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SUSTAINABLE SUGARCANE
PRODUCTION
SUSTAINABLE SUGARCANE
PRODUCTION

Edited by
Priyanka Singh, PhD
Ajay Kumar Tiwari, PhD
Apple Academic Press Inc. Apple Academic Press Inc.
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Sustainable sugarcane production / edited by Priyanka Singh, PhD, Ajay Kumar Tiwari, PhD.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Issued in print and electronic formats.
ISBN 978-1-77188-702-1 (hardcover).--ISBN 978-1-351-04776-0 (PDF)
1. Sugarcane. 2. Sustainable agriculture. I. Tiwari, Ajay Kumar, editor II. Singh, Priyanka
(Scientist), editor
SB226.2.S87 2018 633.6’1 C2018-900408-8 C2018-900409-6

CIP data on file with US Library of C

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CONTENTS

About the Editors............................................................................................vii

List of Contributors..........................................................................................xi
List of Abbreviations....................................................................................... xv
Foreword........................................................................................................ xix
Preface........................................................................................................... xxi
1. Farming Technologies for Sugarcane Production in Upland Fields...........1
Yang-Rui Li, Xiu-Peng Song, Jian-Ming Wu, Chang-Ning Li,
Qiang Liang, Xi-Hui Liu, Wei-Zan Wang, Hong-Wei Tan,
and Li-Tao Yang
2. Headways in Agro-Techniques for Heightened Yield of Sugarcane:
Indian Perspective.........................................................................................17
A. K. Singh, Menhi Lal, and Ekta Singh
3. Sustainability and Efficiency of Sugarcane Cultivation in India..............77
G. Vlontzos and P. M. Pardalos
4. From Conventional to Molecular Approaches: Building Bridges for
Sugarcane Genetic Improvement................................................................93
Sangeeta Srivastava and Pavan Kumar
5. Utilization of Sugarcane Genetic Resources for Enhanced
Resilience in Diverse Conditions................................................................121
Gulzar S. Sanghera, Arvind Kumar, A. Anna Durai, and K. S. Thind
6. Source-Sink Dynamics in Sugarcane: Physio-Genomics Perspectives.......145
Amaresh Chandra
7. Residues Uses and Environment Sustainability.......................................161
R. Rossetto, C. A. C. Crusciol, H. Cantarella, J. B. Carmo,
and C. A. C. Nascimento
8. Water Induced Stresses in Sugarcane: Responses and Management.........189
R. Gomathi
vi Contents

9. Diseases and Pests Affecting Sugarcane: Methods of Control................217

Yaquelin Puchades Izaguirre, Mérida Rodríguez Regal,
Eida Rodríguez Lema, and María La O. Hechavarría
10. Biological Control of Two Sugarcane Stalk Borers
in the United States.....................................................................................241
Allan T. Showler
11. Management of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes on Sugarcane
Under Tropical Conditions.........................................................................271
Andréa Chaves Fiuza Porto, E. M. R. Pedrosa, L. M. P. Guimarães,
S. R. V. L. Maranhão, and M. O. Cardoso
12 Insect Vectors and Sugarcane White Leaf Disease Management...........287
Yupa Hanboonsong
13 Sugarcane Ratoon Management................................................................299
S. K. Shukla, Lalan Sharma, and V. P. Jaiswal
14. Mechanization for Sustainable Sugarcane Production............................333
Akhilesh Kumar Singh
15. Alternatives to Increase the Sustainability of Sugarcane
Production in Brazil Under High Intensive Mechanization....................349
H. C. J. Franco, S. G. Q. Castro, G. M. Sanches, O. T. Kölln,
R. O. Bordonal, B. M. M. N. Borges, and C. D. Borges
16. Transfer of Technology Approaches for Sustained Sugarcane
Productivity.................................................................................................385
T. Rajula Shanthy
Index..............................................................................................................405
ABOUT THE EDITORS

Priyanka Singh, PhD

Scientific Officer, Uttar Pradesh Council of Sugarcane
Research, Shahjahanpur, India

Priyanka Singh, PhD, is the Scientific Officer of

the Uttar Pradesh Council of Sugarcane Research,
(UPCSR) Shahjahanpur, India. She has worked at the
Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow, India for nine years. She
has 19 years of research experience with specialization in organophosphorus
chemistry and cane quality/postharvest management of sugar losses with
the help of chemicals as well as eco-friendly compounds. She has extensive
experience in using electrolyzed water to preserve cane quality, and she was
the first person to report on the immense potential of electrolyzed water to
preserve postharvest sucrose losses.
Dr. Singh has synthesized and characterized 37 new organophosphorus
compounds belonging to the chalcone series, of which two important chemi-
cals (Chalcone thiosemicarbazone and Chalcone dithiocarbazate) were
found to be highly fungitoxic to the sugarcane parasitic fungi Colletotricum
falcatum, Fusarium oxysporum, and Curvularia pallescene. She has worked
on the extraction of volatile constituents from higher plants and their bio-
logical activity against agricultural pests; the management of postharvest
formation of nonsugar and polysaccharide compounds in sugarcane and the
effect of bioproducts on growth, yield, and quality of sugarcane and soil
health; and indicators of postharvest losses in sugarcane. She is also credited
for identifying Mannitol as one of the most important indicators of posthar-
vest losses in sugarcane.
Presently, she is working on a varietal spectrum of sugarcane for the
selection of elite sugarcane varieties so as to recommend the proper varietal
balance of sugarcane varieties in Uttar Pradesh (India). She is also modulat-
ing the activities of sucrose metabolizing enzymes through bio-active silicon
(orthosilicic acid) for increased cane and sugar productivity, which will ben-
efit farmers as well as the sugar industry. She is also lending her expertise
viii About the Editors

to a project on “Assessment of postharvest quality deterioration in prom-

ising sugarcane varieties under sub-tropical condition,” which is expected
to reduce postharvest losses and increase sugar recovery; and undertak-
ing a project on “Varietal screening for jaggery” production at UPCSR,
Shahjahanpur, for the recommendation of elite sugarcane varieties for the
commercial production of jaggery.
Dr. Singh is a research advisor for a dissertation on genetic diversity in
sugarcane and a training advisor for MSc students. She has organized sev-
eral short-term training programs on techniques in microbiology, biotech-
nology, and molecular biology.
She received an “Award of Excellence” from Sinai University, Al Arish,
Egypt, in 2008. She is also serving as Managing Editor for the journal
Sugar Tech and as Executive Editor for journal Agarica. In addition, she
is a reviewer for several international journals. She is one of the editors of
the Proceeding of International Conference IS-2011. A prolific author, Dr.
Singh has authored a book on innovative healthy recipes with jaggery, edited
three books on postharvest management of sugarcane, and written several
annual reports and a paper on 100 years of sugarcane research. She has also
published three book chapters and more than 50 research papers in various
national and international journals and proceedings. She has attended sev-
eral national and international conferences and workshops in China, Egypt,
Thailand, and India, and has coordinated technical as well as plenary ses-
sions in India, China, and Egypt.
Dr. Singh completed her PhD on “Efficacy of organophophorus deriva-
tives against fungal pathogens of sugarcane” in 2000 from DDU, Gorakhpur
University (Uttar Pradesh, India). She was awarded a postdoctoral fellow-
ship from DST, New Delhi.
About the Editors ix

Ajay Kumar Tiwari, PhD

Scientific Officer, Uttar Pradesh Council of Sugarcane
Research, Shahjahanpur, India

Ajay K. Tiwari, PhD, is a Scientific Officer at the UP

Council of Sugarcane Research, Shahjahnapur, UP,
India. He is a regular member of the British Society
of Plant Pathology, Indian Phytopathological Society,
Sugarcane Technologists Association of India,
International Society of Sugarcane Technologists, Society of Sugarcane
Research and Promotion, Prof H. S. Srivastava Foundation, and Society of
Plant Research. He has published 75 research articles and 12 review articles
in national and international journals. He has also published six book chap-
ters in edited books and has also authored seven edited books. He has sub-
mitted more than 150 nucleotide sequences of plant pathogens to Genbank.
Dr. Tiwari is a regular reviewer and member of the editorial board for
many international journals. He is managing editor of Sugar Tech journal and
Chief Editor of Agrica journal. He has been awarded the Young Researcher
Award in Italy 2011, and the Young Scientist Award by DST-SERB, and he
was nominated for the Narshiman Award by the Indian Phytopathological
Society. Very recently, he was awarded the Young Scientist Award by the
Chief Minister of the State Government of UP for his outstanding contri-
bution in the area of plant pathology. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of many
international travel awards given by DST, DBT, and CSIR from India;
PATHOLUX from Luxembourg; and IOM from Brazil. He has visited
China, Italy, Germany, and Thailand for conferences and workshops. He has
been involved in research on molecular characterization and management of
agricultural plant pathogens for the last nine years. Currently, he is working
on molecular characterization of sugarcane phytoplasma and their secondary
spread in nature.
Dr. Tiwari earned his PhD in 2011 on Cucurbit viruses from the
Biotechnology Department of CCS University, Meerut, UP, India.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

R. O. Bordonal
Brazilian Bioethanol Science and Technology Laboratory – CTBE, Brazilian Center for Research in
Energy and Materials – CNPEM, Giuseppe Maximo Scolfaro Street 10000, Cidade Universitária,
Campinas, 13083–100, Brazil, E-mail: henrique.franco@ctbe.cnpem.br
B. M. M. N. Borges
Brazilian Bioethanol Science and Technology Laboratory – CTBE, Brazilian Center for Research in
Energy and Materials – CNPEM, Giuseppe Maximo Scolfaro Street 10000, Cidade Universitária,
Campinas, 13083–100, Brazil, E-mail: henrique.franco@ctbe.cnpem.br

C. D. Borges
Brazilian Bioethanol Science and Technology Laboratory – CTBE, Brazilian Center for Research in
Energy and Materials – CNPEM, Giuseppe Maximo Scolfaro Street 10000, Cidade Universitária,
Campinas, 13083–100, Brazil, E-mail: henrique.franco@ctbe.cnpem.br

H. Cantarella
Agronomic Institute of Campinas, Soils and Environmental Resources Center, P.O. Box 28, 13001-970
Campinas, SP, Brazil
M. O. Cardoso
Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Departamento de Engenharia Agrícola, Rua Dom Manoel
de Medeiros, S/N, Dois Irmãos, Recife, Pernambuco, 52.171-900, Brazil
J. B. Carmo
Department of Environmental Sciences, Federal University of Sao Carlos (UFSCar), Rod. João Leme
dos Santos Km 110, 18052-780 Sorocaba, SP, Brazil

S. G. Q. Castro
Brazilian Bioethanol Science and Technology Laboratory – CTBE, Brazilian Center for Research in
Energy and Materials – CNPEM, Giuseppe Maximo Scolfaro Street 10000, Cidade Universitária,
Campinas, 13083–100, Brazil, E-mail: henrique.franco@ctbe.cnpem.br
Amaresh Chandra
Division of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, ICAR-Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research,
Lucknow–226002, India, E-mail: amaresh_chandra@rediffmail.com

C. A. C. Crusciol
São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Agriculture, Department of Crop Science, P.O. Box:
237, 18610-307 Botucatu, State of São Paulo, Brazil

Anna Durai
ICAR- Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore – 641007, Tamilnadu, India

H. C. J. Franco
Brazilian Bioethanol Science and Technology Laboratory – CTBE, Brazilian Center for Research in
Energy and Materials – CNPEM, Giuseppe Maximo Scolfaro Street 10000, Cidade Universitária,
Campinas, 13083–100, Brazil, E-mail: henrique.franco@ctbe.cnpem.br

R. Gomathi
Plant Physiology, ICAR-Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore–641007, Tamil Nadu, India,
E-mail: gomathi_sbi@yahoo.co.in
xii List of Contributors

L. M. P. Guimarães
Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Departamento de Engenharia Agronomia, Rua Dom
Manoel de Medeiros, S/N, Dois Irmãos, Recife, Pernambuco, 52.171-900, Brazil

Yupa Hanboonsong
Entomology Division, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand, E-mail: yupa_han@
kku.ac.thyupa_han@yahoo.com
María La O. Hechavarría
Institute of Sugarcane Research (INICA), Carretera ISPJAE, Km 1, Boyeros–19390, Havana, Cuba

Yaquelin Puchades Izaguirre

Institute of Sugarcane Research (INICA), Carretera ISPJAE, Km 1, Boyeros–19390, Havana, Cuba

V. P. Jaiswal
ICAR – Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow–226002, Uttar Pradesh, India

O. T. Kölln
Brazilian Bioethanol Science and Technology Laboratory – CTBE, Brazilian Center for Research in
Energy and Materials – CNPEM, Giuseppe Maximo Scolfaro Street 10000, Cidade Universitária,
Campinas, 13083–100, Brazil, E-mail: henrique.franco@ctbe.cnpem.br

Pavan Kumar
Division of Crop Improvement, ICAR-Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow–226002, Uttar
Pradesh, India,
Department of Biotechnology, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi – 284128, Uttar Pradesh, India

Arvind Kumar
UPCSR, Sugarcane Research Institute, Shahanjanpur – 242001, UP, India

Menhi Lal
Division of Crop Production, ICAR-Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow–226002, India

Eida Rodríguez Lema

Institute of Sugarcane Research (INICA), Carretera ISPJAE, Km 1, Boyeros–19390, Havana, Cuba

Chang-Ning Li
Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement, Key Laboratory of Sugarcane
Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Sugarcane Research
Center, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of
Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530007, China, E-mail: liyr@gxaas.net

Yang-Rui Li
Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement, Key Laboratory of Sugarcane
Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Sugarcane Research
Center, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of
Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530007, China, E-mail: liyr@gxaas.net

Qiang Liang
Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement, Key Laboratory of Sugarcane
Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Sugarcane Research
Center, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of
Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530007, China, E-mail: liyr@gxaas.net

Xi-Hui Liu
Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement, Key Laboratory of Sugarcane
Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Sugarcane Research
Center, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of
Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530007, China, E-mail: liyr@gxaas.net
List of Contributors xiii

S. R. V. L. Maranhão
Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Departamento de Engenharia Agronomia, Rua Dom
Manoel de Medeiros, S/N, Dois Irmãos, Recife, Pernambuco, 52.171-900, Brazil

C. A. C. Nascimento
São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Agriculture, Department of Crop Science, P.O. Box:
237, 18610-307 Botucatu, State of São Paulo, Brazil
P. M. Pardalos
Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, University of Florida, Center of Applied
Optimization, Distinguished Professor, Paul and Heidi Brown Preeminent Professor, 401 Weil Hall,
Gainesville, FL 32611-6595, USA, E-mail: pardalos@ise.ufl.edu

E. M. R. Pedrosa
Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Departamento de Engenharia Agrícola, Rua Dom Manoel
de Medeiros, S/N, Dois Irmãos, Recife, Pernambuco, 52.171-900, Brazil

Andréa Chaves Fiuza Porto

Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Estação Experimental de Cana-de-açúcar de Carpina,
Rua Angela Cristina C. P. de Luna, S/N. Bairro de Santa Terezinha, Carpina, Pernambuco, 55810-000,
Brazil, E-mail: achavesfiuza@yahoo.com.br

Mérida Rodríguez Regal

Institute of Sugarcane Research (INICA), Carretera ISPJAE, Km 1, Boyeros–19390, Havana, Cuba

R. Rossetto
Agência Paulista deTecnologia do Agronegócio (APTA), Centro de Cana-de-Açúcar do IAC, Rodovia
SP 127 km 30, 13400–970 Piracicaba, SP, Brazil, E-mail: raffaella@apta.sp.gov.br
G. M. Sanches
Brazilian Bioethanol Science and Technology Laboratory – CTBE, Brazilian Center for Research in
Energy and Materials – CNPEM, Giuseppe Maximo Scolfaro Street 10000, Cidade Universitária,
Campinas, 13083–100, Brazil, E-mail: henrique.franco@ctbe.cnpem.br

Gulzar S. Sanghera
PAU, Regional Research Station, Kapurthala, Punjab, 144601, India, E-mail: sangheragulzar@gmail.
com

T. Rajula Shanthy
Extension, ICAR-Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore–641007, Tamil Nadu, India,
E-mail: rajula.sbi@gmail.com

Lalan Sharma
ICAR – Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow–226002, Uttar Pradesh, India

Allan T. Showler
Knipling-Bushland, U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory,
USDA-ARS, 2700 Fredericksburg Road, Kerrville, TX78028, USA, E-mail: allan.showler@ars.usda.
gov

S. K. Shukla
ICAR – Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow–226002, Uttar Pradesh, India, E-mail:
sudhirshukla151@gmail, sudhir.shukla@icar.gov.in

A. K. Singh
Division of Crop Production, ICAR-Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow–226002, India,
E-mail: shantaanil@yahoo.com
xiv List of Contributors

Akhilesh Kumar Singh

Division of Agricultural Engineering, ICAR-Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow–226002,
India, E-mail: aksingh8375@gmail.com

Ekta Singh
Division of Crop Production, ICAR-Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow–226002, India

Xiu-Peng Song
Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement, Key Laboratory of Sugarcane
Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Sugarcane Research
Center, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of
Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530007, China, E-mail: liyr@gxaas.net
Sangeeta Srivastava
Division of Crop Improvement, ICAR-Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow–226002, Uttar
Pradesh, India,
E-mail: Sangeeta.Srivastava@icar.gov.in, sangeeta_iisr@yahoo.co.in

Hong-Wei Tan
Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement, Key Laboratory of Sugarcane
Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Sugarcane Research
Center, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of
Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530007, China, E-mail: liyr@gxaas.net

K. S. Thind
PAU, Regional Research Station, Kapurthala, Punjab, 144601, India

G. Vlontzos
Department of Agriculture Crop Production and Rural Development, School of Agricultural Sciences,
University of Thessaly, Fytoko, 38446 Volos, Greece
Wei-Zan Wang
Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement, Key Laboratory of Sugarcane
Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Sugarcane Research
Center, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of
Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530007, China, E-mail: liyr@gxaas.net

Jian-Ming Wu
Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement, Key Laboratory of Sugarcane
Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Sugarcane Research
Center, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of
Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530007, China, E-mail: liyr@gxaas.net

Li-Tao Yang
State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, Agricultural
College, Guangxi University, Nanning 530005, China, E-mail: liyr@gxu.edu.cn
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABA abscisic acid

ACIAR Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research
ADH alcohol dehydrogenase
AFLP amplified fragment length polymorphism
AMMI additive main effects and multiplicative interaction
ANP’s anaerobic polypetides
BAC bacterial artificial chromosome
BOD biochemical oxygen demand
CEC cation exchange capacity
COD chemical oxygen demand
CSIATI Chinese Sugarcane Industry Association for Technological
Innovation
DANIDA Danish International Development Agency
DBIA dot-blot immunoassay
DCD dicaynadiamide
DD differential display
DGR Directorate of Groundnut Research
DOC dissolved organic carbon
ERF ethylene responsive factor
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FDS fixed dissolved solids
FDV Fiji disease virus
FIRB furrow irrigated raised
FISH fluorescence in situ hybridization
FNAAS Fellow of National Academy of Agricultural Sciences
GEOBIA geographic object-based image analysis
GFP green fluorescent protein
GISH genomic in situ hybridization
GSD grassy shoot disease
IAPSIT international association for professionals in sugar and
integrated technologies
ICT information and communication technology
xvi List of Abbreviations

IFC International Finance Corporation

IIAST Integral Institute of Agricultural Science and Technology
IISR Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research
IM isomaltulose
IMDH-RD Integrated, Multi-Disciplinary and Holistic Approach to
Rural Development
IPM integrated pest management
ISA Indian Society of Agronomy
ISPP Indian Society of Plant Physiology
JA jasmonic acid
LAI leaf area index
LAR leaf area ratio
MHAT moist hot air treatment
MOP muriate of potash
NAR net assimilation rate
NGS next generation sequencing
NI neutral invertase
NRA nitrate reductase activity
NUE nitrogen use efficiency
OM organic matter
PA precision agriculture
PETS photosynthetic electron transfer system
PGQP plant germplasm quarantine program
PI phosphoinositide
PMC press-mud cake
PMI phosphomannose isomerase
PPP public private partnership
PR pathogenesis related
RFLP restriction fragment length polymorphism
RGAs resistant gene analogues
RGR relative growth rate
RMD ratoon management device
ROS reactive oxygen species
RRL resistance response library
RSD ratoon stunting disease
RWC relative water content
SAI soluble acid invertase
SAM s-adenosyl methionine
List of Abbreviations xvii

SAP society of agricultural professionals

SCAR sequence characterized amplified region
SCBV sugarcane bacilliform virus
SCMV sugarcane mosaic virus
SCSMV sugarcane streak mosaic virus
SCSV sugarcane streak virus
SCWL sugarcane white leaf
SCYLV sugarcane yellow leaf virus
SEC strategic extension campaign
SNP single nucleotide polymorphism
SPM sulphitation press-mud
SPS sucrose phosphate synthase
SRA Sugar Research Australia
SRAP sequence related amplified polymorphism
SRL susceptible response library
SSF suspended solids fixed
SSI sustainable sugarcane initiative
SSP single superphosphate
SSRP Society for Sugar Research and Promotion
SSRs simple sequence repeats
STP spaced transplanting technique
SUGESI The Sugarcane Genome Sequencing Initiative
TBIA tissue-blot immunoassay
TDFs transcript-derived fragments
TFP total factor productivity
TFs transcriptional factors
TIBs temporary immersion bioreactor system
TRAP target region amplification polymorphism
TS total solids
TSS total suspended solids
UPAAS Uttar Pradesh Academy of Agricultural Sciences
VDS volatile dissolved solids
VSS volatile suspended solids
WR water requirement
YLD yellow leaf disease
FOREWORD

Sugarcane, a climate friendly crop, earlier con-

sidered as a major source of sweetener, has now
acquired a novel status in the international market
owing to its tremendous agro-industrial value. The
crop sequesters carbondioxide from the environ-
ment; possess high varietal resistance, and helps in
preserving bio-diversity. Sugarcane production and
productivity differ widely from country to country
due to climatic diversity and management practices.
Brazil has highest area under sugarcane while Australia has highest pro-
ductivity per unit area. The largest producers are Brazil, India, and China,
accounting for more than 50% of world production.
Besides sugar, sugarcane crop provides biofuel, fiber, organic fertil-
izer, and numerous by-products and co-products with ecological sustain-
ability. Sugarcane is one of the most efficient photo-synthesizer C4 plant,
which can convert up to 2% of the incident solar energy into biomass. The
over-exploitation of natural resources and increased human activities have
made our ecosphere prone to biotic stresses like drought, water logging,
salinity, and multiple soil-related problems such as nutrient deficiencies.
These have severely eroded the sustainability of many food and indus-
trial crops, including sugarcane. The prevailing thrust on high production
intensive agriculture has led to excessive use of inputs, viz. irrigation, fer-
tilizers, and pesticides, which are proving to be a long-term threat to crop
productivity, soil, environment, and human health.
Eco-friendly sustainable sugarcane and sugar production calls for judi-
cious use of inputs and bio-intensive sugarcane agriculture, encompassing
cultivation of improved varieties with long field stability. The crop and
field management should focus on resource conservation methods inte-
grating BMP and ERP for improving production efficiency. The current
marketing and handling infrastructure in sugarcane and integrated industry
requires major reforms to increase efficiency and reduce transit losses. In
order to become economically viable and globally competitive, the industry
xx Foreword

and scientists must support and educate sugarcane farmers with innova-
tive methods of production, protection, and crop management. Sugarcane
agriculture could be sustained only if the profit ability is ensured by reduc-
ing the cost of cultivation and improving the productivity per unit area;
improved varieties, innovative farming technologies, mechanization, and
post-harvest handling of crop will hold the key.
The sugar industry not only serves millions of farmers but also plays
an important role in socio-economic development. Over the years, many
alternative products and processes have been developed, utilizing the valu-
able co-products of sugarcane processing. The crop is a major source of bio-
ethanol, bioelectricity, animal feed, fodder, and many bio-based products;
however, economic exploitation of these value-added products depends on
cane-biomass productivity and sustainability.
The book titled Sustainable Sugarcane Production, is a comprehen-
sive repository of all aspects of scientific cane management based on the
practical experience and knowledge of the authors. It encompasses chap-
ters on agro-techniques, irrigation management, nutrition, ratoon man-
agement, mechanization, molecular approaches for sugarcane genetic
improvement, crop protection, sugarcane maturity, postharvest manage-
ment, etc. The book also highlights issues related to environmental pro-
tection by the sugarcane industry.
This compendium on sugarcane will be extremely useful to all stake-
holders connected with the sugarcane and sugar industry.

—Dr. S. Solomon, PhD

Vice-Chancellor
Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture & Technology
Kanpur–208002, Uttar Pradesh, India
Tel: +91-512-2534155 (Off.), Fax: +91-512-2533808,
E-mail: vc@csauk.ac.in, drsolomonsushi11952@gmail.com
PREFACE

Sugarcane occupies a commanding position as an agro-industrial crop and

is commercially grown in about 115 tropical and subtropical countries of the
world. A quantum of world sugar is produced from sugarcane; however, this
crop faces a number of problems, such as low cane productivity, biotic and
abiotic stresses, high cost of cultivation, unavailability of seed cane of newly
released varieties, post-harvest losses, and low sugar recovery.
The world population is projected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050. To feed
the increasing world population, global food security will remain a world-
wide concern. It is imperative that agricultural development should fully
exploit the potential of sugarcane by practicing modern and scientific
method of farming. Judicious use of available and newly developed prac-
tices and principles need knowledge of appropriate methods of implication.
In addition, effective source timing applications during crop growth cycle is
another important measure to realize maximum production and reduce cost
production to meet the new requirements. Sugarcane agriculture could be
sustained only if profitability can be ensured by reducing the cost of cultiva-
tion and by improving the productivity per unit area. This is possible through
new research innovations, mechanization, and technological interventions in
sugarcane agriculture.
The book Sustainable Sugarcane Production includes all the aspects of
sustainable sugarcane cultivation, development, and management, such as
farming and biotechnology, entomology, pathology, breeding, physiology,
agronomy, ratoon management, abiotic stresses, mechanization, etc. The
book contains modern crop production methods in a comprehensive and eas-
ily understood manner.
In addition this book also covers the latest information from the lit-
erature at the international level to make it usable for most agroecologi-
cal regions of the world. This book can be used as reference material by
agronomists, breeders, plant physiologists, farmers, and students of agri-
cultural sciences. The objective of this book is to provide a comprehen-
sive account of all the major achievements based on worldwide scientists
in sugarcane research. The book is a compilation of recent advancements
xxii Preface

made on sugarcane development and cultivation and on improvement in

cane and sugar yields using conventional and biotechnological approaches
by different agricultural scientists and researchers of the major sugarcane
growing countries.
We hope this book will serve as an important reference for students, sci-
entists, and industry professionals involved in sugarcane and related crops.
— Priyanka Singh, PhD
Ajay Kumar Tiwari, PhD
CHAPTER 1

FARMING TECHNOLOGIES FOR

SUGARCANE PRODUCTION IN
UPLAND FIELDS
YANG-RUI LI,1 XIU-PENG SONG,1 JIAN-MING WU,1
CHANG-NING LI,1 QIANG LIANG,1 XI-HUI LIU,1 WEI-ZAN WANG,1
HONG-WEI TAN,1 and LI-TAO YANG2
1
Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement, Key
Laboratory of Sugarcane Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement
(Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture, Sugarcane Research Center,
Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Sugarcane Research
Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530007,
China, E-mail: liyr@gxaas.net
2
State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical
Agro-Bioresources, Agricultural College, Guangxi University, Nanning
530005, China, E-mail: liyr@gxu.edu.cn

CONTENTS

Abstract..........................................................................................................2
1.1 Introduction...........................................................................................3
1.2 Breeding of Drought Resistant Sugarcane Varieties.............................4
1.3 Deep Ploughing and Fine Preparation of Soil.......................................5
1.4 Plastic Film Mulching...........................................................................5
1.5 Prescription Fertilization.......................................................................6
1.6 Trash Retention in Field........................................................................6
1.7 Water Saving Irrigation.........................................................................7
2 Sustainable Sugarcane Production

1.8 Healthy Seed Cane Production and Utilization....................................8

1.9 Vinasse as a Liquid Fertilizer................................................................8
1.10 Chemical Regulation of Plant Growth................................................9
1.11 Mechanization for Field Management..............................................11
1.12 Comprehensive Control of Diseases, Pests, Weeds, and Rats..........11
1.13 Major Problems for Farming Technologies in Sugarcane
Production in Upland Areas..............................................................12
1.14 Futuristic Approach...........................................................................13
1.15 Concluding Remarks.........................................................................14
Keywords.....................................................................................................14
References....................................................................................................14

ABSTRACT

China is the third biggest sugar producing country in the world just after
Brazil and India. In the milling year 2007/08, the total sugar produc-
tion in China reached 14.83 MT. However, more than 80% of sugar-
cane is grown in upland field. China has developed a series of unique
farming technologies for commercial sugarcane production in the upland
fields. These technologies include deep ploughing and fine preparation
of soil, intelligent fertilization system, trash addition to field, water sav-
ing irrigation, use of pathogen free healthy seed cane, rational applica-
tion of vinasse in sugarcane field, chemical control, mechanization for
sugarcane management, and comprehensive control of diseases, pests,
weeds, rats, etc. The exploitation and comprehensive application of the
new sugarcane farming technologies have promoted the Chinese sugar
industry to a new level in about every 5 years, and made China become
the third biggest sugar producing country in the world. However, the
sugar industry has been experiencing a very difficult time in the recent
two milling years because of the worldwide low sugar price and the high
production cost at the domestic level, which led to a substantial reduction
in sugarcane growing areas and sugar production. Mechanization and the
related sugarcane variety selection and farming technology development
have become the bottleneck for sustaining the development of the sugar
industry in China.
Farming Technologies for Sugarcane Production 3

1.1 INTRODUCTION

More than 90% of the sugar production is contributed by sugarcane in China.

Sugarcane is mainly grown in upland fields where irrigation is not available.
Development of the farming technologies for commercial sugarcane produc-
tion in the upland fields has made significant progress which has promoted
the fast development of Chinese sugar industry, and made China the third
biggest sugar producer in the world after Brazil and India (Li, 2010; Li and
Wei, 2006; Li and Yang, 2009, 2015a). China produced 11.99 tons of sugar
in the milling year 2006/07, which was 36.06% higher than that in 2005/06
and; 14.87 million tons in 2007/08, which was 24.04% higher than that in
2006/07. The cane sugar production reached 10.75 tons in 2006/07, which
was 89.66% of the total sugar production and; 13.67 million tons in the
milling year 2007/08, which was 92.2% of the total sugar production. The
sugarcane productivity and sugar recovery in China have been improved
significantly since 1980s. In China, the average cane productivity increased
from about 55 tons/ha in 1990s to about 65 tons/ha in 2000s to about 75 tons/
ha in recent years, and average sugar recovery increased from about 10% in
1990’s to about 12% in recent years.
The improvement in sugarcane production and productivity is mainly
attributed to the success in breeding drought resistant sugarcane varieties
and development of appropriate farming technologies for rain fed upland
sugarcane production (Li, 2010; Li and Solomon, 2004, 2006; Li and Wei,
2006; Li and Yang, 2015a; Li et al., 2008, 2011).
In recent years, a group of new elite GT varieties have been released, and
the varieties GT29, GT32, GT40, GT42, GT43, GT44, GT46, GT47, and
GT49 have performed well in upland fields. Compared with ROC22, they
show higher productivity and better ratoon-ability (Table 1.1).
We strongly recommend the use of multiple sugarcane varieties by
each sugar mill, at least 8 to 10 varieties in a proportion of 30:50:20% for
early:intermediate:late maturing varieties, respectively.
Combined with new sugarcane variety breeding and popularization of
the improved varieties, we have developed a series of updated farming tech-
nologies for commercial sugarcane production in upland areas. These tech-
nologies include deep ploughing and fine preparation of soil, plastic film
mulching, prescription fertilization, trash retention in field, water saving irri-
gation, pathogen free healthy seed cane, rational application of vinasse as a
4 Sustainable Sugarcane Production

TABLE 1.1 The Economic Attributes of Newly Selected GT Varieties

Variety Cane yield Sucrose % cane Sugar yield
Total vs. Ratoon vs. Mean vs. Mean vs.
mean ROC22 (t/ha) ROC22 ROC22 ROC22
(t/ha) (±%) (±%) (±%) (±%)
GT29 97.4 -8.3 94.0 +10.5 15.62 +0.60 15.00 +4.2
GT32 104.1 +2.4 98.8 -1.83 14.72 +0.50 15.31 +6.1
GT40 89.0 +0.8 97.7 +16.8 15.24 +0.64 13.59 +6.0
GT42 101.7 +9.3 103.5 +13.2 14.77 +0.66 15.03 +14.5
GT43 101.3 +9.3 103.5 +13.8 14.47 +0.36 14.66 +11.7
GT44 107.9 +5.2 114.4 +11.8 15.25 +0.79 16.35 +12.8
GT46 114.5 +21.1 108.7 +24.0 14.36 +0.16 16.49 +21.3
GT47 104.6 +10.6 100.4 +21.5 14.40 +0.20 15.09 +12.1
GT49 103.7 +8.9 91.9 +11.2 14.45 +0.53 15.21 +12.5

liquid fertilizer, chemical control, mechanization for sugarcane management

and comprehensive control of diseases, pests, weeds, and rats, and so on (Li
and Yang, 2015b).

1.2 BREEDING OF DROUGHT RESISTANT SUGARCANE

VARIETIES

Before 2002, the combinations and seedling numbers were very limited in
China, and the breeding efficiency was very low. To improve our sugarcane
breeding, we decided to increase the combination number to 500–1000,
and total seedling numbers to 100,000–300,000, since 2002. The highest
seedling number reached 600,000 in 2012, but we decided to keep about
300,000 seedlings of about 1100 combinations each year after 2013. We have
selected a group of elite sugarcane varieties from the seedlings of 2002 and
later, for example, GT29 (GT02-761), GT40 (GT02-1156), GT42 (GT04-
1001), GT43 (GT05-3084), GT44 (04-1545), and GT46 (GT06-244). These
varieties are now developing fast in commercial sugarcane production in
upland areas. To improve the combinations, we have paid high attention
to the germplasm innovation, such as exchanging germplasm with other
countries, utilizing local wild germplasm collections including Saccharum
spontaneum, Erianthus arendinaceus and Narenga porphyrocoma which
Farming Technologies for Sugarcane Production 5

were crossed and backcrossed with commercial sugarcane varieties, and

some promising clones have been selected from the BC1 and BC2 progeny.

1.3 DEEP PLOUGHING AND FINE PREPARATION OF SOIL

Deep ploughing and fine preparation (Figure 1.1) of soil began to be popularized
since early 1990s, and more than 90% of the sugarcane fields are ploughed by
tractors. Experiments (Liao et al., 2010; Ye et al., 1995) showed deep ploughing
to 45–60 cm and fine preparation of soil increased soil moisture, which is good
for germination and emergence, rooting, tillering and fast growing, and finally
for production of more millable stalks and thicker and longer stalks. These also
improved the lodging resistance and sugar accumulation in stalks, resulting in
20% or more increase in cane and sugar productivity of sugarcane in rain-fed
upland field. Deep ploughing and fine preparation of soil are considered key
technologies for upland sugarcane production in China.

1.4 PLASTIC FILM MULCHING

Plastic film mulching (Figure 1.2) is favorable to retain the soil moisture and
nutrients. It increased the soil temperature when seed canes were planted
in winter and spring, resulting in 10–20 days of earlier germination and
emergence, improving emergence rate by 15.3–26.1% with 15000–30,000
plants/ha. An increase in number of healthy and uniform plants increased
cane productivity by 14.96%, and improved sucrose content by 0.53% (Li,
2010). Plastic film mulching has become one of the major farming practices

FIGURE 1.1 Deep ploughing and fine preparation of soil.

6 Sustainable Sugarcane Production

FIGURE 1.2 Plastic film mulching.

in upland sugarcane field. This practice covered 221,000 ha in Guangxi in

2011, that is, 52.1% of the total plant cane area.

1.5 PRESCRIPTION FERTILIZATION

A prescription fertilization system has been established for sugarcane, based

on years of related data, and has been popularized since 1990s. After appli-
cation of this system, farmers have decreased fertilizer application rate and
production cost, and improved cane productivity by 10–25%, sucrose con-
tent by 0.4–0.8%, and fertilizer use efficiency by 4.5–8.2% (Li, 2010). This
technology has been popularized since 1990s, and has been developed as an
intelligent expert system. In 2011, the prescription fertilization system was
applied in 172,000 ha of sugarcane fields.

1.6 TRASH RETENTION IN FIELD

Sugarcane trash contains rich nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg and micro-

nutrients and organic matters. Sugarcane trash retention in field can improve
the soil structure and physico-chemical properties, increase the organic mat-
ter content, and improve the soil fertility. There are two ways for sugarcane
trash incorporation in field (Figure 1.3), one is chopping the trash and mix-
ing with soil (Figure 1.3A), and the other is collecting the trash and placing
in every alternate row (Figure 1.3B). The former practice is better to increase
the organic mater and nutrients in the soil but needs machine operation. The
latter practice is simple and easy, and can be done by any field so it is more
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
shown in Figs. 10, 11, and 12. The two weavers are represented by
the letters P and Q. The weaver P passes back of spoke T and out
between T and U. The weaver Q is then used in the same manner,
and so on, around the stool. When the post is approached the
weaver that comes out between the last spoke and the post is
passed around the post and in behind the next spoke on the other
side. It will be seen in the pairing weave that the weaver behind is
always thrown over the other weaver. This gives the appearance of a
rope twist to the weaving, and also cinches it to the spokes and
prevents slipping. Always pass the one weaver around the post twice
to take up the space for the one that cuts across the corner. The
weaving of the sides or apron is done with the object turned upside
down, where it is in a good position for finishing off, which is
sometimes called breaking down.
If the weaving has been carried far enough, the extra spokes are
cut off even with the weaving, and the breaking down may be done
as follows: The spoke R, Fig. 13, is shown turned down back of the
spoke S, and S back of T and out. The spoke R, as shown in Fig. 14,
is back of S, in front of T, back of U, and out between U and V, but as
R is brought out, the spoke T is brought down back and parallel with
R. Likewise the spoke S passes back of V, and U is brought down
with it. The spoke T is brought back of W and V is brought down
back of it. The short end of R is inserted under the roll, between the
roll and the weaving, and is left extending on the inside. If it is too
long, it can be cut off close to the inside of the weaving. In Fig. 15, all
the short ends are shown brought through to the back as far as the
weaving is illustrated. At the corners, the posts are used as spokes.
To finish the roll, the spokes will have to be inserted through the roll,
to correspond with the rest of it; hence, the beginning of the roll
should be left loose, as in Fig. 13.
 Fig. 10 Fig. 11 Fig. 15

Fig. 12 Fig. 13 Fig. 14

The Weaving of the Apron is Done in the Same Manner as in Making a

Basket, with the Break Down to Form the Edge

In weaving, the weavers should be kept wet, but not the spokes.
Do not put the reed in water and leave it for any length of time, as it
will become discolored. About 15 minutes will be sufficient to make
the reed pliable, then it is best to have a sponge and bucket of water
at hand, to dampen long weavers frequently by drawing the reed
across the wet sponge. Besides being more workable, the wet reed,
held in place until dry, stays curved in the form woven much better.
Some workmen leave the reed in water for a long time and depend
on bleaching to whiten it, but so much of the bleached work looks
like a poor job of painting that it is much better to keep it white from
the start. In case bleaching is found necessary, a little chloride of
lime in water makes a good bleacher. Avoid making the solution too
strong. It should be put on with a brush, so as to get it into the
interstices of the weaving, whereupon the work is placed in the
sunshine to dry.
Any kind of reed used will have some of the small hairlike fibers
sticking out after the weaving is complete, and this should be singed
off with a gas flame. A blowtorch is good for this purpose. Be careful
not to scorch the weaving.
 A Homemade Ellipsograph
By J. A. SHELLY

The instrument illustrated was designed to take the place of the

two nails and a piece of string for drawing ellipses of different sizes.
It is made of hard wood, preferably maple or beech, and consists of
a bar with one fixed and one sliding head, the latter having a wedge
clamp to hold it at any point desired on the bar.
In the ends of the heads are driven two coarse needles that have
been broken off about ⁵⁄₈ in. from the eye end. These ends should be
placed ¹⁄₈ in. from the inside of each head and the same distance
from the bottom, and driven in until the eyes are each ¹⁄₈ in. from the
surface. A piece of linen thread is run through the eye of the needle
that is in the end of the sliding head and knotted to prevent its pulling
out, and the free end is run through the needle eye on the fixed
head. The thumb tack in the fixed head is to secure the free end of
the thread. The tack is driven in at an angle so that one edge sticks
up enough to allow the thread to be pulled under it.
 The Sliding Head can be Set so That Any Size Ellipse may be Drawn within
the Scope of the Instrument

To operate the ellipsograph lay out the length of the major axis on
a center line, then bisect the distance between these points and
erect a perpendicular. On this line lay off half the minor axis,
measuring from the center line; then from this point locate the foci by
setting the dividers to half the major axis and scribing arcs of circles
to cut the center line. Set the heads of the instrument so that the
projecting needle ends will be the same distance apart as the foci,
and clamp the sliding head with the wedge. Set the instrument so
that the needle eyes will be exactly over the points where the foci are
on the center line. A pencil, with a little groove filed ¹⁄₈ in. from the
point, for the thread to run in, is set to half the minor axis and the
thread is pulled taut and secured by the thumb tack. The pencil
should be held perfectly perpendicular while scribing the line. The
instrument must be reversed to draw the other half of the ellipse.
To draw an ellipse that will be an exact projection of a circle at any
given angle it is necessary to determine the length of the major axis.
This may be done by laying out the circle, either full size or to scale,
and projecting two parallel lines equal to the diameter of the circle, or
its scale, and connecting these lines with a line drawn to the required
angle. The length of this line is the major axis.
¶Never run a glass cutter over the same line twice, as this will ruin
the cutter. Alcohol rubbed along the line to be cut aids in the
process.
 Ship’s-Wheel Device for a Radiator Valve
Leaving one’s comfortable bed to open the valve of a radiator in a
cold room is an unpleasant task. The device shown in the sketch
obviates the necessity for leaving the bed, yet gives as positive
control over the valve as if the hand were on the valve wheel.

Draw on the Proper Cord to Open or Close the Valve

 The construction of the pulley attached to the top of the valve
wheel is shown in the small sketch at the right. It is built up of a
center section of wood and flanges of sheet metal, fastened with
screws. The pulleys attached to the wall are built in the same way,
but are smaller. Any size that is convenient may be used for the
larger as well as the smaller pulleys, but the larger pulley must be
small enough so that it will not rub against the end of the radiator.
The cord is wound around the pulley at the valve handle, several
times, like the steering cord on a motorboat. This gives a positive
grip on the pulley. The cord may be conducted directly from the large
pulley to the nearer small pulley, the other small one being omitted.
To operate the device draw on the proper cord to open and close
the valve. It would be well to mark the cords with tabs so that they
may be readily distinguished.—Contributed by P. D. Norton,
Chicago, Ill.
Lighted Whirling Fan Used as Radiator Ornament
An ornament for the automobile-radiator cap that attracted a great
deal of attention at night was made by attaching two incandescent
lamps to the blades of a small propeller, which is whirled around by
the wind. By using the shaft on which the wheels of a roller skate
revolve, ball bearings were provided. One end of this shaft is held
rigid in a block of wood.
 Homemade Ornament for an Automobile Radiator Revolves with the Bulbs
Lighted, Attracting Attention

The wires which lead from the propeller are run under the hood,
and attached to the socket for the trouble lamp. They are taped to
the rod that braces the radiator, to avoid a short circuit, and then out
from under the hood at the radiator cap, and connected to the
brushes A and B. The incandescent electric-light bulbs are attached
to the ends of the propeller blades and connected in series. The wire
is run from one side of the socket E to the collar C, and soldered to
the latter. The wire from the other side of the socket is connected to
the other lamp F. The other wire from this lamp socket at F is
soldered to the other collar D. The brushes are made by bending a
strip of copper into the shape shown in the detail, and fastening it to
the wooden block by means of screw binding posts, soldered to the
strips.—F. Lloyd Adams, Jersey City, N. J.
 A Fifty-Cent Electric Stove
Few persons realize what an intense heat may be developed
when the globe of an ordinary incandescent lamp is tightly inclosed,
largely eliminating the loss of heat. When the lamp is inclosed, the
temperature will increase until the rate of radiation is equal to that at
which the heat is generated. A good reflector is a poor radiator,
hence, when the metal wall surrounding the lamp is bright and shiny,
both inside and out, the heat is reflected inward.

A Handy Electric Stove can be Made at an Outlay of 50 Cents

To make a small stove that will keep liquids warm, melt paraffin,
dissolve glue, etc., procure an ordinary 16-cp. carbon lamp, a
porcelain receptacle, and a bright, clean tin can, about 4 in. in
diameter and 7 in. long. Thoroughly blacken the bottom on the
inside, and then solder on four small brackets, cut from sheet brass
or copper, so that the can may be held down firmly, when inverted on
the base. The latter should preferably be made of hard wood, with
the upper edges beveled, as shown. Next bore the hole for the wire
or flexible cord. Fasten down the porcelain receptacle, connect the
wiring, screw in the globe, and screw down the tin can; the stove is
then ready for operation.—John D. Adams, Phoenix, Ariz.
 Woven Reed Furniture
By CHARLES M. MILLER
A Variety of Small Stools and
Foot Rests

[The various materials referred to in this article by number or size were

described in detail in an article on “A Reed Basket,” in the Boy Mechanic,
Book 2, page 257.]

Footstools of reed are preferable, in the home, to those made of

other materials, because of their light weight, rounded edges, and
comfortable, yielding tops. Reed, rattan, and similar material, used in
their construction, withstand hard wear, and will not easily mar floors
or furniture, a feature not to be overlooked, especially since the
footstool is a favorite seat or play table of children. Several types of
stools and foot rests are shown in the illustration. A stool having a
framework of dowels, covered with reed, and utilizing the frame to
produce a paneled effect, is shown in Fig. 3. The upper dowel of the
framework is covered and woven over with the top, in the somewhat
lighter stool shown in Fig. 8; the legs are braced at the ends with
reed, arched and covered with winding reed. The stool shown in Fig.
11 is designed with rounded lines, the bracing dowels being set low,
and a panel of openwork woven into the sides. Figure 15 shows a
foot rest, the framework of which is steamed and bent, and the top
slanted to provide a more comfortable rest for the feet. It is strongly
braced, paneled on the sides with winding reed, and ornamented
with openwork scrolls. The details of the construction of the frames
and the method of weaving the reed are shown in the other
sketches.
Dowels, ³⁄₄ in. in diameter, are used for the main framework of all
of the stools shown. The dimensions of the various stools may be
made to suit individual taste, those suggested in each instance
having been found satisfactory. A good size for the stool shown in
Fig. 3 is: height, 9 in.; width, 11 in.; length, 15 in. The lower of the
horizontal dowels should be set at least one-third the height of the
leg from the top. The braces are notched at their ends to fit the curve
of the legs, and finishing nails are driven into them through the legs.
The corner joints are further reinforced by a binding of reed, placed
over them. The holes for the spokes are bored through the braces
before the construction is nailed together. They should be bored
about 1¹⁄₄ in. apart, spaced uniformly, according to the length and
width of the stool. The tops of the legs should project about ¹⁄₁₆ in.
above the upper braces, so as to produce a level surface when the
winding reed is applied.
The upper end of the legs must first be covered with winding reed,
as shown in Fig. 2. Tack a strip of the reed on; then add successive
pieces, as shown, until the end is covered. The joint of the leg and
the lower brace must be reinforced, as shown in Fig. 2, by tacking
winding reed over it horizontally. The braces must then be wound
with winding reed, the spokes being inserted later. In winding the
reed on the braces, tack one end of it to the brace at the left of a leg;
then begin the winding on the brace to the right of the leg, and as
each hole is encountered mark with pencil on the reed, so that if any
of the holes are covered they may be found easily, when inserting
the spokes. The marks should be made on the lower side.
The spokes extend from the lower edge of the bottom rail on one
side to the lower edge of the corresponding rail or brace on the
opposite side. Short spokes are fitted between the upper and lower
rails at the ends of the stool. The top is woven complete before the
sides are woven, the pairing weave being used. In this method two
strands of reed are handled together, the first passing behind one
spoke, and being below the second strand, and then passing in front
of the next spoke, and being above the second strand, etc. This
weave is shown in detail in Fig. 9, illustrating an article on “Taborets
and Small Tables for the Summer Veranda,” page 155, July, 1916.
The weaving of the top includes the covering of the upper rails at the
ends of the stool, which are wound in as spokes, the reed passing
around them and being directed back in the opposite direction.
The weaving for the sides is carried around the stool continuously,
passing around the legs. One of the strands in the pairing weave
passes behind the leg, and the other must be wound around it an
extra turn, to cover up the space otherwise exposed. The reed is
wound around the legs to the lower end, the strand being tacked at
the inner side of the leg.
The framework for the second type of stool is shown in Fig. 6. The
two side rails are fixed into place by the same method used in
making the first stool, and the frame is braced on the ends by
sections of No. 12 or No. 14 reed. These are fitted into place and
covered in the winding. The braces should be fitted to the curve of
the leg, and nailed into place with small finishing nails. The ends
where the braces join the legs and rails should be whittled down to a
long, thin wedge, so that they may be bound in securely by the reed
that is wound around the legs, as shown in Fig. 4.
The spokes in this model, as shown in Fig. 6, do not pass through
the upper rails, but extend from one lower rail over the upper rails
and to the lower rail on the opposite side. This makes it necessary
that the upper rails be set slightly below and in from the top and
outer edges of the legs. The lower rails should then be set in so as to
be uniform with the upper ones.
 The lower rails and the end braces are wound by the method used
for the rails in the first stool. The tops of the legs are finished
differently, however, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5. The weaving is
begun at the lower rail, and proceeds until the side panel is filled to
the under edge of the upper rail. The weavers cannot then be
returned at the corner, and are cut off to extend 2 in. beyond the leg.
Their ends are thinned out, and then brought around the corner
against the upper rail on the end, as shown in Fig. 5. Alternately they
are turned down on the leg and against the end rail, producing a
covering for the corner. The strands of the top are woven over the
thinned-out ends, and bound over the joint of the braces with the
upper rail. The corners may be beaten gently with a block of wood to
smooth them, and to bring the weavers firmly together. The weavers
pass twice around the legs, as each strand is brought to the leg, as
shown in Figs. 5 and 7. It will be found convenient to place the
spokes in only one lower rail, as in Fig. 6, while weaving the first side
panel, and the top. As the work proceeds the spokes are bound
down to the upper end rails, and when the middle of the second side
panel is reached, they are trimmed off and fitted into their holes, on
that side.
The third stool differs fundamentally from the preceding ones in
that the framework is curved at the upper ends, and the weaving of
the top is carried down over the ends. The framework is shown in
detail, in Fig. 9. Ash dowels, ³⁄₄ in. in diameter, are used for the
framework, and the rails are notched into the main sections, and
nailed, as were those in the preceding stools. The length of the
curved dowels must be determined carefully, and it is desirable to
have the stock longer than is necessary for the finished pieces, so
that inaccuracies in bending may be allowed for properly. The
distance between the legs should be such that a space of ¹⁄₂ in. is
provided between the legs and the first hole for the side spokes, and
the intervening spokes should be placed 1 in. apart. A satisfactory
size is to make the stool 6 in. high, the end rails 8 in., and the side
rails 13 inches.
 Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3
Fig. 4 Fig. 5
Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8
Fig. 10
Fig. 9 Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 14 Fig. 15
Fig. 13

The Making of Stools in Woven Reed Affords the Craftworker an Excellent

Opportunity to Produce Constructions, for Home Use, or as Gifts, That
Have Originality and a Personal Element. The Frameworks for Four
Typical Stools and Foot Rests are Shown at the Left, and the Completed
Objects at the Right. Figure 14 Shows a Variation Adaptable to the
Methods of Weaving Shown in Other Models

The method of bending the dowels is shown in Figs. 12 and 13.

They must be soaked in hot water or steamed, and clamped around
the form as indicated, being left to dry. A pipe fitted over the ends of
the dowels, to give leverage, will aid in bending them. The form is
made by fitting pegs, suitably spaced, into a board, ⁷⁄₈ in. or more in
thickness. The curved pieces may be braced temporarily, as shown,
and removed from the form when partly dried, so that it can be used
quickly for the second piece. The pegs must be set close enough
together so that the curve at the upper ends of the legs will not be
too large, making the legs appear short. Care must be taken in
bending this short curve, as the dowels are likely to break if the
curve is quite abrupt. By setting the pegs solidly and making them
long enough, two pieces of dowel rod may be curved in the form at
the same time, and permitted to dry. A convenient tray of galvanized
iron, for use in heating water for the moistening of the dowels, is
shown in Fig. 10. It is 28 in. long, but may be made shorter if the
points at which curves are to be made are moistened separately. A
wash boiler, or any other suitable vessel, may be used for heating
the water and dipping the dowels into it. After being shaped, the
pieces are trimmed off to the proper height on the leg portions. Holes
for the spokes are then bored through the lower and side rails, and
they are notched and nailed to the legs.
The cross rails of the framework, shown in Fig. 9, are fixed into
place by the method used in the previous models. The lower rails
should be set about 2 in. from the floor, and are bored for double
spokes. The rails are set with their outer edges ¹⁄₈ in. in from the
edges of the legs, so that the weaving will be flush with the surface
of the legs, rather than project slightly beyond it. The spokes for the
ends and seat, or top, pass from one lower rail on one end to the
corresponding rail on the other end, and are supported on the upper
end rails. There are no corners to be fitted with the winding reed in
this model, as the windings continue over the curves at the ends and
down over the latter, by the same method of weaving as used in the
top. The weaving is begun at the lower rails, and passes completely
around the sides and ends of the stool, until about 1¹⁄₂ in. has been
covered, up from the lower rails. The ends only are then covered, the
strands of reed passing around the curved portion of the upper rails,
and around the dowels forming the support for the top, in weaving
back and forth.
The ornamental weaving at the sides of the stool is produced by
spreading out the double spokes and conducting them to the proper
holes in the upper rails. Several types of design may be made by
crossing the spokes in various ways before setting them into the
holes in the rails. The short spokes in the sides are permitted to
remain with their upper ends free and longer than necessary while
the 1¹⁄₂-in. lower section is woven. They must be cut carefully to the
size necessary to form the desired design, and the ends glued into
the holes.
The stool shown in Fig. 15 is designed as a foot rest, with a
slanting top. It is similar in general construction to that shown in Figs.
9 and 11, the framework being made of dowels, bent to the shape
indicated by means of a form. The top and ends are woven in the
manner described for the previous model. A point of difference to be
noted is the bracing by means of a woven panel below the side rails,
as shown in Fig. 15. This feature may be carried around the ends
also, or the ends may be braced to the lower side panel by the
method of bracing shown in Fig. 4. The rails around the stool are all
on the same level. The double spokes for the top are fixed into the
end rails, the spokes for the side panels into the side rails, and the
smaller dowel placed at the lower edge of the side panels, as a
support for the twisted weaving shown. The weaving of the top and
the panels is by the method used in the previous model. The scrolls
fitted into the open portions of the sides are tacked into place, and
the strands of weaving reed carried over them, where the curves
touch the upper and lower rails. A variety of designs may be worked
out for the openwork. The scrolls are made of No. 6 or No. 8 reed,
and should be formed on a base, as in Fig. 12, brads being used to
hold them in shape until dry.
Another type of foot rest with a slanting top is shown in Fig. 14.
The framework is built up of dowels, straight sections only being
used. The joints are fastened by the method used in the first and
second models described. The method of covering the frame is
essentially the same as for the stool shown in Fig. 15, or an
adaptation of that used in Fig. 11 may also be applied. Where
facilities for steaming or moistening the dowels are not to be had
conveniently, this type of construction will be found satisfactory, the
designs being limited to straight lines, however. The method of
covering the framework used in Fig. 3 is also available for the
framework shown in Fig. 4, and the corners may be finished as
shown in Fig. 2. Numerous variations and combinations of the types
shown may be worked out readily after one has become reasonably
familiar with the possibilities of woven-reed construction.