Radar Networks 1st Edition Hai Deng

(Author)
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/radar-networks-1st-edition-hai-deng-author/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Sustainable Aquaculture 1st Edition Faisal I. Hai

https://textbookfull.com/product/sustainable-aquaculture-1st-
edition-faisal-i-hai/

Security and Privacy in Communication Networks 12th

International Conference SecureComm 2016 Guangzhou
China October 10 12 2016 Proceedings 1st Edition Robert
Deng
https://textbookfull.com/product/security-and-privacy-in-
communication-networks-12th-international-conference-
securecomm-2016-guangzhou-china-
october-10-12-2016-proceedings-1st-edition-robert-deng/

Doppler radar physiological sensing 1st Edition Boric-

Lubecke

https://textbookfull.com/product/doppler-radar-physiological-
sensing-1st-edition-boric-lubecke/

Ground-penetrating radar for geoarchaeology 1st Edition

Conyers

https://textbookfull.com/product/ground-penetrating-radar-for-
geoarchaeology-1st-edition-conyers/
Radar Meteorology: a First Course 1st Edition Rauber

https://textbookfull.com/product/radar-meteorology-a-first-
course-1st-edition-rauber/

Bioinspired Engineering of Thermal Materials 1st

Edition Tao Deng

https://textbookfull.com/product/bioinspired-engineering-of-
thermal-materials-1st-edition-tao-deng/

Fundamental principles of radar Rahman

https://textbookfull.com/product/fundamental-principles-of-radar-
rahman/

Data Analytics in Digital Humanities Hai-Jew

https://textbookfull.com/product/data-analytics-in-digital-
humanities-hai-jew/

Data Analytics in Digital Humanities 1st Edition Shalin

Hai-Jew (Eds.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/data-analytics-in-digital-
humanities-1st-edition-shalin-hai-jew-eds/
Radar Networks
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Radar Networks

Hai Deng and Zhe Geng

MATLAB ® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks
does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of
MATLAB ® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The
MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB ® software.

First edition published 2020

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of
their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material
reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and
let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.
com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA
01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@
tandf.co.uk

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 978-1-420-07690-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-429-13934-5 (ebk)

Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Contents
Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................vii
Authors ...................................................................................................................... ix
List of Abbreviations................................................................................................. xi
List of Symbols ........................................................................................................ xv

Chapter 1 Introduction........................................................................................... 1
1.1 History and Application of Radar.............................................. 1
1.2 Basic Radar Signal Processing .................................................. 3
1.3 Evolution of Radar Networks .................................................... 5
1.4 Contribution of the Book and Chapter Organization................. 8
References........................................................................................... 10

Chapter 2 Radar and Radar Networks................................................................. 13

2.1 Introduction to Radar............................................................... 13
2.2 Radar Antenna......................................................................... 16
2.3 Monostatic Radar..................................................................... 18
2.4 Bistatic Radar .......................................................................... 21
2.5 Multistatic Radar ..................................................................... 26
2.6 MIMO Radar and Radar Networks ......................................... 30
References .......................................................................................... 36

Chapter 3 Radar Waveforms................................................................................ 45

3.1 Matched Filter.......................................................................... 45
3.2 Ambiguity Function................................................................. 46
3.3 Basic Radar Signals ................................................................. 49
3.4 Frequency-Modulated Waveform ............................................ 51
3.5 Phase-Modulated Waveform.................................................... 62
3.6 Multicarrier Phase-Coded (MCPC) Waveform........................ 67
3.7 Waveform Design for Multiple-Input-Multiple-Output
(MIMO) Radar ........................................................................ 71
References........................................................................................... 76

Chapter 4 Space-Time Adaptive Processing (STAP) for Radar and

Radar Networks .................................................................................. 79
4.1 STAP for Airborne Phased-Array Radar ................................ 80
4.2 STAP for MIMO Radar ........................................................... 90
4.3 RD-STAP and Training-Free STAP........................................ 97
4.4 STAP for Passive Radar ........................................................ 102
References......................................................................................... 108

v
vi Contents

Chapter 5 Target Detection Using Radar Networks.......................................... 111

5.1 Detection Theory Fundamentals ........................................... 111
5.2 Target Detection Using Monostatic Radar............................. 114
5.3 Target Detection Using Netted Radar Systems...................... 124
References ........................................................................................ 165

Chapter 6 Target Measurements Using Radar Networks .................................. 173

6.1 Estimation Theory Fundamentals ......................................... 173
6.2 Range/Doppler/Angle Estimation for Monostatic Radar....... 181
6.3 Target Positioning Using Netted Radar Systems................... 188
6.4 Target Tracking...................................................................... 191
References ........................................................................................ 204

Chapter 7 Radar Imaging .................................................................................. 209

7.1 Basics of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) ........................... 209
7.2 Stripmap SAR ....................................................................... 211
7.3 Spotlight SAR ........................................................................ 218
7.4 Interferometric SAR (InSAR) ............................................... 223
7.5 Multistatic SAR and MIMO SAR.......................................... 223
References ........................................................................................ 226

Index ...................................................................................................................... 229

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank our family, friends, and colleagues. We also gratefully
acknowledge the financial support provided by the National Science Foundation
under Award AST-1443909.

Hai Deng
Florida International University
Zhe Geng
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics

vii
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Authors
Hai Deng earned a PhD in electrical engineering
at the University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas,
USA, in 2000. He has been with the Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida
International University (FIU), Miami, Florida,
USA, since 2009. Prior to his tenure at FIU, he was
also a faculty member in Department of Electrical
Engineering at the University of New Orleans,
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, and the University
of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA. His research
interests include radar systems, waveform design,
signal processing, artificial intelligence, and radar
networks.

Zhe Geng earned dual BS degrees (magna cum

laude) in electrical engineering at FIU, Miami,
Florida, USA, and Hebei University of Technology,
Tianjin, China, in 2012. She also earned a PhD in
electrical engineering at FIU in 2018. From 2018
to 2019, she was a research scientist at Wright
State University, Dayton, Ohio, USA. In December
2019, Dr Geng joined the College of Electronic and
Information Engineering, Nanjing University of
Aeronautics and Astronautics (NUAA), where she is
currently an associate professor. She was the recipi-
ent of FIU’s most prestigious awards for entering
doctoral students, the FIU Presidential Fellowship.
Her research interests include distributed MIMO
radar and joint radar-communications systems.

ix
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylorandfrancis.com
List of Abbreviations
ACF Autocorrelation Function
AF Ambiguity Function
AMR Active MIMO Radar
AR Autoregressive
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATSC Advanced Television Systems Committee
BLUE Best Linear Unbiased Estimator
BR Bistatic Range
CA-CFAR Cell-Averaging Constant False Alarm Rate
COFDM Coded Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing
CFAR Constant False Alarm Rate
CM-CFAR Censored Mean CFAR
CMLD Censored Mean Level Detector
CRLB Cramer–Rao Lower Bound
CUT Cell Under Test
CW Continuous Wave
DAB Digital Audio Broadcast
DC Direct Current
DOF Degrees of Freedom
D-STAP Deterministic Space-Time Adaptive Processing
DVB-T Digital Video Broadcast—Terrestrial
ECCM Electronic Counter-Counter Measurements
ECM Electronic Counter Measurements
EKF Extended Kalman Filter
EM Expectation-Maximization
ESA Electronically Scanned Arrays
ESPRIT Estimation of Signal Parameters via Rotational Invariance
Techniques
FIM Fisher Information Matrix
FMCW Frequency-Modulated Continuous Wave
GLRT Generalized Likelihood Ratio Test
GO-CFAR Greatest of CFAR
HF High Frequency
HRR High Range Resolution
IO Illuminator of Opportunity
ISAR Inverse Synthetic-Aperture Radar
ISDB-T Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting—Terrestrial
JRC Joint Radar Communication
KF Kalman Filter

xi
xii List of Abbreviations

LFM Linear Frequency-Modulated

LOS Line-of-Sight
LS Least Squares
LSE Least Squares Estimator
LPI Low Probability of Intercept
MAP Maximum a Posteriori
MCM MultiCarrier Modulations
MCPC MultiCarrier Phase-Coded
MEDS Medium Extended Air Defense System
MF Matched Filter
MFN Multiple Frequency Network
MIMO Multiple-Input–Multiple-Output
MLE Maximum Likelihood Estimator
MMSE Minimum Mean Squares Error
mmW Millimeter-Wave
MPS Minimum Peak Sidelobe
MTD Moving Target Detection
MTI Moving Target Indication
MSE Minimum Squares Error
MUSIC Multiple Signal Classification
MVDR Minimum Variance Distortionless Response
NCV Nearly Constant Velocity
NEXRAD Next-Generation Radar
NP Neyman–Pearson
NRL Naval Research Laboratory
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing
OS-CFAR Order Statistic CFAR
PAVE PAWS Precision Acquisition Vehicle Entry Phased Array Warning
System
PC-CRLB Predicted Conditional Cramer–Rao Lower Bound
PCRLB Posterior Cramer–Rao Lower Bound
PDF Probability Density Function
PF Particle Filters
PMR Passive MIMO Radar
PRF Pulse Repetition Frequency
PRI Pulse Repetition Interval
QCQP Quadratically Constrained Quadratic Programing
RCS Radar Cross Section
RD Range Difference
R-D-STAP Robust Deterministic Space-Time Adaptive Processing
RSTAP Reduced-dimension Space-Time Adaptive Processing
RMS Root Mean Square
List of Abbreviations xiii

SAR Synthetic-Aperture Radar

SFN Single Frequency Network
SFW Stepped Frequency Waveforms
SINR Signal-to-Interference-plus-Noise-Ratio
SIRV Spherically Invariant Random Vector
SMI Sample Matrix Inverse
S-STAP Statistical Space-Time Adaptive Processing
STAP Space-Time adaptive processing
SNR Signal-to-Noise Ratio
SO-CFAR Smallest of CFAR
SVD Singular Value Decomposition
TDOA Time Difference of Arrival
TDWR Terminal Doppler Weather Radar
TM-CFAR Trimmed Mean CFAR
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UKF Unscented Kalman Filters
UHF Ultra-High Frequency
ULA Uniform Linear Array
UWB Ultra Wide-Band
VHF Very High Frequency
VSB Vestigial Sideband
WGN White Gaussian Noise
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylorandfrancis.com
List of Symbols
( )* Convolution operator
( )H Hermitian transpose
( )T Matrix transpose
  Floor function
 Hadamard product
⊗ Kronecker product
α Maximum allowable false alarm rate
αc Costas signal hopping sequence
α PA Complex target amplitude for phased-array radar
β0 Bistatic angle
γT Detection threshold
Γ Square root length of Frank code; waveform phase-coding
length in time domain
δ Angle between the target velocity and the bisector of bistatic
angle
Δϕ Phase increment for Frank code
Δf Frequency increment for diverse frequency array
ΔR Range resolution
ϑ Azimuth angle
ϑ0 Azimuth angle of target
ϑR Receiver look angle in azimuth
ϑT Transmitter look angle in azimuth
κ Arbitrary constant
λ Radar wavelength
λ0 Lagrange multiplier
Λ Number of time slices and frequencies in time–frequency plot
for Costas signal; number of subpulses for phase-coded
waveform
Λ(y) Likelihood ratio
μ Index for the transmit antenna element
ν Doppler of moving target
Ξ Number of overlapping dots in time–frequency plot
σ Radar cross section (RCS)
σB Radar cross section (RCS) for bistatic radar
σ w2 Power spectral density of white noise
τ Time delay
τ k | FS (θ ,φ ) Time delay to the k-th subarray

xv
xvi List of Symbols

ϒ(y) Sufficient statistic of y

φ Elevation angle
φ0 Elevation angle of target
ϕi Coding phase of the i-th subpulse
ϕm Initial phase of the m-th pulse
ϕT Transmit look angle in elevation
ϕR Receiver look angle in elevation
χ(τ, υ) Ambiguity function
χs Signal-to-noise ratio
ωc Carrier angular frequency for radar waveform
a k | FS (θ ,φ ) Transmit steering vector of the k-th subarray
a PA (θ 0 ,φ0 ) Spatial steering vector for phased-array radar
aξ,i The i-th element of the sequence modulating the ξ-th subcarrier
A Amplitude of the DC signal
B Pulse bandwidth
BΛ Barker code of length Λ
Bn Noise bandwidth of receiver’s predetection filter
BT Total bandwidth of each pulse in a pulse train
c FS (θ ,φ ) Transmit steering vector of subarrays
d Antenna array element spacing for monostatic phased-array
radar
dR Receive array element spacing
dT Transmit array element spacing
d( fd ) Temporal steering vector
D Transmitter-to-receiver range for bistatic radar
Di, j The element of the difference matrix in the i-th row and j-th
column
ec Eccentricity of the ellipse
E Energy of the signal s(t)
f0 Radar operating carrier frequency
fd Target Doppler frequency
fμ Transmitting frequency of the μ-th antenna element
FR Pattern propagation factor for target-to-receiver path
FT Pattern propagation factor for transmitter-to-target path
G Antenna power gain
Gr Receive antenna gain
Gt Transmit antenna gain
h(t) Impulse response
H(Ω) Frequency response
I Identity matrix
K Frequency slope
List of Symbols xvii

ks Additional frequency slope

kB Boltzmann’s constant
K Number of subarrays
Lp Propagation loss
La(R) Atmospheric loss depending on range R
LR Receiving system loss
Ls Radar system loss
LT Transmitting system loss
M Index for the pulse number
M Number of pulses per coherent processing interval (CPI)
N Index for the receive antenna element
nout Matched filter output of noise
N Number of antenna elements for monostatic phased-array radar
N0 Power spectrum density of noise
Nc Number of subcarriers
NR Number of elements in receive antenna array
Nr Number of receivers in multistatic radar
Ns Number of data samples
NT Number of elements in transmit antenna array
Nt Number of transmitters in multistatic radar
Pfa,n False alarm rate of the n-th receiver
Pd,n Detection probability of the n-th receiver
Pt Transmitted signal power
Pt (ϑ, ϕ) Antenna one-way power pattern
Pr Received signal power
Pr,B Received signal power for bistatic radar
Qn Weight for the n-th receiver
R Range from radar to target
Re{} Real part of a complex number
RR Receiver-to-target range
RT Transmitter-to-target range
R x|MIMO Correlation matrix of transmitted signals for MIMO radar
s(t) Time-domain input signal for matched filter
sout(t) Matched filter output of s(t)
s FS (θ ,φ ) Spatial-temporal steering vector for phased-MIMO radar
s MIMO (θ 0 ,φ0 ) Spatial-temporal steering vector for MIMO radar
s PA (θ 0 ,φ0 ) Spatial-temporal steering vector for phased-array radar
S(Ω) Frequency-domain input signal for matched filter
SNRout Output SNR
(S/N)min Minimum signal-to-noise ratio required for detection
T Pulse width
T0 Pulse repetition interval (PRI)
xviii List of Symbols

tb The duration of each bit/time slice

u(t) Complex envelope of s(t)
u1(t) Complex envelope of a single LFM pulse
uD(t) Doppler-shifted complex envelope
up(t) Complex envelope of the p-th subpulse
vt Velocity of target
wξ Weight associated with the ξ-th subcarrier
xn Noise vector
yn Binary decision of the n-th receiver
zn Target detection threshold for the n-th receiver
 1 Introduction

1.1 HISTORY AND APPLICATION OF RADAR

1.1.1 History of radar
The history of radar extends to more than 130 years ago when H. Hertz showed that
radio waves could be reflected from metallic objects in 1986. Major advances in
radar technology from the 1900s to present can be summarized as follows:

• In 1904, C. Hulsmeyer assembled an instrument to detect ships using radio

wave reflection.
• In 1922, Taylor and Young of U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) dem-
onstrated ship detection by bistatic continuous wave (CW) radar.
• In the 1930s, U.S. NRL successfully demonstrated pulsed radar (Howeth,
1963); U.K. Royal Air Force built the Chain Home surveillance radar net-
work (Graham, 1999).
• In the 1940s, more than 100 different microwave radar systems were devel-
oped in Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Radiation Laboratory
(Saad, 1990) after the U.K. disclosed the concept of magnetron oscillator to
the U.S. (Brittain, 1985).
• In the 1950s, airborne moving target indication (MTI) radar, over-the-
horizon radar, weather surveillance radar, and synthetic-aperture radar
(SAR) were developed; important theoretical concepts such as matched
filter theory and the Woodward ambiguity diagram were proposed in
publications.
• In the 1960s, the Haystack long-range imaging radar was built for radar
astronomy and deep-space surveillance.
• In the 1970s, many large electronically steerable arrays for ballistic missile,
space, and long-range warning were deployed, which include AN/SPY-1
and Cobra Dane.
• In the 1980s, the Patriot missile system was deployed; the PAVE PAWS
(Precision Acquisition Vehicle Entry Phased Array Warning System) for
ballistic missile detection came online.
• In the 1990s, Medium Extended Air Defense System (MEADS) was
conceived (Office of the Secretary of Defense, 2011); Terminal Doppler
Weather Radar was developed; a national network of over 100 Doppler
radar sites was built in the U.S. to modernize the National Weather Service
(Galati, 2015).
• In the 2000s, the National Severe Storms Laboratory conducted an opera-
tional demonstration of polarimetric capability of the weather surveillance

1
2 Radar Networks

radar (Ryzhkov et al., 2005); the concept of multiple-input–multiple-output

(MIMO) radar was proposed (Fishler et al., 2004).
• In the 2010s, the national network of weather radars was upgraded to
include polarimetric capabilities; various technologies to enable spectrum
sharing between radar and commercial communications were proposed to
solve the spectrum congestion problem (Paul et al., 2016).

1.1.2 application of radar

Early radar was primarily for military use. Nowadays, although military is still the
major user of radar technology, radar enjoys an increasing wide range of applications
in people’s day-to-day life. Major applications of radar are highlighted in the
following:

• Military
Radars have wide applications in military operations, and they could be
classified as (1) land-based air defense radar, which includes all land-based
radar systems used in air defense; (2) naval and coastal surveillance and
navigation radar, which includes all shipborne radar used for surface and
air tracking and surveillance; (3) airborne surveillance radar, which is
used for detecting and tracking ground targets and aircraft in flight; and
(4) missile and fire control radar, which is used for target tracking, fire
control, and weapon guidance (Bhatta, 2017).
• Remote sensing of the environment
Four important examples of radar applications in remote sensing of the envi-
ronment include (1) weather observations, which include precipitation mea-
surement, storm warning, and other metrological observations (Rinehart,
2004); (2) planetary observations, such as mapping of Venus beneath its
optically opaque cloud layer during the Magellan mission (Johnson, 1991);
(3) ground-penetrating probing, which includes geophysical investiga-
tions, road condition survey, archeological investigations, etc. (Skolnik,
2008); and (4) sea ice mapping, which could be implemented using marine
radar, coastal radar, airborne radar, and satellite radar (Haykin, 1994;
Johannessen, 2007).
• Air Traffic Control (ATC)
ATC radars include (1) airport surveillance radar, which is used for identi-
fying aircrafts and controlling the approach sequence of the aircrafts by air
traffic controllers; (2) precision approach radar, which is used to guide air-
craft to safe landing; and (3) surface movement radar, which is used by air
traffic controllers to detect aircraft and vehicles on the surface of an airport.
• Automotive radar
One of the most important applications of radar in consumer market is the
automotive radar. Short-range automotive radar is mainly used for blind
spot detection and parking aid, medium-range automobile radar is used for
the cross-traffic alert system, while long-range automotive radar is used
Introduction 3

for the adaptive cruise control system and highway automatic emergency
braking system.
• Other applications
Other important applications of radar include through-the-wall radar,
which is used to detect people and objects through concrete walls in urban
battles, fire rescue, earthquake relief work, and law enforcement; highway
police radar, which is used to measure the vehicle speed by highway police
force; and patient monitoring radar, which is used to remotely monitor the
patients in hospitals under less-than-ideal illumination (Amin, 2017).

1.2 BASIC RADAR SIGNAL PROCESSING

Two of the most import radar signal quality metrics are the signal-to-interference-
plus-noise-ratio (SINR) and the resolution.

• SINR
The SINR is the ratio of the power of the desired signal to that of the inter-
ference. Common interferences include clutter and jamming. Clutter is the
received signal due to unwanted echoes from scatterers, either in natural
environment, such as the earth’s surface, or in man-made environment,
such as chaff clutter (Richards, 2014). Jamming is the intentional interfer-
ence directed at the radar system from a hostile emitter. In general, radar
detection performance improves with the increase of the SINR.
• Resolution
Two scatterers are considered to be resolved if they produce two identifi-
able signals at the system output so that each individual scatterer could be
discerned. Since basic radar functions include range measurements, angle
measurements, and velocity measurements, it follows naturally that the
radar performance is heavily affected by radar range resolution, angular
resolution, and velocity resolution.
Radar resolution and the SINR can be jointly improved by signal condi-
tioning operations such as waveform design technologies, Doppler process-
ing, and beamforming (Richards, 2014).
• Waveform design technologies
Pulse compression is the most widely used radar waveform design technol-
ogy to improve the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and radar range resolution
simultaneously. It is achieved by modulating the transmitted pulse and then
correlating it with the received signal (Levanon, 2004). Another impor-
tant waveform design technology is frequency agility, which allows radar
to operate normally against interferences from jammers (Lellouch, 2008).
• Doppler processing
When the target echoes are above the noise floor but weaker than the clut-
ter, which is a typical scenario for airborne radar ground-moving target
detection, target and clutter signals could be separated in the frequency
domain using Doppler processing. Two major classes of Doppler processing
are MTI and pulse Doppler processing (Richards, 2014; Schleher, 2010).
4 Radar Networks

MTI refers to the case where the slow-time signal is processed entirely
in the time domain (e.g. pulse cancelers), while pulse Doppler processing
refers to the case where the signal is processed in the frequency domain
(Alabaster, 2012).
• Beamforming
Beamforming is applicable when a radar antenna array is used, and there are
multiple transmit channels available. By choosing proper weights for these
channels, the mainlobe of the beam could be steered to various directions.
An important example of beamforming is Space-Time Adaptive Processing
(STAP), which combines adaptive beamforming in both the angle and the
Doppler domain to suppress clutter and jammer interference.
After the radar data are cleaned up using the signal conditioning tech-
niques mentioned above, the primary functions to be carried out by a radar
signal processor are detection, parameter measurements, and imaging.
• Detection
The process of deciding whether or not a target is present is a problem that
involves statistical hypothesis testing. Usually, two hypotheses are made:
the null hypothesis (target is absent) and the alternative hypothesis (target
is present). The radar measurements have to be examined to decide which
hypothesis is more likely to be true. General statistical signal detection
theory could be found in Kay (1998), where commonly used detectors such
as the Neyman–Pearson (NP) detector and the generalized likelihood ratio
test (GLRT) detector are introduced.
• Measurements and tracking
Estimators for radar applications could be classified as range estimator,
Doppler estimator, and angle estimator. The lower bound on the variance
of any unbiased estimator is set by the Cramer-Rao lower bound (CRLB).
A general introduction to widely used estimators such as the maximum
likelihood estimator (MLE) and the best linear unbiased estimator (BLUE)
is given in Kay (1993). The estimation accuracy of the target position could
be improved by collecting a series of estimates over a period of time and
combining them with reasonable assumptions about the target’s trajectory,
i.e. tracking. Basic tracking theory such as sequential least-squares estima-
tion (LSE) is covered in Kay (1993), while advanced radar tracking algo-
rithms could be found in Blair (2010) and Ehrman (2013).
• Imaging
Compared with optical imaging, radar imaging is weather-independent and
could be implemented day and night. Moreover, radar waveforms could
penetrate ground, water, and walls to generate images of the target. In
radar imaging, the two primary figures of merit are spatial resolution and
dynamic range (Richards, 2014). Currently, 2D high-resolution images of
static ground scenes are often acquired by SAR, while moving targets such
as aircrafts and missiles could be imaged using inverse SAR (ISAR). The
basic theory behind SAR is that it uses a small antenna array on a mov-
ing platform to mimic a much larger antenna array, hence archiving radar
images with higher spatial resolution.
Introduction 5

1.3 EVOLUTION OF RADAR NETWORKS

Radar networks, which consist of multiple spatially separated transmitters and
receivers, have been the subject of a high degree of interest for many years. They
are known for being able to provide better detection and tracking performance than
monostatic and bistatic radar systems by exploiting multiple, different transmitter–
target–receiver paths and information fusion processing (Chernyak, 2014).
The evolution of radar networks with increasing levels of sophistication is shown in
Figure 1.1 (Griffiths, 2010, 2011).

1.3.1 simple radar networks

The simplest format of a radar network consists of several monostatic radars,
with each operating at a different frequency to avoid mutual interference. In a
typical target-tracking scenario, multiple moving target tracks from different
incident angles could be fused so that the multi-target tracking performance is

FIGURE 1.1 Evolution of radar networks.

6 Radar Networks

improved (Mirkin et al., 1980). Another example of this type of radar network
is the Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD) used for nationwide weather
observation in North America (Crum et al., 1998). A slightly more complicated
format of radar network comprises one transmitter and multiple receivers, and
information fusion processing could be performed at either the track level or the
detection level, with the latter involving higher level of complexity. The target
position could be found by measuring the time-difference-of-arrival (TDOA)
using the spherical-intersection (SX) method if the number of receivers is greater
than 3, and the spherical-interpolation (SI) method if at least 4 receivers are avail-
able (Malanowski & Kulpa, 2012). When the transmitter is co-sited with one of
the receivers, both monostatic and bistatic operation results could be obtained for
fusing processing (Salah & Morriello, 1980).

1.3.2 advanced radar networks witH cooperative signal reception

It is advantageous to have netted radar systems configured in a way so that each
receiver can receive and process the reflected signals associated with the prob-
ing signals from any transmitter, i.e. cooperative signal reception. By fusing the
target information at the pre-detection raw-data level (i.e. centralized process-
ing) rather than the post-detection level (i.e. decentralized processing), advanced
radar networks could be designed to realize the full potential of netted radar sys-
tems. However, the implementation of advanced radar networks with centralized
processing is extremely difficult in practice due to various technical difficulties
(Chernyak, 1998).
The significant interest in advanced radar networks from the 2010s is the result
of huge technology advancement in high-speed digital processing, data transmission
lines with high capacity, and precise time/phase synchronization systems (Chernyak,
2014). In Deng (2012), the concept of orthogonal netted radar systems (ONRS) was
proposed for the first time. The ONRS consists of N pulse radar stations transmitting
orthogonal waveforms, and each radar station is equipped with N parallel matched
filters to extract and separate the reflected signals associated with signals transmitted
from different transmitters. The ONRS has a series of advantages over simple radar
networks, which include the following (Deng, 2012):

1. Improved detection performance: an ONRS processes the advan-

tages of monostatic radar, bistatic radar, and traditional radar networks
simultaneously.
2. Ad hoc ONRS configuration: an ONRS can be formulated from any mono-
static radars that are pre-equipped with the ONRS necessities, i.e. have the
capabilities to transmit and correlate all orthogonal signals and the commu-
nications links to fusion processor, in real-time and in an ad hoc fashion.
3. More accurate target measurement: an ONRS is advantageous over monos-
tatic radar in measurement-to-track data association in a typical multi-target
tracking scenario, since although ambiguity in data association could occur
at one radar station due to decoys, obscuration, fading, or strong interfer-
ences, it could be resolved at another station at a different observation angle.
Introduction 7
8 Radar Networks

acting as either transmitting (TX) or receiving (RX) facility. Each RX collects the
signals transmitted by all the TX, which is then sent to the fusion center for centralized
processing. To reduce the computational burden, a compressed-sensing (CS)-based
sparse clutter model was used, based on which a moving target detector was devel-
oped. In simulations, an airborne radar system made of two TX and two RX was
considered, which was shown to outperform both distributed MIMO radar (each TX/
RX is equipped with one antenna) and bistatic coherent MIMO radar. As a theoretical
research work on novel MIMO radar architecture, the problem of how to implement
communication links to transfer raw data between each airborne RX and the fusion
center in real time was not addressed. When the number of TX and RX in the radar
network is large, the configuration proposed in Chen et al. (2017) would be extremely
difficult to build in practice and the centralized data fusion processing is expected
to be too time-consuming to be realized in real time. Nevertheless, the innovative
hybrid airborne distributed-C-MIMO radar network proposed in Chen et al. (2017) is
very inspiring for researchers who are interested in MIMO radar and netted radar sys-
tems. More information about the similarities and differences between radar networks,
C-MIMO radar, and distributed MIMO radar will be provided later in Chapter 2.

1.4 CONTRIBUTION OF THE BOOK AND

CHAPTER ORGANIZATION
This book is written with the primary aim of providing a brief introduction of radar
networks and radar signal processing to readers who are interested in these topics
and have basic knowledge of mathematics and physics. Compared with classic books
on similar topics (e.g. Chernyak, 1998; Skolnik, 2001; Richards, 2014), this book is
short and compact. Meanwhile, many research works on state-of-the-art radar net-
works published in the 2010s are cited and analyzed. As a result, this book is reader-
friendly to a wide group of people, from “beginners” like senior college students and
first-year graduate students to advanced researchers seeking a quick review of basic
radar signal processing techniques or exploring new research ideas.
The chapter organization of this book is described below.
In Chapter 2, a brief introduction to monostatic radar, bistatic radar, multistatic
radar, MIMO radar, and netted radar system is provided. Three types of monostatic
radar are presented: the phased-array radar, the MIMO radar, and the subarray-based
MIMO radar (i.e. phased-MIMO radar). Following the introduction to monostatic
radar, target range, Doppler, and angle measurements with bistatic and multistatic
radar are considered. Finally, the recent development in co-located MIMO radar,
distributed MIMO radar (DMR), and other forms of advanced radar networks, which
include hybrid co-located/distributed MIMO radar, passive MIMO radar (PMR),
and hybrid active–passive radar (APR), are briefly discussed.
In Chapter 3, basic theoretical concepts such as the matched filter theory and
the ambiguity function are reviewed. The waveform properties of the frequency-
modulated radar pulses are investigated, which include the linear frequency modu-
lated (LFM) waveform and the stepped frequency waveform. Using phase-coding
for pulse compression is also considered, with several binary phase codes and poly-
phase codes analyzed, which include the polyphase Barker code, the Frank code, and
Introduction 9

the Zadoff–Chu Code. Advanced multicarrier phase-coded waveforms such as the

orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) waveform are considered as
well. Finally, the process of designing the orthogonal transmit signals for co-located
MIMO radar with polyphase-coding is illustrated.
Chapter 4 is devoted to STAP, which combines both spatial and temporal pro-
cessing to discriminate targets from clutter and other interferences. First, the con-
ventional fully adaptive STAP technique for phased-array radar is reviewed, which
is then extended to MIMO radar. Considering that the successful implementation
of STAP for MIMO radar requires large amount of training data and involves high
computational complexity, both the reduced-dimension partially adaptive STAP and
the training-free STAP for MIMO radar are also covered. At the end of this chap-
ter, STAP for passive radar composed of airborne multichannel radar receiver and
ground-based illuminator of opportunity (IO) in heterogeneous clutter is reviewed,
along with the training-free blind STAP (B-STAP) for ground-based passive radar.
Chapters 5–7 are focused on target detection, measurements, and imaging using
radar networks. Specifically, in Chapter 5, the signal detection theory fundamentals
and target detection using monostatic radar and radar networks are covered. For
monostatic radar, the basic concepts such as the Neyman–Pearson (NP) criterion, the
likelihood ratio test (LRT), the coherent/noncoherent integration, and the constant
false alarm rate (CFAR) detection are introduced. After that, moving target detection
(MTD) in nonhomogeneous clutter using the active MIMO radar (AMR), the passive
MIMO radar (PMR), and the hybrid active–passive radar (APR) is considered. It is
worth mentioning that the hybrid APR is defined in this book as a radar system that
exploits both the dedicated radar transmit waveforms and signals from other radio-
radiation sources. It usually offers better target detection performance than the PMR
due to the increased level of control over the sensor geometry and the more flexible
transmit waveform design.
In Chapter 6, the basic statistical signal estimation concepts such as the mini-
mum variance unbiased (MVU) estimator, the CRLB, the BLUE, the MLE, the
LSE, and the Bayesian estimation approach are reviewed first. After that, target
range, Doppler, and angle estimation using the monostatic radar is considered. Both
the nonparametric angle estimators, which include the beamscan estimator and
the minimum variance distortionless response (MVDR) estimator, and the paramet-
ric angle estimators, which include the multiple signal classification (MUSIC), the
min-norm, and the estimation of signal parameters via rotational invariance tech-
niques (ESPRIT), are presented. Adaptive range-angle-Doppler processing using the
frequency diverse array (FDA) is also briefly mentioned. Following the discussion
regarding target measurements with monostatic radar, target positioning and veloc-
ity estimation using the AMR and the PMR are discussed. At the end of Chapter 6,
the basic tracking theories such as the sequential least-squares estimation approach,
the α-β filter, and the Kalman filter are covered, following which the state-of-art
target tracking techniques for the AMR and the PMR are reviewed.
In Chapter 7, SAR fundamentals including SAR image formation and the image
properties are briefly introduced. Two commonly used SAR operation modes are
presented: the stripmap SAR and the spotlight SAR. Advanced topics such as the
multistatic SAR and the MIMO SAR (Wang, 2013) are also included in this chapter.
10 Radar Networks

Multistatic SAR offers higher mapping rate than the monostatic SAR and could be
classified as two types: fully active system and semi-active system. In fully active
system, multiple sensors are employed and each sensor has both transmit and receive
capabilities. In semi-active system, only one sensor is transmitting, and multiple
widely distributed sensors are employed to receive the echoes from different angles.
The MIMO SAR system employs multiple sensors that are simultaneously transmit-
ting and receiving. By exploiting the orthogonality between transmit waveforms,
each receiving sensor is able to distinguish the echoes associated with different
transmit waveforms.

REFERENCES
Alabaster, C., Pulse Doppler Radar: Principles, Technology, Applications, Edison, NJ:
SciTech Publishing, 2012.
Amin, M., Radar for Indoor Monitoring: Detection, Classification, and Assessment, Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2017.
Bhatta, N. P. and M. G. Priya, “Radar and its applications”, in International Journal of
Computer Technology and Applications (IJCTA), vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 1–9, Jan. 2017.
Blair, W. D., “Radar tracking algorithms”, Principles of Modern Radar: Basic Principles,
edited by W. L. Melvin, J. A. Scheer and W. A. Holms, Edison, NJ: SciTech Publishing,
pp. 713–767, 2010.
Brittain, J. E., “The magnetron and the beginning of the microwave age”, Physics Today,
vol. 38, no. 7, pp. 60–67, July 1985.
Chen, P., L. Zheng, X. Wang, H. Li, and L. Wu, “Moving target detection using co-located
MIMO radar on multiple distributed moving platforms,” in IEEE Transactions on
Signal Processing, vol. 65, pp. 4670–4683, Sept. 2017.
Chernyak, V. S., Fundamentals of Multisite Radar Systems, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press,
Sept. 1998.
Chernyak, V., “Multisite radar systems composed of MIMO radars,” in IEEE Aerospace and
Electronic Systems Magazine, vol. 29, no. 12, pp. 28–37, Dec. 2014.
Crum, T. D., et al, “An update on the NEXRAD program and future WSR-88D support to
operations”, Weather and Forecasting, vo1. 13, pp. 253–262, 1998.
Deligiannis, A., A. Panoui, S. Lambotharan and J. A. Chambers, “Game-theoretic power
allocation and the nash equilibrium analysis for a multistatic MIMO radar network,” in
IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing, vol. 65, no. 24, pp. 6397–6408, 15 Dec. 2017.
Deng, H., “Orthogonal netted radar systems,” in IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems
Magazine, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 28–35, May 2012.
Ehrman, L. M., “Multitarget, multisensor tracking”, Principles of Modern Radar: Advanced
Topics, edited by W. L. Melvin and J. A. Scheer, Edison, NJ: SciTech Publishing, 2013.
Fishler, E., A. Haimovich, R. Blum, D. Chizhik, L. Cimini and R. Valenzuela, “MIMO radar:
an idea whose time has come,” in Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE Radar Conference,
pp. 71–78, 2004.
Galati, G., 100 Years of Radar, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 290–295, 2015.
Graham, I., “Looking back: some radar recollections,” in IEEE Potentials, vol. 18, no. 5,
pp. 40–42, Dec. 1999.
Griffiths, H., “Multistatic, MIMO and networked radar: The future of radar sensors?” The 7th
European Radar Conference, Paris, 2010, pp. 81–84.
Griffiths, H., “Developments in bistatic and networked radar,” Proceedings of 2011 IEEE CIE
International Conference on Radar, Chengdu, 2011, pp. 10–13.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this
agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and
expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO
REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF
WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE
FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY
DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE
TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL,
PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE
NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it,
you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity
that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a
replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in
paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the

Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability,
costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or
indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur:
(a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b)
alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project
Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.
 Section 3. Information about the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small
donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax
exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed

editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.