Agriculture

The deliberate tending of crops and livestock in order to produce food and fibre is properly
called agriculture, an activity that may be less than 12,000 years old and emerged sequentially
in several regions of the world. When humans embraced agriculture they changed the world
and human culture forever. Food supplies became more dependable and quantities increased.
This in turn led to population increases and, eventually, permanent settlements. The history of
agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by
greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. However, all farming generally relies on
techniques to expand and maintain the lands that are suitable for raising domesticated species.
Agriculture changes more of the Earth’s surface than any other human activity and thus a
cultural landscape that is reflective of the numbers, cultivation practices, settlement patterns,
and other cultural characteristics of the population. It is the reason why huge numbers of
humans can successfully occupy Earth today. The major agricultural products can be broadly
grouped into foods, fibres, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables,
fruits, and meat. fibres include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include wood
and bamboo. Other useful materials are produced by plants, such as resins. In 2011, one third
of the world's workers were employed in agriculture, second only to the services sector. Despite
the size of its workforce, agricultural production accounts for less than five percent of the gross
world product (an aggregate of all gross domestic products).

Multiple cropping, in which several crops are grown sequentially in one year, and
intercropping, when several crops are grown at the same time are the main kinds of annual
cropping systems in rural areas known as polycultures.
In subtropical and arid environments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited
by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or requiring irrigation. In all of
these environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are practiced
such as agroforestry. In temperate environments, where ecosystems are predominantly
grassland or prairie, highly productive annual cropping is the dominant farming system.

Food Production
The main aim of agriculture is to provide food for the rural populations in the rural areas
around the world. Food is, therefore, among the most basic needs for human beings.
Consequently, food production, distribution, and consumption are perhaps the most important
economic activities in Africa as elsewhere in the world. Food production is so important in
Africa that nearly seventy per cent of the population of most African countries are directly
engaged in producing and distributing food.
There are several modes or methods of producing food in Africa. All of these methods have
been practiced for thousands of years.
 Hunting and Gathering of animals, roots, fruits.
 Subsistence Farming (producing only enough for family use). Subsistence farming can
be divided into three types:
 herding of animals,
 crop cultivation,
 mixed farming-cultivation and animal herding.
 Commercial farming: producing surplus of food for trade of sale.

Societies throughout Africa produce food using one or more of the methods of production.
Some individuals and societies may use just one of these methods of producing food, but other
individuals and societies in Africa may be engaged in several of these modes of production. For

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example, subsistence farmers may hunt animals and gather wild fruits and berries to add to the
food that they raise. Similarly, subsistence farmers may in addition to growing food crops have
a small field in which they produce a crop such as cotton that they will sell for additional
income.
The production and distribution of any economic good is dependent on three essential factors
or inputs. Here, we will examine how each of the factors are part of the production of food in
hunting and gathering, subsistence and commercial farming.

1. Natural Resources. All food production systems in Africa are dependent on natural
resources that include animals, seeds, water, and soil.
2. Capital Resources. Capital resources are the tools that are used in production. Capital
resources used in food production include weapons (for hunting), hoes, ploughs, and
tractors.
3. Human Resources. All production is dependent on human beings. Humans provide the
labour, knowledge ("how to"), and skills necessary for producing food, whether through
hunting, herding, or cultivation.

Once food is produced it can be used immediately by the producers, it can be stored safely for
use in the future, or it can be distributed through exchange and trade with other individuals or
groups.

Hunting and Gathering:

The oldest form of food production is hunting and gathering. Hunting and gathering was
practiced in all human societies before the development of agriculture. However, even in
societies that practice agriculture, hunting of animals and gathering of roots, fruits and berries
supplement food produced through agriculture. In the U.S., many people hunt and trap animals
and many others spend hours of relaxation gathering wild berries. In contemporary, Africa there
are only a few groups that continue to depend on hunting and gathering as their primary source
of food.

Examples of Hunting and Gathering Economies in Africa

The Khoisan (or San) peoples live in the Namib and Kalahari deserts of contemporary
Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa. They are skilled hunters and gatherers using tools,
weapons, skills, and knowledge developed over thousands of years to produce adequate food
and water for living. Although the nomadic San lived in small groups of extended families, they
developed extensive trade networks with peoples living in the arid and semi-arid environments.
Beginning in the colonial era, the Khoisan peoples have been forced by government policy to
settle in permanent communities. As a consequence of this policy, many San have become
dependent on alternate food sources.
The Mbuti (or Bambuti) are an example of another group of people who are primarily hunters
and gathers. However, unlike the Khoisan, the Mbuti live in the tropical rain forests of Central
Africa. Like the San, they produce an adequate supply of food using skills, knowledge, tools,
and weapons that have been developed over thousands of years.
Hunting and gathering societies in either arid or forest environments live in small communities.
This allows for easy mobility as groups are constantly on the move looking for fresh sources of
food. All members of society are engaged in food production. In Mbuti and San societies, men
tend to be hunters and women gatherers.

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Herding:
Around 5000 years ago, peoples in various parts of Africa began to domesticate animals to use
as a source of food and for ploughing and transporting goods, and textiles. In contemporary
Africa, domesticated animals (poultry, camels, sheep, goats, and cattle) are an important source
of food. In the areas of Africa that have adequate rainfall and soils, people practice some form
of mixed agriculture. That means that they grow crops and keep domestic animals.
In large areas of Africa that have low rain-fall or are semi-arid, herding of livestock is the
primary economic activity and method of food production. Livestock (sheep, goats, camels, or
cattle) need water and fresh vegetation. The need for water and grass necessitates a semi-
nomadic existence for herders. Societies whose primary economic activity is herding depend
on their animals for milk and meat. In addition, most herding economies trade animals with
farming groups and supplement their food supply with grains and vegetables.
Semi-nomadic herding production is dependent on the availability of large areas of land in
which to herd livestock. Consequently, societies whose economies are based on herding tend
to cover a large geographic area. In addition, the economic necessity of movement causes
herders to move in small groups, making it more difficult for herders to organize themselves
into strong political systems.
African herders bring to their craft knowledge and skills that have been developed over
thousands of years. However, the knowledge base of herders is not static. For example,
contemporary veterinary knowledge and medicines have been adopted and used to increase the
productivity of herds.
Savannah vegetation and climate dominates more than a third of Africa. Savannahs are found
in Central, East, Southern, and West Africa. Consequently, herding societies are found in all of
these regions of Africa.

Subsistence Farming:
Until quite recently, the majority of people in many African countries were economically
engaged in subsistence agriculture. Subsistence means producing enough to meet consumption
needs with little or no surplus.
Depending on region, climate, and natural vegetation, a variety of different food crops are
produced by subsistence farmers. In the forest and wet savannah regions of West Africa, yams,
rice, cassava, and maize (corn) are the primary food crops. In somewhat dryer areas of West
and Central Africa, cassava, millet and sorghum are the primary food crops. In the savannah
regions of East and Southern Africa, maize, sorghum, and millet are the main food crops.
In addition to these root and grain groups, subsistence farmers grow a variety of vegetables
which are eaten with the primary food. Moreover, most subsistence cultivators in Africa keep
some domestic animals such as poultry, goats, and at times, cattle. In small scale subsistence
farming, cattle serve multiple purposes. They provide milk and meat, but they are also used to
pull ploughs. Moreover, in many farming societies cattle are a symbol of wealth and can be
used as gifts of exchange at very important ceremonies such as marriages.
Farmers in Africa draw upon deep reservoirs of knowledge and skill in the practice of farming.
Hoes, of various shapes and sizes, ploughs and other digging implements manufactured from
iron and other metals are the primary tools of subsistence farming in Africa. In areas where
soils are marginally fertile, farmers practice shifting agriculture otherwise known as
rotational bush fallow. In this system, a given area of land is cultivated for two to three years

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after which it is left fallow (land not used for cultivation, allowed to return to its natural
vegetation) for five to eight years during which time the soil is rejuvenated. After farming a
given area of land for two to three years, farmers will clear another piece of land for planting.
Like herders, African cultivators are open to new ideas and practices. They draw on new
knowledge and techniques when available to enhance their productivity.
In most African farming systems, all members of the household or extended family are engaged
in farming. Women, men, the elderly, and children all have important roles to fulfil, even though
the specific roles will vary among households and societies. In many farming societies,
children, when not in school, are given the tasks of herding animals, fetching water, scaring
away birds, and watching after younger siblings while their parents are busy with more physical
labour. You will note that, much of the work on subsistence farms is done communally, as
farmers share the major tasks of cultivation on each other's plots of land.
While subsistence farmers do not produce large surpluses, they often barter or sell crops in
order to meet basic needs. For example, they may barter crops with an iron-smith to obtain tools
they need for farming. Or they may sell some of their produce in order to raise the money they
need to send their children to school.

Commercial Agriculture:
Commercial agriculture is the production of agricultural products used primarily for sale or
trade. Unlike subsistence agriculture that is oriented towards maintaining family subsistence,
the goal of commercial agriculture is to generate income and profit through the sale of
agricultural products produced on the farm.
Three factors led to the development and expansion of commercial agriculture in Africa, Asia,
the Americas, and Europe.
First, innovations in food production continually took place through history as farmers become
more skilled in crop and animal production. Increased productivity in food can often result in a
surplus. In societies where there is a continual surplus of food production, some people will be
freed from agricultural labour and will pursue other occupations. The surplus production of
food facilitated the development of specialized occupations such as metal smiths and weavers.
Such persons, freed from having to produce their own food, had the time to develop skills and
knowledge related to their selected occupation.
Diversification and specialization of occupations could not take place if there was no surplus
of food, which could be used to feed the skilled artisans.
Second, commercial agriculture developed in Africa as in Asia, Europe, and the Americas in
response to industrialization and urbanization. With the development of industrialization and
cities, came a demand for food to feed urban workers. Farms primarily producing food for sale
developed to meet these needs.
Third, early industrialization was directly related to agricultural production. For example, some
of the earliest industries in Europe and in Africa were textile manufacturing. The raw materials
necessary to this industry were agricultural, primarily cotton and wool. The commercial
production of cotton became a central economic activity in the Twentieth century in a number
of Africa countries such as Mali, Niger, and Sudan.
In recent history, there are two types of commercial foods that have been produced
commercially in Africa. First, there are the basic or necessity foods used in urban consumption.
These foods would include commercially raised rice, maize, wheat, meat, eggs, and dairy

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products. Second, there are the less basic luxury foods such as sugar, coffee, cocoa (chocolate),
and tea.
Commercial agricultural production takes many forms in Africa. However, it is possible to
make distinctions in terms of farm size, labour needs, and the source of labour. A distinction
can also be made in terms of use of machinery, and target market: local/domestic use and some
food is for export. Basic food most often is marketed locally, whereas luxury crops such as
coffee, tea, and cocoa are export oriented.
Colonial agricultural polices help explain the way commercial food production is practiced in
African countries. One example of how colonial policy impacted agricultural production is the
case of coffee, a commercial crop grown in a number of different African countries.

Small scale production of coffee. In countries such as Ethiopia (where coffee was first grown),
Rwanda, Cote D'Ivoire, and Uganda, coffee is produced commercially on small to medium
size family farms. In such cases, the land is owned by the farmer, and the farmer is dependent
primarily on the labour of family members, although at times the farmer may have to hire
temporary workers. Money earned from the sale of the coffee goes to upgrade equipment, buy
fertilizer and chemicals, and to support the farming

Large scale production of coffee. In other countries such as Angola and Zimbabwe, where
coffee is also an important cash crop, production is quite different. During colonialism, these
countries were settled by large numbers of European immigrants. A number of
these settlers became actively engaged in commercial agriculture, including the production of
coffee. In these cases, coffee is grown on large farms or plantations. The land is owned either
by the settlers or by an international company. The labour needs of these large farms are met
by workers recruited from rural areas who are often landless, and unable to be even subsistence
farmers. Money earned from the sale of the coffee goes to improve the farm and into the
accounts of the owners. This system has been criticized because workers are paid low salaries
and because most of the profits earned are not re-invested in the local communities and
economies.

Agricultural Revolutions
Agriculture actually developed in several stages, referred to as revolutions because of the
changes in the way it was practiced. The First Agricultural Revolution achieved plant
domestication, a gradual process that was global, often including duplicate domestication of
certain plants in different parts of the world, and extending over a period of several thousand
years. Humans learned about such things as plant selection, primitive methods of cultivation,
and irrigation. Early agriculture was undoubtedly combined with gathering and some hunting
as well as animal domestication.
The Second Agricultural Revolution, beginning in the latter part of the so-called Middle Ages,
involved improved methods of cultivation, production, and storage. Exact points of origin are
unknown but it seems certain that the process was gradual and cantered in Europe. The hallmark
of this revolution was improved production and organization. Without these changes, the
Industrial Revolution would not have been possible and it in turn sustained the changes that
were taking place in agriculture.
The Third Agriculture Revolution (still in progress and sometimes called the Green Revolution)
is based on research and technology in plant genetics. It occurred at a time when the population
explosion seemed to threaten the global food supply in the manner that Malthus had predicted

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two centuries earlier. The laboratory-developed new, higher yielding strains of grains and other
crops seemed to suggest that the threat of global famine was a thing of the past. However, the
race between population growth and food production is not over, and it remains to be seen
whether or not the Third Agricultural Revolution can continue to overcome the challenge.

Transformation of the rural agricultural landscape

The rural space is undergoing through a steady process of restructuring. The underlying
changes, attributed to long-term trends and processes common to many developed economies,
have been expressed by a tremendous increase in the intensity of production, the decline of
agricultural employment, the evolution of non-agricultural land uses and activities, and the
suburbanisation of the countryside. The rate of change of rural settlements and landscapes has
been accelerated in recent years and from a space of production the rural space has been shifting
towards being a space of both production and consumption. This space has shifted from being
devoted to agricultural production into a multi-functional space. The change is not uniform.
The rural-urban fringe is under higher pressures from local dwellers as well from external
interests, therefore the changes are more significant in this belt. This area is also affected by a
process of improvement while the further out peripheral areas may experience a process of
regression due to out-migration of the younger, educated and skilled labour force.
A remarkable shift in agricultural practices has, thus, occurred over the past century in response
to Population pressure, new technologies, and the development of world markets. This has led
to technological improvements in agricultural techniques, such as the Haber-Bosch method for
synthesizing ammonium nitrate which made the traditional practice of recycling nutrients with
crop rotation and animal manure less necessary.
Modern agronomy, plant breeding, and agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, and
technological improvements have sharply increased yields from cultivation, but at the same
time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health effects. Selective
breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry such as intensive pig farming have
similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal welfare and the
health effects of the antibiotics, growth hormones, and other chemicals commonly used in
industrial meat production.
Further industrialization is leading to the use of monocultures, when one cultivar is planted on
a large acreage. Because of the low biodiversity, nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build
up, necessitating the greater use of pesticides and fertilizers.
The last century has seen the intensification, concentration and specialization of agriculture,
relying upon new technologies of agricultural chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides),
mechanization, and plant breeding (hybrids and GMO's). In the past few decades, a move
towards sustainability in agriculture has also developed, integrating ideas of socio-economic
justice and conservation of resources and the environment within a farming system. This has
led to the development of many responses to the conventional agriculture approach, including
organic agriculture, urban agriculture, community supported agriculture, ecological or
biological agriculture, integrated farming and holistic management, as well as an increased
trend towards agricultural diversification. All of these have had a significant implication on the
rural agricultural landscape as an increasing proportion of farmers embrace the new ideas and
techniques that are brought to them thanks to government agencies as well as NGOs.

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