq.; between father-in-law and daughter-in-law,
76; between various relations, 76 sq.; between father and
daughter, 78, 85, 87; between father-in-law and son-in-law, 79
sq.; of wife of wife’s brother, 80; of brothers-in-law and sisters-
in-law, 81; of future parents-in-law, 81, 83; between woman and
her father-in-law, 82; between a man and his father-in-law, 82,
83; of blood relations, 84 sqq.; between brother and sister, 85,
86, 87, 88, 90; between mother and son, 85, 86, 87
Awemba, the, of Northern Rhodesia, 66, 79, 103 sq., 120

Babylonian code of Hammurabi, 64

—— kings, their curses, 37 sq.
Baddat Dyaks of Borneo, 48
Baganda, punishment of sexual offences among the, 64 sq.; rules of
ceremonial avoidance among the, 90 sq.; their ideas as to
adultery, 102 sq.; their ideas as to effect of wife’s infidelity on
absent husband, 106 sq.
Bakerewe, a Bantu people, 78
Bali, punishment of incest and adultery in, 68
Balkan peninsula, the Slavs of the, 97
Balonda, the, 38
Bangala, the, of the Upper Congo, 107
Banggai Archipelago, 54
Banishment of homicides, 113 sqq.
Banks’ Islands, 6, 86
Banner, a fairy, 17
Bantu tribes, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 103, 123
Bantus, the, of South Africa, their customs as to the marriage of
cousins, 91
Barea, the, tribe on the borders of Abyssinia, 66
Barring the road from the grave against the ghost, 138 sq.
Basis of morality shifted from supernatural to natural, 153
Basoga, the, of Central Africa, 65
Bastards put to death, 96, 97
Basutos, the, 56; purification for homicide among the, 120 sq.
Batamba, the, of Busoga, 76
Batang Lupar river in Borneo, 48
Battas, or Bataks, of Sumatra, their ideas as to sexual immorality,
46; their punishment of adultery, 69; their rules of ceremonial
avoidance, 85
Bavili, the, of Loango, 55
Ba-Yaka, the, of the Congo Free State, 124
Beech, M. W. H., 129 n. 1
Belief in immortality a fruitful source of war, 129 sq.; waste of life and
property entailed by the, 111 sq.
Bella Coola Indians, mourning customs of the, 144
Beni Amer, tribe on the borders of Abyssinia, 66
Bering Strait, 132
Besisi, the, of the Malay Peninsula, 137
Bhotias, the, of the Himalayas, 141
Bilaspore in India, 133
Bismarck Archipelago, 131
Black and white Furies, 117
Blood of pigs used in expiatory ceremonies, 44 sqq.; of incestuous
persons not to be shed on the ground, 52, 53, 68; of pigs used
in ceremonies of purification, 116 sq.; of the slain drunk by the
slayers, 118 sq.
Blood covenant, 118, 119
—— relations, ceremonial avoidance of, 84 sqq.
Blu-u Kayans, the, of Borneo, 51
Boas, Franz, quoted, 126 sq., 146 sq.
Bogos, tribe on borders of Abyssinia, 81
Bolivia, 106
Boloki, the, of the Congo, 39, 75, 107, 128
Borneo, the Sea Dyaks of, 34, 47 sq., 51, 136; pagan tribes of, 49
sq.; tribes of Dutch, 50 sq.
Brazil, Indians of, 96
British Columbia, mourning customs among the tribes of, 142 sqq.
Brooke, Charles, quoted, 50
Brooke, Rajah, 12
Brother and sister, ceremonial avoidance between, 77, 85, 86, 87,
88, 90; incest of, 51, 54, 59, 60 n. 1, 62, 67, 68
Brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law, mutual avoidance of, 81
Buduma, the, of Lake Chad, 109
Bugineese, the, of Celebes, 51
Bukaua, tribe of German New Guinea, 82, 131
Bureau of Ethnology in the U.S. America, 175
Burgundians, the, 16
Burma, 119, 130, 134, 135, 138; the Karens of, 44 sq.
Burning as punishment of sexual crime, 63, 64, 68
Buru, an East Indian island, 109 n. 3
Burying alive as punishment, 46, 68, 69
Busoga, 76

Cairbre Musc, Irish legend of, 62

Calabria, superstition as to murderers in, 119
Californian Indians, 83
Cambridge in relation to anthropology, 175
Cameroon negroes, 116
Car Nicobar, rite of purification in, 116 sq.
Caribs, the, 83
Caroline Islands, rules of ceremonial avoidance in the, 87 sq.
Cazembes of Angola, 11
Celebes, 68
—— Central, 12, 29, 30, 52, 53, 122
—— Southern, 51
Celts of Ireland and Scotland, 17
Central Provinces of India, 33
Ceram, island of, 51; taboo in, 28
—— Laut Islands, taboo in, 28 sq.
Ceylon, modes of protecting property in, 33
Chad, Lake, 109
Charms to protect property, 25 sqq., 38 sq., 41 sqq.; for the
protection of fruit-trees, 29 sqq.
Chastity required of those who handle corn or enter a granary, 56 sq.
Chiefs, supernatural powers attributed to, 6 sqq.
Children supposed to suffer for the adultery of their father or mother,
102 sqq.
Chili, 84
Chinese, their faith in ghosts, 149 sqq.
Chinook Indians, their purification of homicides, 126 sq.
Chins of Burma, their burial customs, 138 sq.
Chitomé, the sacred pontiff of Congo, 108
Circumcision, orgies at, in Fiji, 60 n. 1
Civilization evolved from savagery, 162; endangered by superstition,
170
Clan, marriage within the, forbidden, 45, 65, 71; marriage within
mother’s clan forbidden, 55
Claudius, the emperor, 61
Clytemnestra, ghost of, 118
Codrington, Dr. R. H., 6, 85 n. 1, 86
Communism, era of sexual, 164 sq.
Comparative Method in anthropology, legitimacy of the, 172
Condon, Father M. A., quoted, 76 sq.
Confession of sin, 45, 57, 61, 62, 64 sq., 103, 104, 107, 109
Congo, the, 39, 75, 107, 108, 124
Consanguineous marriages, question as to the results of, 95 sq.
Continence required at certain times, 106 sq., 108
Corc and Cormac, Irish legend of, 62 sq.
Corn, chastity required of persons who handle, 56 sq.
Corpses mutilated in order to disable the ghosts, 132 sq., 134, 136,
137
Cousins, marriage of, 88 sq., 91; expiation for, 47 sq., 92 sq.;
forbidden, 47, 48, 53, 67, 72, 89, 90, 91, 92; punished, 67;
supposed to be unfruitful, 92
——, mutual avoidance between male and female, 88 sqq.
Cow’s dung as a detergent of ghosts, 123
Cowper, the poet, 174
Crawford, Raymond, 17 n. 5
Criminals, precautions against the ghosts of executed, 132
Crops, chiefs and kings thought to have power over the, 11 sq., 15,
16 sq.; supposed to be blighted by sexual immorality, 44 sq., 46,
48, 49, 50 sqq.
Cross-stick taboo, 25
Cumana in South America, 33
Curses as modes of protecting property, 24 sq., 28, 29, 31 sq., 34
sqq., 40 sq.
Cycles in human affairs, 165 sq.
Cynaetha in Arcadia, 115

Damzogs, guardian-spirits of property, 39 sq.

Darfur, 39, 81
Daughter, incest with, 49, 51, 54, 58, 67, 68; and father, mutual
avoidance of, 78
David, his sin, 107
Dawson, James, quoted, 71 sq.
Dead, the fear of the, 111 sq.; carried out of house by a special
opening, 135
De Groot, Professor J. J. M., quoted, 150 sq.
Delagoa Bay, 57, 80, 92, 104, 121
Delphic oracle, 61
Demeter and Persephone, 36
Destruction of the property of the dead, 111 sq., 135
Deuteronomy, 37
Development of moral theory, hypothetical, 102
“Devil going on his wife,” 54 n. 2
Devils, exorcism of, 116 sq.
Diana, sacred grove of, 61
Dinkas, the, of the Upper Nile, 57
Divinity of Maori chiefs, 7 sqq.; of kings, 10 sqq.
Donaglas, the, 81
d’Orbigny, A., quoted, 111 sqq.
Doreh in Dutch New Guinea, 131
Dos Santos, J., Portuguese historian, 13, 14
Drinking water as test of wife’s fidelity, 107
Drowning as a punishment for sexual offences, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54,
65, 66, 67, 68
Dunvegan, 17
Durham, Miss M. Edith, 97
Dyaks of Borneo, 47 sq., 51, 137; curses among the, 34 sqq.
—— of Sarawak, 11

Early history of mankind, the imperfection of the record, 171 sq.

Earthquakes thought to be caused by sexual immorality, 54
East Indies, sexual offences severely punished in, 67 sqq.
Edward the Confessor, 18
Egypt, divinity of kings in ancient, 14 sq.
Ekoi, the, of Southern Nigeria, 39
Epidemics supposed to be caused by incest, 46, 51
Eruptions of volcanoes supposed to be caused by incest, 54
Esquimaux of Bering Strait, 132
Evolution, a scale of mental, 172
Ewe negroes of Togoland, 142
—— speaking tribes of the Slave Coast, 41
Executioners taste the blood of their victims, 119
Exorcism of devils, 116 sq.
Expiation for sexual immorality, 44 sqq., 57, 61, 62 sq.; for marriage
of cousins, 92 sq.; for incest, 105 sq.; for homicide, 128 sq.
Extinction of the savage, 174 sq.

Fady, or taboo, in Madagascar, 31 sq.

Fairy banner, 17
—— changeling, 166
Father, incest with, 106
—— and daughter, mutual avoidance of, 78, 85, 87
Father-in-law avoided ceremonially by his daughter-in-law, 82;
avoided ceremonially by his son-in-law, 82, 83
Fear of ghosts, 111 sqq.; salutary effect of, 111, 113, 149 sqq.; of
women who die in pregnancy or childbed, 133 sqq.
Fertility of women and cattle, supposed power of chiefs and kings
over the, 14, 16; of land supposed to be impaired by sexual
offences, 44 sqq.
——, Diana a goddess of, 61 sq.
Fetishes in Guinea, 41
Fetters put on the dead, 137
Fidelity, test of conjugal, 107
Fig-tree, sacred, among the Akikuyu, 128 sq.
Fiji, authority of chiefs in, 7; taboo in, 27; orgies at circumcision in, 60
n. 1
Fijians, their custom of driving away ghosts, 131 sq.
Finger, sacrifice of, 117
First-fruits offered to chiefs, 7
Fish sacred, 36
Floods supposed to be caused by incest, 49
Folklore, a department of Social Anthropology, 166, 169
Food-supply supposed to be affected by improper relations between
the sexes, 100 sq.
Fornication, expiation for, 44 sq.; disastrous effects supposed to flow
from, 44, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 55, 57, 63, 65, 96; punishment of,
44, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 55, 57, 63, 65, 66, 96 sqq.
Frenzy caused by sight or thought of blood, 122 sq.
Fruit-trees, charms for the protection of, 29 sqq.
Furies of Clytemnestra, 117

Galelareese, the, of Halmahera, 54

Galton, Sir Francis, 159
Garcilasso de la Vega, quoted, 15 sq.; on the Incas, 173
Gardens, superstition as to, 57
Gennep, A. van, 31
Ghostly power ascribed to chiefs, 6 sq.
Ghosts as protectors of property, 26; the fear of, 111 sqq.; salutary
effect of belief in, 111, 113, 149 sqq.; of all who have died violent
deaths accounted dangerous, 130; of bad people, precautions
against the, 132 sq.; disabled by the mutilation of their corpses,
132 sq., 134, 136, 137; blinded, 133
—— and goblins outlast the high gods, 170 sq.
—— of slain especially dreaded by their slayers, 113 sqq.; thought to
drive their slayers mad, 117 sqq.; precautions taken by slayers
against the, 117 sqq., 123 sqq.; scared or driven away, 126, 130
 sqq.; especially dreaded by their kinsfolk and neighbours, 127
sqq.
—— of women dying in pregnancy or childbed especially feared, 133
sqq.
Girdle of red feathers, badge of royalty, 10
Girschner, Max, quoted, 87 sq.
Goat, expiatory sacrifice of, 92
Gods or spirits angry at sexual offences, 44, 46, 47, 50, 51, 54, 55
sq., 57, 61, 63, 107; the creations of man’s fancy, 99; the
stalking-horses of savages, 101; the high, ephemeral compared
to ghosts and goblins, 170 sq.
Government, superstition as a prop of, 6 sqq.; of mankind essentially
aristocratic, 167
Governors, supernatural powers attributed to, 6
Granaries, superstitions concerning, 56 sq.
Gran Chaco, Indians of the, 140
Granddaughter, incest with, 48
Grave, the road from the, barred against the ghost, 138 sq.
Greasing the hands of the dead, 137 sq.
Greece, superstitious veneration for kings in Homeric, 16
Greegrees, charms, 42
Greek purification of homicides, 116, 120, 123 sq.
Greeks, the ancient, their use of curses, 36 sq.; their ideas as to
incest, 61; their customs as to homicide, 113 sq.
Grimm, the brothers, 169 sq.
Guiana, British, 83; Indians of, their notion as to homicides, 117 sq.
Guinea, fetishes in, 41
Gula, Babylonian goddess, 38

Haida Indians of Queen Charlotte Islands, 107

Hair of homicides shaved, 123 sq., 128
Halmahera, East Indian island, 54
Hammurabi, code of, 64
Hanging as punishment for incest, 90
Hebrews, their ideas as to adultery, 60 sq.
Heraclitus on purification for homicide, 117
Herbert River in Queensland, 137
Herero, the, of South Africa, 133
Herzegovina, 98
Hindoos of the Punjaub, 133; ancient, burial custom of the, 137
Hippopotamus hunters, superstitions of, 57 sqq.
History regulated by general laws, 160; of mankind, imperfection of
the early records, 171 sq.
Hlengoues, the, of South-East Africa, 57
Hobley, C. W., 105 n. 2; quoted, 115 n. 5
Homicide, purification for, 114, 115 sqq., 120 sqq., 123 sqq.;
expiation for, 128 sq.
Homicides fear the ghosts of their victims, 113 sqq.; secluded, 114
sq., 120, 121 sq., 124, 125 sqq.; taste the blood of their victims,
118 sq.
Horror of sexual irregularities among savages, suggested reason for,
101
Hose, Ch., and McDougall, W., quoted, 49 sq.
Hottentots forbid marriage of cousins, 67
Howitt, A. W., 75 n. 1, 85 n. 1
Huichol Indians of Mexico, 106
Human history regulated by general laws, 160
—— life, superstition as a prop to the security of, 111 sqq.
Huth, A. H., 95
Hypotheses, their place in science, 172

Ibo, the, of Nigeria, 119

Iguana used in magic, 30 sq.
Illegitimate children put to death, 96 sq.
Immorality, sexual, disastrous effects believed to flow from, 44 sqq.,
63; supposed to disturb the course of nature, 99 sqq.; original
ground of the conception unknown, 102; supposed to be
injurious to the culprits themselves and their relations, 102 sqq.;
superstition as to, 110
Immortality, waste of life and property entailed by the belief in, 111
sq.; belief in, a fruitful source of war, 129 sq.
Impalement as punishment of adultery, 67
Inbreeding, question of the effects of, 95 sq.
Incas of Peru, 173
Incest, disastrous effects supposed to flow from, 45 sqq., 61; with
granddaughter, 48; with adopted daughter, 49; punishment of,
49 sq., 51, 52 sqq., 90, 91; with aunt, 50, 51; with a mother, 51,
61, 67; with a niece, 51, 53; with a daughter, 51, 54, 58, 67, 68;
with a sister, 51, 54, 59, 60 n. 1, 62, 67, 68, 105; enjoined in
certain circumstances, 57 sqq.; expiation for, 105 sq.; with
father, 106
India, superstitious veneration for kings in ancient, 16
Indian Archipelago, precautions against ghosts of women dying in
childbed in the, 136
Indians of North America, their custom of driving away the ghosts of
the slain, 130 sq.
Infanticide in China checked by fear of ghosts, 150 sq.
Infection, physical, supposed to be spread by unchaste persons, 109
Infertile marriage, dread of, 94
Infertility thought to be caused by sexual immorality, 57, 60 sq.; of
women and cattle supposed to be caused by fornication, 109 sq.
Infidelity of husband supposed to be dangerous to his offspring, 103;
of wife supposed to endanger her husband, 106 sqq. See also
Adultery
Inoculation, magical, of hunters, 57 sq.; of homicides, 121
Insanity, temporary, caused by blood, 122 sq.
Institutions, early history of, imperfections in the records, 171 sq.
Ireland, superstitions as to kings in ancient, 17
Irish legend as to incest of brother and sister, 62
Ishtar, the goddess, 38
Isla del Malhado in Florida, 83
Issoudun in British New Guinea, 147

Ja-Luo, the, of Kavirondo, 123

Job on adultery, 60
Johnson, Dr. S., 17, 18; on Voyages to the South Seas, 173
Jok, ancestral spirits, 57
Joustra, M., 85 n. 1
Jupagalk tribe of Australia, 74
Juris, the, of Brazil, 33
Kabyles, the, of North Africa, 119
Kachins of Burma, their fear of the ghosts of women dying in
childbed, 135 sq.
Kai, the, of German New Guinea, their fear of the ghosts of the slain,
124 sq.
Kamilaroi tribe of New South Wales, 74
Karens of Burma, their ideas as to sexual immorality, 44 sq.; their
dread of ghosts, 130
Kavirondo, the, of British East Africa, 65, 123
Kawars, the, 33
Kayans, the, of Borneo, 49, 50, 51
Khasis, the, of Assam, 45
Kickapoo Indians, 130
Kikuyu. See Akikuyu
King’s Evil, touching for, 17 sq.
Kings, superstitious veneration for, 10 sqq.
—— of Tahiti, their sacredness 10 sq.
Kouis, the, of Laos, 32
Kubus, the, of Sumatra, 67
Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia, mourning customs of the, 146
sq.

Landmarks protected by gods and curses, 37 sq.

Laos, 32
Laurel leaves used in purificatory rites, 117
Laws regulating marriage, their origin unknown, 102; which regulate
human history, 160
Leaden tablets, 36
Leaping over grave of murdered man, 119
Leaves used in exorcism, 116 sq.
Lengua Indians, their fear of ghosts, 140 sq.
Leviticus, 61
Licence, periods of, 60 n. 1
Lightning a punishment of incest, 45
Lillooet Indians of British Columbia, mourning customs of the, 145
sq.
Livingstone, David, quoted, 38
Lkungen or Songish Indians of Vancouver Island, mourning customs
of the, 143
Loango, the king of, 12, 13; ideas as to sexual immorality in, 54 sq.
Lombok, sexual offences severely punished in, 70
Looboos, a people of Sumatra, 82, 109
Looï, pollution incurred by unchastity, 109
Loowoo, in Celebes, 12
Louis XV., 18
Louis XVI., 18
Low, Hugh, 48
Lushai, the, of North-Eastern India, 119 sq.

Macassars, the, of Celebes, 51

McDougall, W., and Hose, Ch., quoted, 49 sq.
Macleods, chief of the, 17
Madagascar, 59, 106; taboo in, 31 sq.
Madness supposed to be caused by homicide, 117 sqq.
Magic older than religion, 100
Magical rites tend to become religious, 100
Maiming as a punishment of adultery, 64
Malagasy charms, 31
Malay Archipelago, taboo in the, 27 sq.
—— Peninsula, 137
—— peoples, the severity with which they punish sexual offences,
70 sq.
—— region, divinity of kings in the, 11 sqq.
Maloulekes, the, of South-Eastern Africa, 57
Mamoedjoe, district of Celebes, 68
Man, the science of, 159 sq.; primæval, unknown, 163 sq.
Mana, supernatural power, 6
Mangars, a tribe of Nepal, 138
Mankind dominated by an enlightened minority, 167 sq.
Manslayer. See Homicide
Mantineans, their purification, 115
Manu, laws of, 16, 63
Maori chiefs, authority of, 7 sqq.; esteemed gods, 7 sq.
Maoris, taboo among the, 20 sqq.